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ציר זמן תנכי צ'אט

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ציר זמן תנכי צ'אט

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ציר הזמן התנכי מצאט

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Hebrew Bible and Multiple Translations on BibleGateway

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עיקרי תורת הניקוד: האקדמיה ללשון

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עיקרי תורת הניקוד: האקדמיה ללשון

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האקדמיה ללשון העברית

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הקדמה

לימוד כללי הניקוד אינו פשוט לדוברי העברית בת זמננו. ואין פלא בדבר: מערכת הניקוד המשמשת אותנו אינה מותאמת להגייה הרגילה בפינו כיום, אלא להגייה שנהגה בטבריה במחצית השנייה של האלף הראשון לסה"נ. בהגייה זו נתקיימה הבחנה בין שבע תנועות, ואילו בעברית הישראלית של ימינו נוהגות חמש תנועות בלבד כבמסורת ההגייה הספרדית (ראו עוד על הניקוד). בגלל הפער הזה סימני ניקוד שונים מציינים מבחינתנו את אותה התנועה. למשל: קמץ ופתח, צירי וסגול, חולם וקמץ קטן (המסורת הטברנית אינה מבחינה בין קמץ גדול לקמץ קטן, ולכן משמש סימן אחד). זאת ועוד, בהגייה שבפינו החטפים ומקצת השוואים הנעים נהגים כתנועות שלמות. למי שלא למד את הכללים או שאינו זוכר את תמונת המילה המנוקדת אין אפוא כל דרך לדעת מה הניקוד הנכון בכל מקרה ומקרה. גם ענייני הגייה אחרים עורמים מכשולים על המבקשים לנקד כראוי, ואליהם נוספים ריבוי החריגים והידע הדקדוקי הנדרש לשם הבנת הכללים (שורשים, בניינים ומשקלים, תהליכים פונטיים כמו הידמות וחיטוף ועוד). להלן מובאים כללי יסוד בתורת הניקוד שתכליתם לתת בידי המתעניינים כלים בסיסיים לניקוד נכון של מילים. להבנת הכללים נחוץ ידע בסיסי בלשון כפי שנלמד בבתי הספר. בתחילה מובאים כמה מושגי יסוד ולצידם הגדרות קצרות (הגדרות אלו אינן באות במקום הגדרות מדעיות).

מושגי יסוד

הֶגֶה - יחידת הקול הקטנה ביותר בדיבור: עיצור או תנועה.

עיצור (consonant) - הגה המופק בהצמדת איברי הפה זה לזה, לרוב בעצירה מלאה או חלקית של זרם האוויר: טְ, בְּ, בְ, זְ וכדומה.

תנועה (vowel) - הגה שיש בו מעבר חופשי (או כמעט חופשי) של זרם האוויר. בעברית בת ימינו יש חמש תנועות: a, e, i, o, u. רוב סימני הניקוד - כגון קמץ, צירי וחולם - מייצגים תנועות.

אות - כל אחד מסימני האל"ף־בי"ת, סימן גרפי שנועד לייצג הגה. על פי רוב האותיות מייצגות עיצורים.

אֵם קריאה - אחת מאותיות אהו"י שאינה מייצגת עיצור. למשל: מָצָא, בַּנַּאי, בָּנְתָה, סוֹד, גִּיר (לעומת אֶבֶן, הַר, דַּוָּר, בַּיִת). הערה: ה"א שיש בה מפיק (הּ) היא עיצורית: גָּבַהּ (נעשה גבוה), שֶׁלָּהּ.

הברה - יחידת הגייה בת תנועה אחת ועיצור אחד או יותר. ככלל ההברות בעברית פותחות בעיצור, ומספר ההברות במילה שווה למספר התנועות. למשל: סִי-רָה = si-ra (שתי הברות), מִרְ-פֶּ-סֶת = mir-pe-set (שלוש הברות).

הברה פתוחה - הברה המסתיימת בתנועה, ובכלל זה באם קריאה. למשל: לֹא, מִי, קָ-נָה, שִׂמְ-לָה, פִּי-הָ. בתעתיק: lo, mi, ka-na, sim-la, pi-ha.

הברה סגורה - הברה המסתיימת בעיצור. למשל: כֵּן, סִיר, מֻפְ-קָד, תָּ-בַע, גֹּ-בַהּ, שִׂמְ-לָה, כָּ-תַבְתְּ. בתעתיק: ken, sir, muf-kad, tava', go-vah, sim-la, ka-tavt.

הטעמה - בכל מילה יש הברה מרכזית הנהגית ביתר הבלטה. למשל: מַ-יִם, הִתְ-גַּלְ-גֵּל, תִּנְ-שֶׁ-מֶת. מילים עבריות מוטעמות בהברה האחרונה או בזו שלפניה: הטעמת ההברה האחרונה מכונה מִלְּרַע (מילה בת הברה אחת נחשבת מלרעית, כגון יָד, לֵךְ). הטעמת ההברה שלפני האחרונה מכונה מִלְּעֵיל. רוב המילים העבריות מלרעיות.

סימני התנועות וחלוקתם

את סימני הניקוד מקובל לחלק לשתי קבוצות: תנועות גדולות ותנועות קטנות. בטבלה מוצגים סימני הניקוד ושמותיהם לפי חלוקה זו.

הערה: להבחנה בין תנועות גדולות לקטנות אין השתמעות בהגייה (לא כאן המקום לדון בתולדות הבחנה זו).

חוק ניקוד ההברות

חוק ניקוד ההברות מרכז את כללי היסוד של הניקוד. בבסיסו עומד העיקרון שסוג התנועה (גדולה או קטנה) נקבע לפי סוג ההברה (פתוחה או סגורה, מוטעמת או לא מוטעמת).
הכללים בלוויית דוגמאות

כלל 1: הברה סגורה לא מוטעמת מנוקדת בתנועה קטנה. כלל זה הוא היציב ביותר. יש המכנים אותו סֶלֶ"ק - סגורה לא מוטעמת קטנה.
דוגמאות:עַכְ-בָּר, שִׂמְ-לָה, נֶכְ-דָּה, חֻלְ-צָה, קָרְ-בָּן, בֹּ-קֶר, גֹּ-בַהּ.

כלל 3: הברה פתוחה לא מוטעמת מנוקדת לרוב בתנועה גדולה.
דוגמאות:שָׁ-לוֹם, חִי-דָה, אוֹ-צָר, מוּ-כָ-נָה, דֵּ-עָה.

כלל 4: הברה פתוחה מוטעמת מנוקדת במקרים רבים בתנועה גדולה.
כך כרגיל בסוף מילה, כגון שִׂמְ-לָה, נִפְ-לָא, יוֹ-צֵא, מָ-בוֹא, מִי, עָ-לוּ.
גם שלא בסוף מילה עשויה לבוא תנועה גדולה, כגוןבָּ-אוּ, צָ-פוֹ-נָה, בֹּ-קֶר, הָ-בִי-אוּ,שׁוּ-בוּ.
אך לכלל זה חריגים הרבה כפי שיפורט להלן.

זיהוי הברות פתוחות וסגורות

כדי לנקד נכון על פי חוק ניקוד ההברות - הכרחי להבחין בין הברה פתוחה להברה סגורה. שוואים נחים ודגשים חזקים סוגרים את ההברה, ולפיכך חשוב לזהותם כראוי.
שווא נע ושווא נח
הערה: בנטיית המשקלים המלעיליים (פֶּעֶל, פֹּעֶל ודומיהם) השווא נח ולפניו תנועה קטנה: כֶּלֶב - כַּ לְ-בָּה, כַּ לְ-בּוֹ, צֹרֶךְ - צָ רְ-כִּי. (במשקלים אלו הצורות הנוטות קרובות יותר לצורת היסוד ההיסטורית שבה היה העיצור השני ללא תנועה, מעין כַּלְבּ.)
דגש חזק סוגר הברה
דגש חזק הוא דגש המכפיל את העיצור שהוא בא בו. למשל: זַמָּר=זַמְ-מָר, שִׁלֵּם=שִׁלְ-לֵם. דגש חזק בא תמיד לאחר תנועה וסוגר את ההברה שלפניו. לפיכך אם הברה זו אינה מוטעמת היא תנוקד בתנועה קטנה: זַמָּר, שִׁלֵּם, צְהֻבָּה, אֶפֹּל. (בהמשך יפורטו המקרים העיקריים שיש בהם דגש חזק.)

כללים שונים

ניקודן של מילות יחס ומילות קישור

מילות יחס מצטרפות למילים שאחריהן, ולכן אינן נחשבות מוטעמות. מילים כגון אֶת, אֶל, עַל, עִם, מִן, שֶׁל ואף לקרַאת מנוקדות על פי כלל 1 (סֶלֶ"ק). כך גם מילות הקישור הקצרות, כגון גַּם, אַךְ, אִם, אֲשֶׁר. אפשר להבחין בין מילות יחס לשמות עצם. למשל: לקחתי אֶת האֵת, התפללתי אֶל האֵל (המילה השנייה בכל זוג מנוקדת לפי כלל 2 לעיל).

תנועת a בסמיכות

הברה סגורה שתנועתה a בסוף מילה ראשונה בצירוף סמיכות (נסמך) נחשבת לא מוטעמת ומנוקדת בפתח (לפי כלל 1): דַּג זהב (לעומת הניקוד הרגיל דָּג), מֶרְכַּז קניות, שִׂמְלַת שבת. הערה: בתנועות אחרות צורת הנסמך אינה גורמת בדרך כלל לשינוי התנועה לתנועה קטנה, כגון לֵב העיר, חֹק המדינה, חוץ מן המילים בֵּן (בנסמך בֶּן המלך), כֹּל (כָּל העולם, וכן: כָּל שנבקש וכד').

חריגים לכלל 2 ב"חוק ניקוד ההברות"
א. חוק ניקוד הפועל ב. סיומת ay ג. משקל פַּל ומשקל פַּלְפַּל
מילים חד־הברתיות מגזרת הכפולים בתנועת a מנוקדות בפתח, למשל: חַג (חג"ג), רַךְ (רכ"ך). מילים שבסופן שתי הברות זהות שתנועתן a מנוקדות בפתח: עַפְ עַף, פַּרְ פַּר, כְּחַלְ חַל, כְּלַבְ לַב. הערה: בנטיית המילים האלה יש דגש: חַגִּי, רַכִּים, עַפְעַפַּיִם, כְּלַבְלַבִּים. וראו להלן דגש חזק.
ד. סיומות ־ֶם, ־ֶן (הכינויים הכבדים)
הכינויים הכבדים ־תֶם, ־תֶן ־הֶם, ־הֶן, ־כֶם, ־כֶן מנוקדים בסגול: אַ תֶּם, כְּתַבְ תֶּן, בָּ הֶם, סִפְרֵי כֶם, אֶצְלְ כֶן. הערה: כינויי הגוף הנפרדים הֵם ו הֵן מנוקדים בצירי.

חריגים לכלל 4 ב"חוק ניקוד ההברות" - מילים מלעיליות

פתח גנובה

לפני עיצור גרוני סופי (ח, ע או ה מופּקת) שהתנועה שלפניו אינה a - יש פתח גנובה: שִׂי חַ, לוּ חַ, תָּמֵ הַּ, מָנוֹ עַ. הסימן פתח גנובה מציין תנועת עזר. זו אינה מעמידה הברה לעצמה, ולכן ההברה שלפני הפתח נחשבת סגורה. לפי זה המילים שִׂיחַ ולוּחַ הן בנות הברה אחת (כמו שִׁיר ולוּל), והמילים תָּ-מֵהַּ, מָ-נוֹעַ הן בנות שתי הברות (כמו יָ-שֵׁן, מָ-נוֹף).

סגול שאחריו אם קריאה

סגול שאחריו אם קריאה ('סגול מלא') אינו נחשב לתנועה קטנה ובא בהברה פתוחה. ניקוד זה שכיח בכמה תבניות מילים, כמפורט להלן. בכינויים ובגזרות בכינוי הנוכח ובכינוי הנסתרת המצטרפים לשם ברבים או למילת יחס הנוטה על דרך הרבים - יש סגול שאחריו י': בָּ נֶיךָ, אֵ לֶיךָ, בָּ נֶיהָ, אֵ לֶיהָ (אבל כינוי המדברים מנוקד בצירי - בָּ נֵינוּ, אֵ לֵינוּ). בפעלים בגזרת ל"י בצורות הנוכחות והנסתרות בעתיד ובצורות הנוכחות בציווי - יש סגול שאחריו י': תִּרְ אֶינָה, קְ נֶינָה. בגזרת ל"א יש אחרי הסגול א': תִּקְ רֶא נָה. בכל המקרים האלה ההברה שבא בה הסגול היא הברה מלעילית מוטעמת, ובהברה שאחריה יש קמץ.

סיומת e

הסיומת e הכתובה באות ה' מנוקדת בסגול: רוֹ עֶה, יִבְ נֶה, מִכְ סֶה, נִתְרָ אֶה.
אבל מנקדים בצירי צורות נסמך (רוֹ עֵה־צאן), צורות ציווי (בְּ נֵה), וכן כמה מילים: אַ יֵּה, אַרְ יֵה, הִ נֵּה, הַרְ בֵּה, עֶשְׂ רֵה (כגון שֵׁש־עֶשְׂרֵה).

שווא נע לעומת צירי וסגול

חטפים

חולם מלא וחולם חסר

גם חולם מלא וגם חולם חסר הם תנועות גדולות, ולכן ההבחנה ביניהם אינה נובעת מחוק ניקוד ההברות אלא מן המבנה הדקדוקי של המילה. להלן כמה כללים מסייעים לקביעת סוג החולם:

בהברה פתוחה מלעילית החולם הוא חסר: קֹטֶב, תִּינֹקֶת וכדומה.

כשהתנועה o נשמרת בכל הנטיות - בדרך כלל החולם מלא. למשל: מוֹחַ > מוֹחוֹתֵינוּ, יַהֲלוֹם > יַהֲלוֹמֵיהֶם, שׁוֹמֵר > שׁוֹמְרֵי־החומות. ראו בכללי נטיית השם: החולם - כלל א.

כשהתנועה o משתנה לשווא - החולם חסר: יִכְתֹּב (יִכְתְּבוּ), לִשְׁמֹר (לְשָׁמְרוֹ).

כשהתנועה o משתנה לתנועת u - לרוב החולם חסר: חֹק (חֻקִּים), כָּחֹל (כְּחֻלָּה). (בנטייה יש קיבוץ ואחריו דגש - ראו להלן 'דגש חזק'.)

צירי מלא

כמו החולם, גם צירי מלא וגם צירי חסר הם תנועות גדולות. בדרך כלל הצירי הוא חסר. בכמה מקרים בא צירי מלא:

במילים שבהן הי' שורשית. למשל: אֵימָה, מֵידָע, בֵּיתוֹ, מֵינֶקֶת, נֶהֱנֵיתִי.

בנטיית הרבים, כגון בְּנֵי־ בָּנֵינוּ בְּנוֹתֵיכֶם.

בנטיית מילות יחס על דרך הרבים, כגון לִפְנֵי־ לְפָנֵינוּ.

במילים אחדות ובהן אֵיבָר, הֵיכָל, קֵיסָם. עוד מילים שיש בהן צירי מלא מובאות בכללי נטיית השם: הצירי - כלל א.

היו"ד של הצירי המלא היא אם קריאה ולכן היא אינה סוגרת הברה.

דגש חזק

הדגש החזק - המכונה גם מִכְפָּל או דגש כפלן - הוא חלק ממערכת הניקוד, ויש לסמנו במילים שהוא בא בהן. כפי שהוזכר לעיל, דגש חזק בא לאחר תנועה וסוגר את ההברה שלפניו. רוב הדגשים החזקים שייכים לאחת משתי הקבוצות האלה:

1. דגש תבניתי - דגש שהוא חלק מתבנית המילה (בניין או משקל).

2. דגש משלים - דגש הבא תמורת עיצור בנסיבות האלה: העיצור זהה לעיצור שאחריו ולכן מתלכד עמו, כגון נָתַנּוּ; העיצור מידמה לעיצור שאחריו ומתלכד עמו, כגון יִפֹּל (< יִנְפֹּל).

דוגמאות לדגש משלים
- בעקבות התלכדות עיצורים: דַּ נּוּ (דָּן + נוּ), שָׁבַ תָּ (שָׁבַת +־תָּ), הִ תַּמֵּם (< הִתְתַּמֵּם)
- בשורשים מגזרת הכפולים: מִ דָּה (מד"ד), מְסִ בָּה (סב"ב).
- נ' המידמה לעיצור שאחריה: מַ סָּע (נס"ע), מַ סּוֹר (נס"ר), נָתַ תִּי (נת"ן); נ' הבניין של נפעל בעתיד, ציווי ושם הפועל: יִ שָּׁבֵר, הִ כָּנְסוּ, לְהִ פָּ רֵד.

יש מקרים שבהם הדגש מופיע רק בנטייה ולא בצורת היסוד (הוא אמור לבוא באות האחרונה של צורת היסוד, אך לרוב אין דגש בסוף מילה).
דוגמאות
- במשקל פָּעֹל (צבעים וכמה שמות תואר): יָרֹק יְרֻ קָּה, עָמֹק עֲמֻ קִּים.
- במשקלים פַּלְפַּל, פְּעַלְעַל: עַפְעַף עַפְעַ פַּיִם, תַּלְתַּל תַּלְתַּ לָּיו, קְטַנְטַן קְטַנְטַ נִּים.
- בשורשים מגזרת הכפולים: הֵסֵב הֵסֵ בּוּ, חַג חַ גִּים, חֹק חֻ קִּ ים.

ועוד כדאי לזכור את הסימנים האלה:
- אם התנועה o משתנה לתנועת u - כמעט תמיד במילת היסוד יש חולם חסר ובנטייה יש קיבוץ שאחריו דגש: כָּ חֹל כְּ חֻלָּה, חֹל חֻלִּין, לְ אֹם לְ אֻמִּים.
- אם בצורת היסוד יש תנועת a או e ובנטייה תנועת i - לרוב יש פתח או צירי במילת היסוד ובנטייה יש חיריק שאחריו דגש: פַּת פִּתּוֹ, לְ אַט לְ אִטִּי, צֵל צִ לִּי.

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עיקרי תורת הניקוד - האקדמיה ללשון העברית

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לימוד כללי הניקוד אינו פשוט לדוברי העברית בת זמננו. ואין פלא בדבר: מערכת הניקוד המשמשת אותנו אינה מותאמת להגייה הרגילה בפינו כיום, אלא להגייה שנהגה בטבריה במחצית השנייה של האלף הראשון לסה"נ. בהגייה זו נתקיימה הבחנה בין שבע תנועות, ואילו בעברית הישראלית של ימינו נוהגות חמש תנועות בלבד כבמסורת ההגייה הספרדית (ראו עוד על הניקוד).

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תהלים קכא, ד

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Weekly vocab and LP: Shlomi needs to add his dates

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Weekly vocab and LP: Shlomi needs to add his dates

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מאיוב לימינו

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מאיוב לימינו

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סמי מיכאל לא היה רק סופר אהוב וחשוב אלא גם הוגה דעות. מחשבות מפתיעות רבות מובאות בספר שיחות שנערך איתו לפני חצי יובל. השיחות עוסקות במזרחיות ובישראליות, בחילוניות ובדת ובעתיד מדינת ישראל. ספר איוב קשה מאוד לעיכול, אבל הוא רצוף פנינים שהגיעו עד העברית החדשה, מ"רופא אליל" ועד "תלוי על בלימה"

סמי מיכאל הלך השבוע לעולמו שבע ימים ויצירה, והתגובות מגלות את האהבה הרבה שרחשו לו גם קהל הקוראים וגם אנשי ספרות. המבקרים שכינו את יצירתו בקוצר ראות 'פולקלור' או 'כתיבה אתנית' יישכחו הרבה לפניו. את השקפתו של סמי מיכאל על השפה העברית אפשר לקרוא בפינת עיון במאמר "השפה היא מאהבת מכשפת".

הגירה היא סוג של מוות

בראשית המילניום התפרסם בהוצאת "קו אדום" של הקיבוץ המאוחד הספר "גבולות הרוח" המכיל שמונה שיחות שקיימתי עם סמי מיכאל בביתו שבחיפה, ועסק במגוון נושאים. סמי הצליח להפתיע אותי שוב ושוב בניסוחים מקוריים, חדים, ללא קלישאות וללא ניסיון לרצות מישהו. והרי חלק מהפנינים השזורים בספר.

על השסעים בחברה: "אני רואה בברכה את התגבשות המודעות לשסע. אני אוהב את ההתגוששות שהיא יוצרת. יהודים אוהבים להחריף ניגודים, עוד מתקופת תלישת הזקנים בימי התלמוד".

על ההגירה: "הגירה היא סוג של מוות. אתה הורג את עצמך, אתה מתאבד בתקווה לקום לתחייה במציאות אחרת".

על המזרחים: "הזהות המזרחית מטופחת מלמעלה. לא עדות המזרח חיפשו אותה. טיפחה אותה הדחייה של המדיניות האשכנזית של מפא"י, והדמגוגיה של 'חירות' תחילה, ולימים הליכוד".

על הפוליטיקה המזרחית: "לו הייתי אני מנהיג של העדה המרוקאית הייתי מציע להם, תפסיקו עם הפוליטיקה. שימו את הדגש על החינוך החילוני. תאמינו באלוהים או לא, אבל עזבו את הקדושים".

על בן גוריון: "בן גוריון נראה לי דמות קיצונית מאוד. דמות כריזמטית, דמות של קוסם, שביבי נתניהו יכול להיות רק שוליה אצלו".

על נתניהו: "נתניהו לא נשען על הגלעין המסורתי האידיאולוגי הנוקשה של הליכוד. מה שהעלה אותו הוא הפחד של המנהיגות הימנית הקיצונית והגזענית מעלייתו של דוד לוי".

על הפלסטינים: "הפלסטינים דומים במובנים רבים ליהודים. הם מצליחנים. הם היגרו כעניים לארצות ערב וטיפסו למשרות הגבוהות. מדינות ערב רואות בפלסטינים כמי שגרמו למפלתם".

על עתיד הסכסוך: "אינני יודע כיצד יסתיים כל זה, כאשר העולם הערבי עצמו רווי שנאה הדדית, שסוע וקרוע במלחמות אחים של התאבדות, והמאחד אותו הוא השנאה אלינו".

על המלחמות: "אנחנו גאונים בפתיחת מלחמות, אך איננו יודעים כיצד לצאת מהן. אנחנו נסחפים למלחמה בלי לתת את הדעת על כך שהתוצאה עלולה להיות קטסטרופלית".

על הגנרלים: "צמחנו בתוך תרבות של מלחמה, ואחד ממאפייניה הוא שהגיבור האמיתי שלנו אינו הפרופסור והסופר והמדען והנביא, כי אלה טיפוסים ספקניים. עד היום הגנרל הוא הדמות הכשירה ביותר להנהיג את המדינה".

על השכול: "הפכנו את השכול לחאפלה. התאהבנו בצמרמורת של יום הזכרון. יצרנו דת חדשה".

על העוני: "העוני זה בתי סוהר, זה צבא רקוב, זה סוחרי סמים. העוני מביא לירידת המוראל של האומה. העוני פירושו, התפוררות ישראל כמדינה וכחברה אנושית".

החיים הם גם חרא וגם פרח

על היהדות: "היהדות, כפי שאני תופס אותה, היא מעבר לאמונה. היהדות בעבורי היא תוכן תרבותי, היסטורי, צו פטריוטי ללא טריטוריה, ולא הייתי מוכן לוותר על כל זה".

על מדינת הלכה: "אתה לא יכול להקים היום לא באסלאם, לא בנצרות ולא ביהדות מדינת הלכה ללא אמצעים אלימים, ללא טרור פוליטי רצחני".

על החילוניות: "אם אתה מגדיר את החילוניות שלך בעוצמת המאבק שלך בסמלים של הדת, אתה הופך להיות דתי".

על הייאוש: "חיי האדם היחיד הם הבהוב כל כך זעיר ביקום, אבל אינני חושב שזה צריך להוליד ייאוש, כי בחוויה הזו שקוראים לה קיום מול היקום יש עושר של צדדים. החיים הם גם חרא וגם פרח".

על חנוך לוין: "לוין נמנה עם זן היוצרים המזוכיסטיים שמאז ומעולם היו, כמו אלה שסגדו לשטן, העלו קורבן למלאך המוות, כרעו ברך לפני הכיעור, העריצו רוחות רעות. אינני מקבל אותם ולא מוכן לקבל אותם".

על ירושלים: "אינני יודע מדוע כותרים לה כתרים על יופייה. האבנים הם ככל האבנים, הרים ככל ההרים. יש בה משהו זדוני. כל אבן צמאה שם לדם, גם בעבר היא צמאה לדם".

על חיפה: "חיפה היא עיר המולדת שלי, ואני אוהב אותה. כשאני פורס את חיי פרוסות פרוסות, היא לא פחות חשובה ויקרה ואהובה מבגדאד".

על הספרות הישראלית: "בספרות הישראלית יש הרבה קפקא, סרטר, מרקס, ומעט מאוד ישראל. היא לא צמחה מתוך המכאוב, המחסור, הריחות העזים, הרגשות, אלא מתוך ניסיון מודע, קר ומחושב".

על הכתיבה: "כפי שאינני מחפש בפינצטה מילים ארכאיות כדי להתקשט בהן, אני לא אורב למלים החדשות כדי להשתמש בהן כשאני כותב. אני כותב מהבטן. זו הכתיבה של העולם השלישי".

על עצמו כסופר: "אני רוצה להיות מעיין. מעיין לא הולך לברז. הוא מחלחל ממעמקים, ומפעפע בצורה מאוד לא מתוכננת".

על עתיד מדינת ישראל: "עד היום תולדות מדינת ישראל הן הכישלון להשתלב במרחב, ובהיעדר ההשתלבות אין למדינה סיכוי. אנחנו הולכים לבנות במזרח התיכון, במקום הכי מסוכן, גטו של יהודים. סופר חזה את המדינה הזו. יצירות של סופרים צריך לקרוא, לא לבצע, ואם מתעקשים לבצע, אז יש צורך בבמאי גאוני כדי לממש את היצירה בצורה משכנעת".

גונב לאוזנו בעודו באיבו

ספר איוב נחשב לקשה ביותר בתנ"ך מבחינת שפתו. פסוקים רבים סתומים ודורשים פירוק ופרשנות. הסגנון מהודק וחסכני גם יחסית לסגנון המקראי. ולצד זה איוב תרם לעברית שלנו, העברית החדשה, אוצר בלום של מילים ובעיקר מטבעות לשון המופיעים רק בו.

דוגמאות? המילים גבינה, ישיש, משטר וסדר מקורן בספר איוב. ביאליק הציע ב-1928 את המילה 'מטוס' כשהוא מסתמך על הפסוק באיוב "כנשר יטוּשׂ עלי אוכל'. באיוב מצאנו את שלישיית הפעלים החביבה להתפלץ, לפצפץ ולפרפר. והרשימה חלקית.

אבל עיקר קסמו הלשוני של איוב הוא במטבעות הלשון הרבים, שעשרות מהם התנחלו בעברית עד היום ואי אפשר לתאר אותה בלעדיהם. גם הרשימה הזו חלקית.

אבד עליו הכֶּלח. התיישן, אינו מתאים לרוח הזמן: "גַּם כֹּחַ יְדֵיהֶם לָמָּה לִּי, עָלֵימוֹ אָבַד כָּלַח" (ל 2). על משמעות המילה כלח נשפכו נהרות דיו.

אבן פינה. יציקת בטון או בניית נדבכי אבן המסמלים את תחילת הבנייה של מבנה בעל חשיבות ציבורית. בהרחבה, עיקרון מכונן: "עַל מָה אֲדָנֶיהָ הָטְבָּעוּ, אוֹ מִי יָרָה אֶבֶן פִּנָּתָהּ" (לח 6).

אדם לעמל יולד. העבודה הקשה והסבל הם גזירה על האדם: "כִּי אָדָם לְעָמָל יוּלָּד, וּבְנֵי רֶשֶׁף יַגְבִּיהוּ עוּף" (ה 7). יעקב בסר פרסם אנתולוגיה של שירי עבודה בשם זה.

אחד מני אלף. אדם בעל סגולות מיוחדות במינן: "אִם יֵשׁ עָלָיו מַלְאָךְ מֵלִיץ אֶחָד מִנִּי אָלֶף לְהַגִּיד לְאָדָם יָשְׁרוֹ" (לג 23).

אלוהים נתן ואלוהים לקח. אין להתלונן על מחסור או אובדן, הכול בידי אלוהים: "ה' נָתַן וַה' לָקָח, יְהִי שֵׁם ה' מְבֹרָךְ" (א 21).

ארץ עוץ. ארץ אגדתית: "אִישׁ הָיָה בְאֶרֶץ עוּץ, אִיּוֹב שְׁמוֹ" (א 1).

אשר יגורתי בא לי. הרע מכול אירע: "כִּי פַחַד פָּחַדְתִּי וַיֶּאֱתָיֵנִי, וַאֲשֶׁר יָגֹרְתִּי יָבֹא לִי" (ג 25).

בן בלי שם. אדם פשוט וחסר חשיבות: "בְּנֵי נָבָל גַּם בְּנֵי בְלִי שֵׁם נִכְּאוּ מִן הָאָרֶץ" (ל 8).

בעודו באִיבּו. בצעירותו, נאמר בדרך כלל על פטירת אדם או חיסול תופעה: "עֹדֶנּוּ בְאִבּוֹ לֹא יִקָּטֵף, וְלִפְנֵי כָל חָצִיר יִיבָשׁ" (ח 12).

גוּנַב לאוזנו. הגיע לידיעתו בדרך חשאית: "וְאֵלַי דָּבָר יְגֻנָּב וַתִּקַּח אָזְנִי שֵׁמֶץ מֶנְהוּ" (ד 12).

הוליך שולל. הונה, רימה: "מוֹלִיךְ יוֹעֲצִים שׁוֹלָל וְשֹׁפְטִים יְהוֹלֵל" (יב 17).

הון תועפות. ממון רב מאוד: "וְהָיָה שַׁדַּי בְּצָרֶיךָ וְכֶסֶף תּוֹעָפוֹת לָךְ" (כב 25).

הוסיף חטא על פשע. המשיך במעשיו השליליים: "כִּי יֹסִיף עַל חַטָּאתוֹ פֶשַׁע" (לד 37).

היה כמרקחה. שררה בו אווירה של התרגשות, אי סדר וסכסוכים: "יַרְתִּיחַ כַּסִּיר מְצוּלָה, יָם יָשִׂים כַּמֶּרְקָחָה" (מא 23).

יושב הראש למד על בשרו

הִילך אימים. איים, גרם לפחד רב: "שָׁלַף וַיֵּצֵא מִגֵּוָה, וּבָרָק מִמְּרֹרָתוֹ יַהֲלֹךְ עָלָיו אֵמִים" (כ 25).

הכביר מילים. דיבר יותר מדי: וְאִיּוֹב הֶבֶל יִפְצֶה פִּיהוּ, בִּבְלִי דַעַת מִלִּין יַכְבִּר" (לה 16).

הִרקיע שחקים. הגיע לגובה רב, נאמר על ציפיות, מחירים ועוד: "תַּרְקִיעַ עִמּוֹ לִשְׁחָקִים חֲזָקִים כִּרְאִי מוּצָק" (לז 18).

השביע מרורים. התעלל, גרם לדאגות ולסבל: "לֹא יִתְּנֵנִי הָשֵׁב רוּחִי כִּי יַשְׂבִּעַנִי מַמְּרֹרִים" (ט 18).

השתפכות הנפש. הבעת רגשות פומבית ומוקצנת: "וְעַתָּה עָלַי תִּשְׁתַּפֵּךְ נַפְשִׁי, יֹאחֲזוּנִי יְמֵי עֹנִי" (ל 16), וכאן בהוראת אובדן והרס.

התחקה על שורשי העניין. חיפש את המקור או המניע לאירועים: "וְתָשֵׂם בַּסַּד רַגְלַי וְתִשְׁמוֹר כָּל אָרְחוֹתָי עַל שָׁרְשֵׁי רַגְלַי תִּתְחַקֶּה" (יג 27).

חיווה את דעתו. השמיע את השקפתו בעניין מסוים: "לָכֵן אָמַרְתִּי, שִׁמְעָה לִּי, אֲחַוֶּה דֵעִי אַף אָנִי" (לב 10).

חף מפשע. מי שלא ביצע עבירה פלילית: "זַךְ אֲנִי בְּלִי פָשַׁע, חַף אָנֹכִי וְלֹא עָוֹן לִי" (לג 9).

טמן בחובו. הכיל אפשרות הסמויה בינתיים מן העין: "אִם כִּסִּיתִי כְאָדָם פְּשָׁעָי לִטְמוֹן בְּחֻבִּי עֲוֹנִי" (לא 33).

יושב ראש. מנהל ארגון או כינוס: "אֶבְחַר דַּרְכָּם וְאֵשֵׁב רֹאשׁ וְאֶשְׁכּוֹן כְּמֶלֶךְ בַּגְּדוּד" (כט 25).

ימי חורפו. תקופת נעוריו: "כַּאֲשֶׁר הָיִיתִי בִּימֵי חָרְפִּי, בְּסוֹד אֱלוֹהַּ עֲלֵי אָהֳלִי" (כט 4).

ימתקו לו רגבי עפרו. דברי הספד לנפטר: "וְהוּא לִקְבָרוֹת יוּבָל וְעַל גָּדִישׁ יִשְׁקוֹד: מָתְקוּ לוֹ רִגְבֵי נָחַל" (כא 33-32).

כַּתֵּר לי זעֵיר. חכה לי עוד זמן מה, היה סבלני. ארמית: "כַּתַּר לִי זְעֵיר וַאֲחַוֶּךָּ [חכה לי מעט ואדבר אתך]" (לו 2).

לא גרע ממנו עין. הביט בזולתו ברציפות ובעניין: "לֹא יִגְרַע מִצַּדִּיק עֵינָיו" (לו 7).

לא ידע את נפשו. חש התרגשות ובלבול: "תָּם אָנִי, לֹא אֵדַע נַפְשִׁי, אֶמְאַס חַיָּי" (ט 21).

לָמַד על בשרו. התנסה. בעקבות "וְאַחַר עוֹרִי נִקְּפוּ זֹאת, וּמִבְּשָׂרִי אֶחֱזֶה אֱלוֹהַּ" (יט 26).

לשבט או לחסד. החלופות העומדות בפני שופט או מבקר: "אִם לְשֵׁבֶט, אִם לְאַרְצוֹ, אִם לְחֶסֶד יַמְצִאֵהוּ" (לז 13).

מאכל תאווה. מזון טעים במיוחד: "וְזִהֲמַתּוּ חַיָּתוֹ לָחֶם וְנַפְשׁוֹ מַאֲכַל תַּאֲוָה" (לג 20).

מִבְּלי מֵשים. בהיסח הדעת, כבדרך אגב: "מִבֹּקֶר לָעֶרֶב יֻכַּתּוּ, מִבְּלִי מֵשִׂים לָנֶצַח יֹאבֵדוּ" (ד 20).

מורֵד אור. חשוך, שונא השכלה: "הֵמָּה הָיוּ בְּמֹרְדֵי אוֹר, לֹא הִכִּירוּ דְרָכָיו וְלֹא יָשְׁבוּ בִּנְתִיבֹתָיו" (כד 13). במקור: כופר באלוהים.

מי לידי יתְקע? מי יבטיח לי שכך יהיה?: "שִׂימָה נָּא, עָרְבֵנִי עִמָּךְ, מִי הוּא לְיָדִי יִתָּקֵעַ" (יז 3).

מליץ יושר. סנגור, אדם שבא לשבח את זולתו: "אִם יֵשׁ עָלָיו מַלְאָךְ מֵלִיץ אֶחָד מִנִּי אָלֶף לְהַגִּיד לְאָדָם יָשְׁרוֹ" (לג 23).

רופא אליל מסמר שיער

מְסַמר שיער. מפחיד, גורם לבהלה ולתדהמה: "וְרוּחַ עַל פָּנַי יַחֲלֹף, תְּסַמֵּר שַׂעֲרַת בְּשָׂרִי" (ד 16).

מפח נפש. אכזבה קשה: "וְעֵינֵי רְשָׁעִים תִּכְלֶינָה ... וְתִקְוָתָם מַפַּח נָפֶשׁ" (יא 20).

מרנין לב. משמח. בעקבות: "וְלֵב אַלְמָנָה אַרְנִן" (כט 13).

נורא הוד. מרשים ומעורר יראה: "מִצָּפוֹן זָהָב יֶאֱתֶה עַל אֱלוֹהַּ נוֹרָא הוֹד" (לז 22).

נכזבה תוחלתו. נחל מפח נפש: "הֵן תֹּחַלְתּוֹ נִכְזָבָה, הֲגַם אֶל מַרְאָיו יֻטָל" (מא 1).

נמלט בעור שיניו. נחלץ מצרה גדולה או אסון ברגע האחרון: "בְּעוֹרִי וּבִבְשָׂרִי דָּבְקָה עַצְמִי, וָאֶתְמַלְּטָה בְּעוֹר שִׁנָּי" (יט 20).

נשוא פנים. מכובד, רם מעלה: "אִישׁ זְרוֹעַ לוֹ הָאָרֶץ, וּנְשׂוּא פָנִים יֵשֶׁב בָּהּ" (כב 8).

עוגמת נפש. צער: "אִם לֹא בָכִיתִי לִקְשֵׁה יוֹם, עָגְמָה נַפְשִׁי לָאֶבְיוֹן" (ל 25).

עוד כוחו במותניו. הוא יכול להמשיך ולפעול: "הִנֵּה נָא כֹחוֹ בְמָתְנָיו וְאֹנוֹ בִּשְׁרִירֵי בִטְנוֹ" (מ 16).

עושה שלום במרומיו. כינוי לאלוהים: "הַמְשֵׁל וָפַחַד עִמּוֹ עֹשֶׂה שָׁלוֹם בִּמְרוֹמָיו" (כה 2).

עלו בתוהו. נכשלו למרות מאמצים רבים: "יִלָּפְתוּ אָרְחוֹת דַּרְכָּם, יַעֲלוּ בַתֹּהוּ וְיֹאבֵדוּ" (ו 18).

ערוץ נחל. אפיק: "בַּעֲרוּץ נְחָלִים לִשְׁכֹּן חֹרֵי עָפָר וְכֵפִים" (ל 6).

עשוי לבלי חת. אמיץ מאוד: "אֵין עַל עָפָר מָשְׁלוֹ, הֶעָשׂוּ לִבְלִי חָת" (מא 25).

קורץ מחומר. נושא תכונות אופי וכישורים: "הֵן אֲנִי כְפִיךָ לָאֵל, מֵחֹמֶר קֹרַצְתִּי גַם אָנִי" (לג 6),

קְשה יום. עובד בפרך לפרנסתו הזעומה: "אִם לֹא בָכִיתִי לִקְשֵׁה יוֹם, עָגְמָה נַפְשִׁי לָאֶבְיוֹן" (ל 25).

ראה אור. התפרסם בדפוס: "כְּעֹלְלִים לֹא רָאוּ אוֹר" (ג 16).

רופא אליל. שרלטן: "וְאוּלָם אַתֶּם טֹפְלֵי שָׁקֶר, רֹפְאֵי אֱלִל כֻּלְּכֶם" (יג 4).

שָׂהֲדי במרומים. פנייה לאלוהים: "גַּם עַתָּה הִנֵּה בַשָּׁמַיִם עֵדִי, וְשָׂהֲדִי בַּמְּרוֹמִים" (טז 19).

שיחר לטרף. ארב להזדמנות לתקוף: "הֵן פְּרָאִים בַּמִּדְבָּר יָצְאוּ, בְּפָעֳלָם מְשַׁחֲרֵי לַטָּרֶף" (כד 5).

שָׂם לאַל. שיבש או מנע ביצוע משימה או השגת מטרה: "מִי יַכְזִיבֵנִי וְיָשֵׂם לְאַל מִלָּתִי" (כד 25).

תלוי על בלימה. נתון בסיכון רב: "נֹטֶה צָפוֹן עַל תֹּהוּ, תֹּלֶה אֶרֶץ עַל בְּלִי מָה" (כו 7). הרכבת 'בלי מה' למילה אחת מצויה בלשון חכמים.

תמימי דעים. מסכימים זה לדעתו של זה: "הֲתֵדַע עַל מִפְלְשֵׂי עָב מִפְלְאוֹת תְּמִים דֵּעִים" (לז 16), וכאן בהוראת אלוהים.

חדש בפינה של פול אוגדן: הדמנציה עשויה להתגלות גם בדיבור איטי

שאלות שנשאלו ונענו ב'שאל את רוביק': מה מקור המילים צוציק וקסרקטין, מה זה לעזאזל ג'בזן, למה תרח נחשב שוטה זקן, איך הפכה המילה 'פולמוס' ממלחמה עקובה מדם לוויכוח לוהט, מה עושים עם ו' ההיפוך ועוד, ראו ב שאל את רוביק, שאלות אחרונות, בשני הדפים. יש ללחוץ על השאלה לקריאת התשובה.

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איוב מלך העברית, ומשפטי הזהב של סמי מיכאל

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סמי מיכאל לא היה רק סופר אהוב וחשוב אלא גם הוגה דעות. מחשבות מפתיעות רבות מובאות בספר שיחות שנערך איתו לפני חצי יובל. השיחות עוסקות במזרחיות ובישראליות, בחילוניות ובדת ובעתיד מדינת ישראל.

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אל תשליכני (שימי תבורי והתזמורת הפילהרמונית פתח תקוה)

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אל תשליכני (שימי תבורי והתזמורת הפילהרמונית פתח תקוה)

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SHIMI TAVORI"AL TASHLEHENI-אל תשׁלכני""BY YOEL BENAMOU-שׁימי תבורי

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אל תשליכני (אביהו מדינה והראל סקעת)

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אל תשליכני (אביהו מדינה והראל סקעת)

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הראל סקעת ואביהו מדינה - אל תשליכני לעת זקנה | מתוך סקעת ומדלי

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תהילים עא, ח-ט 

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תהילים עא, ח-ט 

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יִמָּלֵא פִי, תְּהִלָּתֶךָ

כָּל-הַיּוֹם, תִּפְאַרְתֶּךָ.
אַל-תַּשְׁלִיכֵנִי, לְעֵת זִקְנָה

כִּכְלוֹת כֹּחִי, אַל-תַּעַזְבֵנִי.

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א שִׁיר הַמַּעֲלוֹת: מִמַּעֲמַקִּים קְרָאתִיךָ ה'.
ב אֲדֹנָי, שִׁמְעָה בְקוֹלִי: תִּהְיֶינָה אָזְנֶיךָ, קַשֻּׁבוֹת - לְקוֹל, תַּחֲנוּנָי.
ג אִם-עֲו‍ֹנוֹת תִּשְׁמָר-יָהּ - אֲדֹנָי, מִי יַעֲמֹד.
ד כִּי-עִמְּךָ הַסְּלִיחָה - לְמַעַן, תִּוָּרֵא.
ה קִוִּיתִי יְהוָה, קִוְּתָה נַפְשִׁי; וְלִדְבָרוֹ הוֹחָלְתִּי.
ו נַפְשִׁי לַאדֹנָי-- מִשֹּׁמְרִים לַבֹּקֶר, שֹׁמְרִים לַבֹּקֶר.
ז יַחֵל יִשְׂרָאֵל, אֶל-ה': כִּי-עִם-ה' הַחֶסֶד; וְהַרְבֵּה עִמּוֹ פְדוּת.
ח וְהוּא, יִפְדֶּה אֶת-יִשְׂרָאֵל - מִכֹּל, עֲו‍ֹנֹתָיו.

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תהילים פרק קכא
א  שִׁיר, לַמַּעֲלוֹת:
אֶשָּׂא עֵינַי, אֶל-הֶהָרִים--    מֵאַיִן, יָבֹא עֶזְרִי.
ב  עֶזְרִי, מֵעִם יְהוָה--    עֹשֵׂה, שָׁמַיִם וָאָרֶץ.
ג  אַל-יִתֵּן לַמּוֹט רַגְלֶךָ;    אַל-יָנוּם, שֹׁמְרֶךָ.
ד  הִנֵּה לֹא-יָנוּם, וְלֹא יִישָׁן--    שׁוֹמֵר, יִשְׂרָאֵל.
ה  יְהוָה שֹׁמְרֶךָ;    יְהוָה צִלְּךָ, עַל-יַד יְמִינֶךָ.
ו  יוֹמָם, הַשֶּׁמֶשׁ לֹא-יַכֶּכָּה;    וְיָרֵחַ בַּלָּיְלָה.
ז  יְהוָה, יִשְׁמָרְךָ מִכָּל-רָע:    יִשְׁמֹר, אֶת-נַפְשֶׁךָ.
ח  יְהוָה, יִשְׁמָר-צֵאתְךָ וּבוֹאֶךָ--    מֵעַתָּה, וְעַד-עוֹלָם.

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שיר למעלות (מאיה דדון)

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שיר למעלות (מאיה דדון)

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מאיה דדון - הערוץ הרשמי

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מאיה דדון - שיר למעלות (קאבר)

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שיר למעלות (מוש בן ארי)

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שיר למעלות (מוש בן ארי)

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שיר למעלות - מוש בן ארי

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ממעמקים קראתיך יה

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ממעמקים קראתיך יה

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מקהלת עדי - צעירה וקלאסית

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תהילים 1: קנון - ממעמקים קראתיך ה' | קטע 1: קנון - ממעמקים קראתיך ה'
מילים: בעקבות תהלים ק"ל 
לחן: אנונימי

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קונצרט "מגלים את תהילים" הועלה בפסטיבל "ימי מוסיקה יהודית 2017".
בית התפוצות,... | By ‏מקהלת עדי - צעירה וקלאסית‏Facebook

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קטע 1: קנון - ממעמקים קראתיך ה'
מילים: בעקבות תהלים ק"ל 
לחן: אנונימי

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קונצרט "מגלים את תהילים" הועלה בפסטיבל "ימי מוסיקה יהודית 2017".
בית התפוצות,...

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Vulgate translation of the Hebrew Bible into Latin (around 400 CE)

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Vulgate translation of the Hebrew Bible into Latin (around 400 CE)

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The first translation of St. Jerom was based on the LXX Septuagint but later he translated the Hebrew Bible from the original Hebrew.

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The Vulgate (; also called Biblia Vulgata (Bible in common tongue), Latin: [ˈbɪbli.awʊlˈɡaːta]), sometimes referred to as the Latin Vulgate, is a late-4th-century Latin translation of the Bible.

The Vulgate is largely the work of Jerome who, in 382, had been commissioned by Pope Damasus I to revise the Vetus Latina Gospels used by the Roman Church. Later, on his own initiative, Jerome extended this work of revision and translation to include most of the books of the Bible. The Vulgate became progressively adopted as the Bible text within the Western Church. Over succeeding centuries, it eventually eclipsed the Vetus Latina. By the 13th century it had taken over from the former version the designation versio vulgata (the "version commonly used") or vulgata for short. The Vulgate also contains some Vetus Latina translations that Jerome did not work on.

The Vulgate was to become the Catholic Church's officially promulgated Latin version of the Bible as the Sixtine Vulgate (1590), then as the Clementine Vulgate (1592), and then as the Nova Vulgata (1979). The Vulgate is still currently used in the Latin Church. The Catholic Church affirmed the Vulgate as its official Latin Bible at the Council of Trent (1545-1563), though there was no authoritative edition at that time. The Clementine edition of the Vulgate became the standard Bible text of the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church, and remained so until 1979 when the Nova Vulgata was promulgated.

The term "Vulgate" is used to designate the Latin Bible only since the 16th century. An example of the use of this word in this sense at the time is the title of the 1538 edition of the Latin Bible by Erasmus: Biblia utriusque testamenti juxta vulgatam translationem.

The Vulgate has a compound text that is not entirely Jerome's work. Jerome's translation of the four Gospels are revisions of Vetus Latina translations he did while having the Greek as reference.

The Latin translations of the rest of the New Testament are revisions to the Vetus Latina, considered as being made by Pelagian circles or by Rufinus the Syrian, or by Rufinus of Aquileia. Several unrevised books of the Vetus Latina Old Testament also commonly became included in the Vulgate. These are: 1 and 2 Maccabees, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah.

Having separately translated the book of Psalms from the Greek Hexapla Septuagint, Jerome translated all of the books of the Jewish Bible-the Hebrew book of Psalms included-from Hebrew himself. He also translated the books of Tobit and Judith from Aramaic versions, the additions to the Book of Esther from the Common Septuagint and the additions to the Book of Daniel from the Greek of Theodotion.

The Vulgate is "a composite collection which cannot be identified with only Jerome's work," because the Vulgate contains Vetus Latina which are independent from Jerome's work.

Revision of Vetus Latina by Jerome: the Gospels, corrected with reference to the Greek manuscripts which Jerome considered the best available.

Translation from the Hebrew by Jerome: all the books from the Hebrew canon except the Book of Psalms.

Translation from the Hexaplar Septuagint by Jerome: his Gallican version of the Book of Psalms.

Translation from Aramaic by Jerome: the book of Tobit and the book of Judith.

Translation from the Greek of Theodotion by Jerome: the three additions to the Book of Daniel: the Song of the Three Children, the Story of Susanna, and the Story of Bel and the Dragon. Jerome marked these additions with an obelus before them to distinguish them from the rest of the text. He says that because those parts "are spread throughout the whole world, [we] have appended by banishing and placing them after the spit (or "obelus"), so we will not be seen among the unlearned to have cut off a large part of the scroll."

Translation from the Common Septuagint by Jerome: the Additions to Esther. Jerome gathered all these additions together at the end of the Book of Esther, marking them with an obelus.

The 13th-century Paris Bibles remove the Epistle to the Laodiceans, but add:

Another text which is considered as part of the Vulgate is:

Translation from the Hebrew by Jerome: the books of the Hebrew Bible, including a translation of the Psalms from the Hebrew. This translation of the Psalms was kept in Spanish manuscripts of the Vulgate long after the Gallican psalter had supplanted it elsewhere. Completion dates given by experts for this translation of the Psalms range from between 390 and 398.

Jerome's work of translation

Saint Jerome in His Study, by Domenico Ghirlandaio

Jerome did not embark on the work with the intention of creating a new version of the whole Bible, but the changing nature of his program can be tracked in his voluminous correspondence. He had been commissioned by Damasus I in 382 to revise the Vetus Latina text of the four Gospels from the best Greek texts. By the time of Damasus' death in 384, Jerome had completed this task, together with a more cursory revision from the Greek Common Septuagint of the Vetus Latina text of the Psalms in the Roman Psalter, a version which he later disowned and is now lost. How much of the rest of the New Testament he then revised is difficult to judge, but none of his work survived in the Vulgate text of these books. The revised text of the New Testament outside the Gospels is the work of other scholars. Rufinus of Aquileia has been suggested, as has Rufinus the Syrian (an associate of Pelagius) and Pelagius himself, though without specific evidence for any of them; Pelagian groups have also been suggested as the revisers. This unknown reviser worked more thoroughly than Jerome had done, consistently using older Greek manuscript sources of Alexandrian text-type. They had published a complete revised New Testament text by 410 at the latest, when Pelagius quoted from it in his commentary on the letters of Paul.

In Jerome's Vulgate, the Hebrew Book of Ezra-Nehemiah is translated as the single book of "Ezra". Jerome defends this in his Prologue to Ezra, although he had noted formerly in his Prologue to the Book of Kings that some Greeks and Latins had proposed that this book should be split in two. Jerome argues that the two books of Ezra found in the Septuagint and Vetus Latina, Esdras A and Esdras B, represented "variant examples" of a single Hebrew original. Hence, he does not translate Esdras A separately even though up until then it had been universally found in Greek and Vetus Latina Old Testaments, preceding Esdras B, the combined text of Ezra-Nehemiah.

The Vulgate is usually credited as being the first translation of the Old Testament into Latin directly from the Hebrew Tanakh rather than from the Greek Septuagint. Jerome's extensive use of exegetical material written in Greek, as well as his use of the Aquiline and Theodotiontic columns of the Hexapla, along with the somewhat paraphrastic style in which he translated, makes it difficult to determine exactly how direct the conversion of Hebrew to Latin was. Augustine of Hippo, a contemporary of Jerome, states in Book XVII ch. 43 of his The City of God that "in our own day the priest Jerome, a great scholar and master of all three tongues, has made a translation into Latin, not from Greek but directly from the original Hebrew." Nevertheless, Augustine still maintained that the Septuagint, alongside the Hebrew, witnessed the inspired text of Scripture and consequently pressed Jerome for complete copies of his Hexaplar Latin translation of the Old Testament, a request that Jerome ducked with the excuse that the originals had been lost "through someone's dishonesty".

Prologues written by Jerome to some of his translations of parts of the Bible are to the Pentateuch, to Joshua, and to Kings (1-2 Kings and 1-2 Samuel) which is also called the Galeatum principium. Following these are prologues to Chronicles, Ezra, Tobit, Judith, Esther, Job, the Gallican Psalms, Song of Songs, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, the minor prophets, the gospels. The final prologue is to the Pauline epistles and is better known as Primum quaeritur; this prologue is considered not to have been written by Jerome. Related to these are Jerome's Notes on the Rest of Esther and his Prologue to the Hebrew Psalms.

A theme of the Old Testament prologues is Jerome's preference for the Hebraica veritas (i.e., Hebrew truth) over the Septuagint, a preference which he defended from his detractors. After Jerome had translated some parts of the Septuagint into Latin, he came to consider the text of the Septuagint as being faulty in itself, i.e. Jerome thought mistakes in the Septuagint text were not all mistakes made by copyists, but that some mistakes were part of the original text itself as it was produced by the Seventy translators. Jerome believed that the Hebrew text more clearly prefigured Christ than the Greek of the Septuagint, since he believed some quotes of the Old Testament in the New Testament were not present in the Septuagint, but existed in the Hebrew version; Jerome gave some of those quotes in his prologue to the Pentateuch. In the Galeatum principium (a.k.a. Prologus Galeatus), Jerome described an Old Testament canon of 22 books, which he found represented in the 22-letter Hebrew alphabet. Alternatively, he numbered the books as 24, which he identifies with the 24 elders in the Book of Revelation casting their crowns before the Lamb. In the prologue to Ezra, he sets the "twenty-four elders" of the Hebrew Bible against the "Seventy interpreters" of the Septuagint.

In addition, many medieval Vulgate manuscripts included Jerome's epistle number 53, to Paulinus bishop of Nola, as a general prologue to the whole Bible. Notably, this letter was printed at the head of the Gutenberg Bible. Jerome's letter promotes the study of each of the books of the Old and New Testaments listed by name (and excluding any mention of the deuterocanonical books); and its dissemination had the effect of propagating the belief that the whole Vulgate text was Jerome's work.

The prologue to the Pauline Epistles in the Vulgate defends the Pauline authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews, directly contrary to Jerome's own views-a key argument in demonstrating that Jerome did not write it. The author of the Primum quaeritur is unknown, but it is first quoted by Pelagius in his commentary on the Pauline letters written before 410. As this work also quotes from the Vulgate revision of these letters, it has been proposed that Pelagius or one of his associates may have been responsible for the revision of the Vulgate New Testament outside the Gospels. At any rate, it is reasonable to identify the author of the preface with the unknown reviser of the New Testament outside the gospels.

Some manuscripts of the Pauline epistles contain short Marcionite prologues to each of the epistles indicating where they were written, with notes about where the recipients dwelt. Adolf von Harnack, citing De Bruyne, argued that these notes were written by Marcion of Sinope or one of his followers. Many early Vulgate manuscripts contain a set of Priscillianist prologues to the gospels.

Relation with the Vetus Latina Bible

The Latin biblical texts in use before Jerome's Vulgate are usually referred to collectively as the Vetus Latina, or "Vetus Latina Bible". "Vetus Latina" means that they are older than the Vulgate and written in Latin, not that they are written in Old Latin. Jerome himself uses the term "Latin Vulgate" for the Vetus Latina text, so intending to denote this version as the common Latin rendering of the Greek Vulgate or Common Septuagint (which Jerome otherwise terms the "Seventy interpreters"). This remained the usual use of the term "Latin Vulgate" in the West for centuries. On occasion Jerome applies the term "Septuagint" ( Septuaginta) to refer to the Hexaplar Septuagint, where he wishes to distinguish this from the Vulgata or Common Septuagint. The earliest known use of the term Vulgata to describe the "new" Latin translation was made by Roger Bacon in the 13th century. The translations in the Vetus Latina had accumulated piecemeal over a century or more. They were not translated by a single person or institution, nor uniformly edited. The individual books varied in quality of translation and style, and different manuscripts and quotations witness wide variations in readings. Some books appear to have been translated several times. The book of Psalms, in particular, had circulated for over a century in an earlier Latin version (the Cyprianic Version), before it was superseded by the Vetus Latina version in the 4th century. Jerome, in his preface to the Vulgate gospels, commented that there were "as many [translations] as there are manuscripts"; subsequently repeating the witticism in his preface to the Book of Joshua. The base text for Jerome's revision of the gospels was a Vetus Latina text similar to the Codex Veronensis, with the text of the Gospel of John conforming more to that in the Codex Corbiensis.

Jerome's work on the Gospels was a revision of the Vetus Latina versions, and not a new translation. "High priest" is rendered princeps sacerdotum in Vulgate Matthew; as summus sacerdos in Vulgate Mark; and as pontifex in Vulgate John. The Vetus Latina gospels had been translated from Greek originals of the Western text-type. Comparison of Jerome's Gospel texts with those in Vetus Latina witnesses, suggests that his revision was concerned with substantially redacting their expanded "Western" phraseology in accordance with the Greek texts of better early Byzantine and Alexandrian witnesses. One major change Jerome introduced was to re-order the Latin Gospels. Most Vetus Latina gospel books followed the "Western" order of Matthew, John, Luke, Mark; Jerome adopted the "Greek" order of Matthew, Mark, Luke, John. His revisions became progressively less frequent and less consistent in the gospels presumably done later. In places Jerome adopted readings that did not correspond to a straightforward rendering either of the Vetus Latina or the Greek text, so reflecting a particular doctrinal interpretation; as in his rewording panem nostrum supersubstantialem at Matthew 6:11.

The unknown reviser of the rest of the New Testament shows marked differences from Jerome, both in editorial practice and in their sources. Where Jerome sought to correct the Vetus Latina text with reference to the best recent Greek manuscripts, with a preference for those conforming to the Byzantine text-type, the Greek text underlying the revision of the rest of the New Testament demonstrates the Alexandrian text-type found in the great uncial codices of the mid-4th century, most similar to the Codex Sinaiticus. The reviser's changes generally conform very closely to this Greek text, even in matters of word order-to the extent that the resulting text may be only barely intelligible as Latin.

After the Gospels, the most widely used and copied part of the Christian Bible is the Book of Psalms. Consequently, Damasus also commissioned Jerome to revise the psalter in use in Rome, to agree better with the Greek of the Common Septuagint. Jerome said he had done this cursorily when in Rome, but he later disowned this version, maintaining that copyists had reintroduced erroneous readings. Until the 20th century, it was commonly assumed that the surviving Roman Psalter represented Jerome's first attempted revision, but more recent scholarship-following de Bruyne-rejects this identification. The Roman Psalter is indeed one of at least five revised versions of the mid-4th century Vetus Latina Psalter, but compared to the other four, the revisions in the Roman Psalter are in clumsy Latin, and fail to follow Jerome's known translational principles, especially in respect of correcting harmonised readings. Nevertheless, it is clear from Jerome's correspondence (especially in his defence of the Gallican Psalter in the long and detailed Epistle 106) that he was familiar with the Roman Psalter text, and consequently it is assumed that this revision represents the Roman text as Jerome had found it.

Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, 1 and 2 Maccabees and Baruch (with the Letter of Jeremiah) are included in the Vulgate, and are purely Vetus Latina translations which Jerome did not touch.

In the 9th century the Vetus Latina texts of Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah were introduced into the Vulgate in versions revised by Theodulf of Orleans and are found in a minority of early medieval Vulgate bibles from that date onward. After 1300, when the booksellers of Paris began to produce commercial single volume Vulgate bibles in large numbers, these commonly included both Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah as the Book of Baruch. Also beginning in the 9th century, Vulgate manuscripts are found that split Jerome's combined translation from the Hebrew of Ezra and the Nehemiah into separate books called 1 Ezra and 2 Ezra. Bogaert argues that this practice arose from an intention to conform the Vulgate text to the authoritative canon lists of the 5th/6th century, where 'two books of Ezra' were commonly cited. Subsequently, many late medieval Vulgate bible manuscripts introduced a Latin version, originating from before Jerome and distinct from that in the Vetus Latina, of the Greek Esdras A, now commonly termed 3 Ezra; and also a Latin version of an Ezra Apocalypse, commonly termed 4 Ezra.

The Vulgate was given an official capacity by the Council of Trent (1545-1563) as the touchstone of the biblical canon concerning which parts of books are canonical. The Vulgate was declared to "be held as authentic" by the Catholic Church by the Council of Trent.

The Council of Trent cited long usage in support of the Vulgate's magisterial authority:

Moreover, this sacred and holy Synod,-considering that no small utility may accrue to the Church of God, if it be made known which out of all the Latin editions, now in circulation, of the sacred books, is to be held as authentic,-ordains and declares, that the said old and vulgate edition, which, by the lengthened usage of so many years, has been approved of in the Church, be, in public lectures, disputations, sermons and expositions, held as authentic; and that no one is to dare, or presume to reject it under any pretext whatever.

The qualifier "Latin editions, now in circulation" and the use of "authentic" (not "inerrant") show the limits of this statement.

When the council listed the books included in the canon, it qualified the books as being "entire with all their parts, as they have been used to be read in the Catholic Church, and as they are contained in the Vetus Latina vulgate edition". The fourth session of the Council specified 72 canonical books in the Bible: 45 in the Old Testament, 27 in the New Testament with Lamentations not being counted as separate from Jeremiah. On 2 June 1927, Pope Pius XI clarified this decree, allowing that the Comma Johanneum was open to dispute.

Later, in the 20th century, Pope Pius XII declared the Vulgate as "free from error whatsoever in matters of faith and morals" in his encyclical Divino Afflante Spiritu:

Hence this special authority or as they say, authenticity of the Vulgate was not affirmed by the Council particularly for critical reasons, but rather because of its legitimate use in the Churches throughout so many centuries; by which use indeed the same is shown, in the sense in which the Church has understood and understands it, to be free from any error whatsoever in matters of faith and morals; so that, as the Church herself testifies and affirms, it may be quoted safely and without fear of error in disputations, in lectures and in preaching [...]"

The inerrancy is with respect to faith and morals, as it says in the above quote: "free from any error whatsoever in matters of faith and morals", and the inerrancy is not in a philological sense:

[...] and so its authenticity is not specified primarily as critical, but rather as juridical.

The Catholic Church has produced three official editions of the Vulgate: the Sixtine Vulgate, the Clementine Vulgate, and the Nova Vulgata (see below).

First page of the first volume of the Gutenberg Bible: the epistle of Jerome to Paulinus from the University of Texas copy. The page has 40 lines.

For over a thousand years (c. AD 400-1530), the Vulgate was the most commonly used edition of the most influential text in Western European society. Indeed, for most Western Christians, especially Catholics, it was the only version of the Bible ever encountered, only truly being eclipsed in the mid 20th century.

In about 1455, the first Vulgate published by the moveable type process was produced in Mainz by a partnership between Johannes Gutenberg and banker John Fust (or Faust). At the time, a manuscript of the Vulgate was selling for approximately 500 guilders. Gutenberg's works appear to have been a commercial failure, and Fust sued for recovery of his 2026 guilder investment and was awarded complete possession of the Gutenberg plant. Arguably, the Reformation could not have been possible without the diaspora of biblical knowledge that was permitted by the development of moveable type.

Aside from its use in prayer, liturgy, and private study, the Vulgate served as inspiration for ecclesiastical art and architecture, hymns, countless paintings, and popular mystery plays.

The fifth volume of Walton's London Polyglot of 1657 included several versions of the New Testament: in Greek, Latin (a Vulgate version and the version by Arius Montanus), Syriac, Ethiopic, and Arabic. It also included a version of the Gospels in Persian.

The Vulgate Latin is used regularly in Thomas Hobbes' of 1651; in the Leviathan Hobbes "has a worrying tendency to treat the Vulgate as if it were the original".

Before the publication of Pius XII's Divino afflante Spiritu, the Vulgate was the source text used for many translations of the Bible into vernacular languages. In English, the interlinear translation of the Lindisfarne Gospels as well as other Old English Bible translations, the translation of John Wycliffe, the Douay-Rheims Bible, the Confraternity Bible, and Ronald Knox's translation were all made from the Vulgate.

The Vulgate had significant cultural influence on literature for centuries, and thus the development of the English language, especially in matters of religion. Many Latin words were taken from the Vulgate into English nearly unchanged in meaning or spelling: (e.g. Genesis 1:1, Heb 9:11), (e.g. Is 37:32, Eph 2:5), justificatio (e.g. Rom 4:25, Heb 9:1), testamentum (e.g. Mt 26:28), sanctificatio (1 Ptr 1:2, 1 Cor 1:30), regeneratio (Mt 19:28), and (from a noun form of the verb rapere in 1 Thes 4:17). The word " publican" comes from the Latin publicanus (e.g., Mt 10:3), and the phrase " far be it" is a translation of the Latin expression absit. (e.g., Mt 16:22 in the King James Bible). Other examples include , , evangelium, , and .

In translating the 38 books of the Hebrew Bible ( Ezra-Nehemiah being counted as one book), Jerome was relatively free in rendering their text into Latin, but it is possible to determine that the oldest surviving complete manuscripts of the Masoretic Text which date from nearly 600 years after Jerome, nevertheless transmit a consonantal Hebrew text very close to that used by Jerome.

The Vulgate exists in many forms. The Codex Amiatinus is the oldest surviving complete manuscript from the 8th century. The Gutenberg Bible is a notable printed edition of the Vulgate by Johann Gutenberg in 1455. The Sixtine Vulgate (1590) is the first official Bible of the Catholic Church. The Clementine Vulgate (1592) is a standardized edition of the medieval Vulgate, and the second official Bible of the Catholic Church. The Stuttgart Vulgate is a 1969 critical edition of the Vulgate. The Nova Vulgata is the third and latest official Bible of the Catholic Church; it was published in 1979, and is a translation in Classical Latin from modern critical editions of original language texts of the Bible.

A page from the Codex Amiatinus containing the beginning of the Gospel of Mark

A number of manuscripts containing or reflecting the Vulgate survive today. Dating from the 8th century, the Codex Amiatinus is the earliest surviving manuscript of the complete Vulgate Bible. The Codex Fuldensis, dating from around 545, contains most of the New Testament in the Vulgate version, but the four gospels are harmonised into a continuous narrative derived from the Diatessaron.

"The two best-known revisions of the Latin Scriptures in the early medieval period were made in the Carolingian period by Alcuin of York ( c. 730-840) and Theodulf of Orleans (750/760-821)."

Alcuin of York oversaw efforts to make a Latin Bible, an exemplar of which was presented to Charlemagne in 801. Alcuin's edition contained the Vulgate version. It appears Alcuin concentrated only on correcting errors of grammar, orthography and punctuation. "Even though Alcuin's revision of the Latin Bible was neither the first nor the last of the Carolingian period, it managed to prevail over the other versions and to become the most influential edition for centuries to come." The success of this Bible has been attributed to the fact that this Bible may have been "prescribed as the official version at the emperor's request." However, Bonifatius Fischer believes its success was rather due to the productivity of the scribes of Tours where Alcuin was abbot, at the monastery of Saint Martin; Fischer believes the emperor only favored the editorial work of Alcuin by encouraging work on the Bible in general.

"Although, in contrast to Alcuin, Theodulf [of Orleans] clearly developed an editorial programme, his work on the Bible was far less influential than that of hs slightly older contemporary. Nevertheless, several manuscripts containing his version have come down to us." Theodulf added to his edition of the Bible the Book of Baruch, which Alcuin's edition did not contain; it is this version of the Book of Baruch which later became part of the Vulgate. In his editorial activity, on at least one manuscript of the Theodulf Bible (S Paris, BNF lat. 9398), Theodulf marked variant readings along with their sources in the margin of the manuscripts. Those marginal notes of variant readings along with their sources "seem to foreshadow the thirteenth-century correctoria." In the 9th century the Vetus Latina texts of Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah were introduced into the Vulgate in versions revised by Theodulf of Orleans and are found in a minority of early medieval Vulgate bibles from that date onward.

Cassiodorus, Isidore of Sevilla, and Stephen Harding also worked on editions of the Latin Bible. Isidore's edition as well as the edition of Cassiodorus "ha[ve] not come down to us."

By the 9th century, due to the success of Alcuin's edition, the Vulgate had replaced the Vetus Latina as the most available edition of the Latin Bible.

The University of Paris, the Dominicans, and the Franciscans assembled lists of correctoria -approved readings-where variants had been noted.

Though the advent of printing greatly reduced the potential of human error and increased the consistency and uniformity of the text, the earliest editions of the Vulgate merely reproduced the manuscripts that were readily available to publishers. Of the hundreds of early editions, the most notable today is the Mazarin edition published by Johann Gutenberg and Johann Fust in 1455, famous for its beauty and antiquity. In 1504, the first Vulgate with variant readings was published in Paris. One of the texts of the Complutensian Polyglot was an edition of the Vulgate made from ancient manuscripts and corrected to agree with the Greek.

Erasmus published an edition corrected to agree better with the Greek and Hebrew in 1516. Other corrected editions were published by Xanthus Pagninus in 1518, Cardinal Cajetan, Augustinus Steuchius in 1529, Abbot Isidorus Clarius ( Venice, 1542) and others. In 1528, Robertus Stephanus published the first of a series of critical editions, which formed the basis of the later Sistine and Clementine editions. John Henten's critical edition of the Bible followed in 1547.

In 1550, Stephanus fled to Geneva, where he issued his final critical edition of the Vulgate in 1555. This was the first complete Bible with full chapter and verse divisions and became the standard biblical reference text for late-16th century Reformed theology.

Frontispiece of the original Sixtine Vulgate

Frontispiece of the original 1592 Sixto-Clementine Vulgate

After the Reformation, when the Catholic Church strove to counter Protestantism and refute its doctrines, the Vulgate was declared at the Council of Trent to "be, in public lectures, disputations, sermons and expositions, held as authentic; and that no one is to dare, or presume to reject it under any pretext whatever." Furthermore, the council expressed the wish that the Vulgate be printed quam emendatissime ("with fewest possible faults").

In 1590, the Sixtine Vulgate was issued, under Sixtus V, as being the official Bible recommended by the Council of Trent. On 27 August 1590, Sixtus V died. After his death, "many claimed that the text of the Sixtine Vulgate was too error-ridden for general use." On 5 September of the same year, the College of Cardinals stopped all further sales of the Sixtine Vulgate and bought and destroyed as many copies as possible by burning them. The reason invoked for this action was printing inaccuracies in Sixtus V's edition of the Vulgate. However, Bruce Metzger, an American biblical scholar, believes that the printing inaccuracies may have been a pretext and that the attack against this edition had been instigated by the Jesuits, "whom Sixtus had offended by putting one of Bellarmine's books on the 'Index' ".

In the same year he became pope (1592), Clement VIII recalled all copies of the Sixtine Vulgate. The reason invoked for recalling Sixtus V's edition was printing errors, however the Sixtine Vulgate was mostly free of them.

The Sistine edition was replaced by Clement VIII (1592-1605). This new edition was published in 1592 and is called today the Clementine Vulgate or Sixto-Clementine Vulgate. "The misprints of this edition were partly eliminated in a second (1593) and a third (1598) edition."

The Clementine Vulgate is the edition most familiar to Catholics who have lived prior to the liturgical reforms following Vatican II. Roger Gryson, in the preface to the 4th edition of the Stuttgart Vulgate (1994), asserts that the Clementine edition "frequently deviates from the manuscript tradition for literary or doctrinal reasons, and offers only a faint reflection of the original Vulgate, as read in the of the first millennium." However, historical scholar Cardinal Francis Aidan Gasquet, in the Catholic Encyclopedia, states that the Clementine Vulgate substantially represents the Vulgate which Jerome produced in the fourth century, although "it stands in need of close examination and much correction to make it [completely] agree with the translation of St. Jerome".

Most other later editions were limited to the New Testament and did not present a full critical apparatus, most notably Karl Lachmann's editions of 1842 and 1850 based primarily on the Codex Amiatinus and the Codex Fuldensis, Fleck's edition of 1840, and Constantin von Tischendorf's edition of 1864. In 1906 Eberhard Nestle published Novum Testamentum Latine, which presented the Clementine Vulgate text with a critical apparatus comparing it to the editions of Sixtus V (1590), Lachman (1842), Tischendorf (1854), and Wordsworth and White (1889), as well as the Codex Amiatinus and the Codex Fuldensis.

To make a text available representative of the earliest copies of the Vulgate and summarise the most common variants between the various manuscripts, Anglican scholars at the University of Oxford began to edit the New Testament in 1878 (completed in 1954), while the Benedictines of Rome began an edition of the Old Testament in 1907 (completed in 1995). The Oxford Anglican scholars's findings were condensed into an edition of both the Old and New Testaments, first published at Stuttgart in 1969, created with the participation of members from both projects. These books are the standard editions of the Vulgate used by scholars.

Oxford New Testament

As a result of the inaccuracy of existing editions of the Vulgate, in 1878, the delegates of the Oxford University Press accepted a proposal from classicist John Wordsworth to produce a critical edition of the New Testament. This was eventually published as Nouum Testamentum Domini nostri Iesu Christi Latine, secundum editionem sancti Hieronymi in three volumes between 1889 and 1954.

The edition, commonly known as the Oxford Vulgate, relies primarily on the texts of the Codex Amiatinus, Codex Fuldensis (Codex Harleianus in the Gospels), Codex Sangermanensis, Codex Mediolanensis (in the Gospels), and Codex Reginensis (in Paul). It also consistently cites readings in the so-called DELQR group of manuscripts, named after the it uses for them: Book of Armagh (D), Egerton Gospels (E), Lichfield Gospels (L), Book of Kells (Q), and Rushworth Gospels (R).

Benedictine (Rome) Old Testament

In 1907, Pope Pius X commissioned the Benedictine monks to prepare a critical edition of Jerome's Vulgate, entitled Biblia Sacra iuxta latinam vulgatam versionem. This text was originally planned as the basis for a revised complete official Bible for the Catholic Church to replace the Clementine edition. The first volume, the Pentateuch, was completed in 1926. For the Pentateuch, the primary sources for the text are the Codex Amiatinus, the Codex Turonensis (the Ashburnham Pentateuch), and the Ottobonianus Octateuch. For the rest of the Old Testament (except the Book of Psalms) the primary sources for the text are the Codex Amiatinus and Codex Cavensis.

Following the Codex Amiatinus and the Vulgate texts of Alcuin and Theodulf, the Benedictine Vulgate reunited the Book of Ezra and the Book of Nehemiah into a single book, reversing the decisions of the Sixto-Clementine Vulgate.

In 1933, Pope Pius XI established the Pontifical Abbey of St Jerome-in-the-City to complete the work. By the 1970s, as a result of liturgical changes that had spurred the Vatican to produce a new translation of the Latin Bible, the Nova Vulgata, the Benedictine edition was no longer required for official purposes, and the abbey was suppressed in 1984. Five monks were nonetheless allowed to complete the final two volumes of the Old Testament, which were published under the abbey's name in 1987 and 1995.

Stuttgart Vulgate

Concordance to the Vulgate Bible for the Stuttgart Vulgate

Based on the editions of Oxford and Rome, but with an independent examination of the manuscript evidence and extending their lists of primary witnesses for some books, the Württembergische Bibelanstalt, later the Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft (German Bible Society), based in Stuttgart, first published a critical edition of the complete Vulgate in 1969. The work has continued to be updated, with a fifth edition appearing in 2007. The project was originally directed by Robert Weber, OSB (a monk of the same Benedictine abbey responsible for the Benedictine edition), with collaborators Bonifatius Fischer, Jean Gribomont, Hedley Frederick Davis Sparks (also responsible for the completion of the Oxford edition), and Walter Thiele. Roger Gryson has been responsible for the most recent editions. It is thus marketed by its publisher as the "Weber-Gryson" edition, but is also frequently referred to as the Stuttgart edition.

The Weber-Gryson includes of Jerome's prologues and the Eusebian Canons.

It contains two Psalters, the Gallicanum and the juxta Hebraicum, which are printed on facing pages to allow easy comparison and contrast between the two versions. It has an expanded Apocrypha, containing Psalm 151 and the Epistle to the Laodiceans in addition to 3 and 4 Ezra and the Prayer of Manasses. In addition, its modern prefaces in Latin, German, French, and English are a source of valuable information about the history of the Vulgate.

The Nova Vulgata ( Nova Vulgata Bibliorum Sacrorum Editio), also called the Neo-Vulgate, is the official Latin edition of the Bible published by the Holy See for use in the contemporary Roman rite. It is not a critical edition of the historical Vulgate, but a revision of the text intended to accord with modern critical Hebrew and Greek texts and produce a style closer to Classical Latin.

In 1979, the Nova Vulgata was promulgated as "typical" (standard) by John Paul II.

Online versions

The title "Vulgate" is currently applied to three distinct online texts which can be found from various sources on the Internet. The text being used can be ascertained from the spelling of Eve's name in Genesis 3:20:

^ Some, following P. Nautin (1986) and perhaps E. Burstein (1971), suggest that Jerome may have been almost wholly dependent on Greek material for his interpretation of the Hebrew. A. Kamesar (1993), on the other hand, sees evidence that in some cases Jerome's knowledge of Hebrew exceeds that of his exegetes, implying a direct understanding of the Hebrew text.

Samuel Berger, Histoire de la Vulgate pendant les premiers siècles du Moyen Age (Paris 1893).

R. Draguet, "Le Maître louvainiste, [Jean] Driedo, inspirateur du décret de Trente sur la Vulgate", in Festschrift volume, Miscellenea historica in honorem Alberti de Meyer (Louvain: Bibliothèque universitaire, 1946), pp. 836-854.

Richard Gameson ed. The Early Medieval Bible, Cambridge University Press, 1994

H.A.G. Houghton ed. The Oxford Handbook of the Latin Bible, Oxford University Press, 2023.

G. W. M. Lampe ed. The Cambridge History of the Bible. Vol 2 Cambridge University Press 1969.

Lang, Bernhard (2023). "Handbook of the Vulgate Bible and its reception". Vulgata in Dialogue. ISSN 2504-5156.

Richard Marsden, The Text of the Old Testament in Anglo-Saxon England, Cambridge University Press, 1995.

C. H. Turner, The Oldest Manuscript of the Vulgate Gospels (The Clarendon Press: Oxford 1931).

Frans van Liere, Introduction to the Medieval Bible, Cambridge University Press, 2014.

Steinmeuller, John E. (1938). "The History of the Latin Vulgate". CatholicCulture. Homiletic & Pastoral Review. pp. 252-257.

Gallagher, Edmon (2015). "Why Did Jerome Translate Tobit and Judith?". Harvard Theological Review. 108 (3): 356-75. doi:10.1017/S0017816015000231. S2CID 164400348 - via Academia.edu.

Clementine Vulgate

Oxford Vulgate

Wordsworth, John; White, Henry Julian, eds. (1889). Nouum Testamentum Domini nostri Jesu Christi latine, secundum editionem Sancti Hieronymi. Vol. 1. Oxford: The Clarendon Press.

Wordsworth, John; White, Henry Julian, eds. (1941). Nouum Testamentum Domini nostri Jesu Christi latine, secundum editionem Sancti Hieronymi. Vol. 2. Oxford: The Clarendon Press.

Wordsworth, John; White, Henry Julian, eds. (1954). Nouum Testamentum Domini nostri Jesu Christi latine, secundum editionem Sancti Hieronymi. Vol. 3. Oxford: The Clarendon Press.

Stuttgart Vulgate

Nova Vulgata

Miscellaneous translations

Works about the Vulgate

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The Vulgate (; also called Biblia Vulgata (Bible in common tongue), Latin: [ˈbɪbli.awʊlˈɡaːta]), sometimes referred to as the Latin Vulgate, is a late-4th-century Latin translation of the Bible. The Vulgate is largely the work of Jerome who, in 382, had been commissioned by Pope Damasus I to revise the Vetus Latina Gospels used by the Roman Church.

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Septuaginta (LXX/ The translation of the seventy) to Greek around 250 BCE

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Septuaginta (LXX/ The translation of the seventy) to Greek around 250 BCE

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Jewish translation of the Torah from Hebrew to Ancient Hellenistic Greek (Koine Greek): around the same time or a bit earlier than the full canonization of the Hebrew Bible.

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The Septuagint (from the Latin septuaginta , "seventy"), also known as the LXX, is a Koine Greek translation of a Hebraic textual tradition that included certain texts which were later included in the canonical Hebrew Bible and other related texts which were not.

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Onkelos translation to Aramaic (around 200 CE) 

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Onkelos translation to Aramaic (around 200 CE) 

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Jewish translation of the Torah (first five books) from Hebrew to Aramaic

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Interlinear text of Hebrew Numbers 6.3-10 with Aramaic Targum Onkelos from the British Library.

Hebrew text (right) and Aramaic Onkelos (left) in a Hebrew Bible dating from 1299 held by the Bodleian Library

Targum Onkelos (or Onqelos; Jewish Babylonian Aramaic: תַּרְגּוּם אֻנְקְלוֹס‎, Targūm 'Unqəlōs) is the primary Jewish Aramaic targum ("translation") of the Torah, accepted as an authoritative translated text of the Five Books of Moses and thought to have been written in the early second century CE.

Authorship of the Targum Onkelos is traditionally attributed to Onkelos, a famous convert to Judaism in Tannaic times (c. 35-120 CE).[1][2] According to the Talmud, the essential content of Targum Onkelos was already known in the time of Ezra (immediately after the Babylonian captivity). However, it was later forgotten by the masses, and rerecorded by Onkelos.[3]

While the Aramaic translation of the Torah is traditionally attributed to Onkelos, a translation of the Torah into Greek is mentioned in the Talmud as being made by Aquila of Sinope.[4] However, most scholars hold these to be one and the same person.[5] According to Epiphanius of Salamis, the Greek translation was made by Aquilas before he converted to Judaism, while the Aramaic translation was made after his conversion.[6] This is said to have been under the direct guidance and instruction of the tannaim Joshua ben Hananiah and Eliezer ben Hurcanus.[7] Indeed, the same biographical stories that the Jerusalem Talmud attributes to Aquila, the Babylonian Talmud attributes to Onkelos.[8]

Rabbi Yirmeya said, and some say Rabbi Ḥiyya bar Abba: The translation of the Torah was composed by Onkelos the convert based on Rabbi Eliezer and Rabbi Yehoshua.

Rebbi Jeremiah in the name of Rebbi Ḥiyya bar Abba: Akylas [עקילס , Aquilas] the proselyte translated the Torah before Rebbi Eliezer and Rebbi Joshua; they praised him [and said to him], you are a superhuman beauty

-  Tractate Megillah 1:9 [10b], Jerusalem Talmud

The overwhelming similarities between the biographies of Aquila and Onkelos has led many to conclude they are the same person. Zvi Hirsch Chajes identified the Aramaic "Targum Onkelos" as Aquila's Greek translation, translated once again into Aramaic. Likewise, A.E. Silverstone (1931:73) has shown quite consummately that Aquilas wrote both the Greek and the Aramaic versions, insofar that "both versions betray the same outstanding characteristics."

A modern scholar has argued that the Aramaic translation must date to the late fourth-early fifth centuries, due to reusing language from other midrashim composed at that time, and thus could not have been composed by Aquila/Onkelos, who lived in the second century.[8] Others, dissenting, have concluded that Onkelos' Aramaic translation originated in Syria Palaestina in the first or early second centuries CE, but that its final redaction was done in Babylonia probably in the fourth or fifth century CE.[9] Onkelos' revised translation became the official version used in translating the Torah on each Sabbath day, displacing the earlier Palestinian Aramaic traditions which had been widely used. The Babylonian Talmud refers to the Torah's Aramaic translation (Targum Onkelos) as "targum didan" ("our translation"), as opposed to that of the more ancient Palestinian Targum.[10] The earliest text samples ( Exodus 15:9-12 in Hebrew-Aramaic) appear on two incantation bowls (5th-7th centuries CE) discovered at Nippur, Babylonia.[11][12]

In Talmudic times, readings from the Torah within the synagogues were rendered, verse-by-verse, into an Aramaic translation. To this day, the oldest surviving custom with respect to the Yemenite Jewish prayer-rite is the reading of the Torah and the Haftara with the Aramaic translation (in this case, Targum Onkelos for the Torah and Targum Jonathan ben 'Uzziel for the Haftarah).[13][14] The custom to read the Aramaic Targum each Sabbath day in the synagogue during the weekly Torah lection was eventually abandoned by other communities in Israel, owing largely to the author of the Shulhan Arukh (Orach Chaim §145:3) who did not encourage its practice, saying that they do not understand the meaning of its words.

Where the custom is to read the Aramaic Targum during the public reading of the Torah on Sabbath days, the story of Reuben (Gen 35:22)[15] and the second "Golden Calf" episode (Ex 32:21-25)[16] are read but not translated, as they involve shameful events.[17] Similarly, the Priestly Blessing (Num 6:24-26) is read but not translated, since the blessings are only to be recited in Hebrew.[18][19][17]

The reading of the Targum, verse by verse, in conjunction with the Torah that is read aloud on the Sabbath day is not to be confused with a different practice, namely, that of reviewing the entire Parashah before the commencement of the Sabbath, and which practice has its source in the Talmud, and which the codifiers of Jewish law have ruled as Halacha:[20] "A person should complete his portions of scripture along with the community, reading the scripture twice and the targum once (Shnayim mikra ve-echad targum)."[21] Here, the reference is to completing the reading of the Parashah at home or in the Beit Midrash, along with others, reading in tandem, during which reading each verse is repeated twice; once by the reader himself, followed by a repetition of the same verse by the entire group, and lastly by the initial reader himself who cites the Aramaic Targum of Onkelos.[22]

The days in which the Parashah was read depended largely upon custom. Some had it as their custom to break down the reading into two days. Among Yemenite Jews, Wednesday mornings were given over to the first half of the Parashah, while Thursday mornings were given to the second half of the Parashah. Others read the entire Parashah on Thursday mornings, while others on Thursday nights.[22]

Onkelos' Aramaic translation of the Five Books of Moses is almost entirely a word-by-word, literal translation of the Hebrew Masoretic Text, with very little supplemental material in the form of aggadic paraphrase.[23][dubious ] However, where there are found difficult biblical passages, Onkelos seeks to minimize ambiguities and obscurities. He sometimes employs non-literal aggadic interpretations or expansions in his translated text, usually in those places where the original Hebrew is marked either by a Hebrew idiom, a homonym, or a metaphor, and could not be readily understood otherwise.

The translator is unique in that he avoids any type of personification, or corporeality, with God, often replacing "human-like" characteristics representing God in the original Hebrew with words that convey a more remote and impersonal sense. For example, "my face" (Heb. panai) is replaced by "from before me" (Exodus 33:23),[24] while "beneath his feet" is replaced by "under his throne of glory" (Exodus 24:10), and "The Lord came down upon Mount Sinai" by "The Lord manifested himself upon Mount Sinai" (Exodus 19:20).[25] Samuel David Luzzatto suggests that the translation was originally meant for the "simple people". This view was strongly rebutted by Nathan Marcus Adler in his introduction to his commentary to Targum Onkelos Netinah La-Ger. He often updates the names of biblical nations, coinage and historical sites to the names known in his own post-biblical era.

In matters of halakha, the targum entirely agrees with Rabbi Akiva's opinions. Some authors suggest that Akiva provided for a revised text of the essential base of Targum Onkelos.[26]

Some of the more notable changes made by Onkelos, in which he attempts to convey the underlying meaning of a verse, rather than its literal translation, are as follows:

^ Ben Maimon, M. (1956). Guide for the Perplexed. Translated by Michael Friedländer (2nd ed.). New York: Dover Publishers. p. 14 (part 1, ch. 2).

^ Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures - The Syriac Version (ed. James Elmer Dean), University of Chicago Press 1935, p. 30, who writes that Aquila of Sinope (known also as Onkelos), who was a relation of Hadrian, had been made the overseer of Jerusalem's rebuilding in around 115 CE.

^ Babylonian Talmud, Megillah 3a

^ Jerusalem Talmud, Megillah 1:9

^ Jastrow, M., ed. (2006), Dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Babli and Yerushalmi, and the Midrashic Literature, Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers, OCLC 614562238, s.v. עקילס. There, he writes: "Aḳilas, Aquila, the alleged translator of the Bible into Greek, frequ. surnamed הַגֵּר, the proselyte, and identified with אונקלוס." Others who hold that Aquilas and Onkelos are names representing the same individual are Moses Margolies, author of P'nei Moshe (Jerusalem Talmud, Demai 6:7); Elijah of Fulda, author of a commentary on the Jerusalem Talmud (Demai 6:7); the author of Korban Ha-Edah (Jerusalem Talmud, Megillah 1:9 [10b]), Heinrich Graetz (Silverstone, A.E., 1931:32); S.D. Luzzatto (Silverstone, A.E., 1931:32), Eliyahu of Vilna (Silverstone, A.E., 1931:34-35), et al. Shmuel Yaffe Ashkenazi, who wrote a commentary on Midrash Rabba, entitled Yafeh To'ar, opined that Aquilas and Onkelos were two separate individuals.

^ Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures - The Syriac Version (ed. James Elmer Dean), University of Chicago Press 1935, pp. 29-32

^ Babylonian Talmud, Megillah 3a; Jerusalem Talmud, Megillah 1:9 [10b]

^ The History and Dating of Onkelos

Philip S. Alexander, "Targum, Targumim", ^ Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. 6, p. 321; Charles Kannengiesser, Handbook of Patristic Exegesis, p. 129

^ Wagner, Stanley M. (2010). "Translation, Midrash and Commentary Through the Eyes of Onkelos" (PDF). Jewish Bible Quarterly. 38 (3): 192.

Christa Müller-Kessler, "The Earliest Evidence for Targum Onqelos from Babylonia and the Question of Its Dialect and Origin," in ^ Journal for the Aramaic Bible 3 (2001), pp. 181-198.

Christa Müller-Kessler, ^ Die Zauberschalentexte der Hilprecht-Sammlung, Jena und weitere Nippur-Texte anderer Sammlungen (= Texte und Materialen der Frau Professor Hilprecht-Collection 7; Wiesbaden, 2005), pp. 12-13, pl. 1.2.

Yehuda Ratzaby, "Ancient Customs of the Yemenite-Jewish Community", in: ^ Ascending the Palm Tree - An Anthology of the Yemenite Jewish Heritage, Rachel Yedid & Danny Bar-Maoz (ed.), E'ele BeTamar: Rehovot 2018, p. 60 OCLC 1041776317

^ Mishnah (Megillah 4:4); Babylonian Talmud (Megillah 3a). In the book She'iltoth by Rav Ahai Gaon (P. Nitzavim § 161), he writes: "And when he reads [from the Torah], a translator must respond [to each verse], and they are to adjust the tone of their voices together [so that they are the same]. But if the translator cannot raise his voice, let the reader [from the Torah] lower his own voice."

^ Zipor, Moshe A. (2009). Rofé, A.; Segal, M.; Talmon, S.; Talshir, Z. (eds.). "The Blessing of the Priests is not Read and Not Translated?". Textus - Studies of the Hebrew University Bible Project. 24. The Hebrew University Magnes Press: 223. OCLC 761216587.; cf. Mishnah (Megillah 4:10)

^ Tsadoḳ, ʻAzriʼel, ed. (1992). ha-Tag' be-kheter Yiśraʼel (in Hebrew). Vol. 1. Bene-Beraḳ: Makhon No'am Yehudit. p. 188. OCLC 1086136740.; Mishnah (Megillah 4:10)

^ Kiara, S. (1972). Ezriel Hildesheimer (ed.). Sefer Halachot Gedolot (in Hebrew). Vol. 1. Jerusalem. p. 474., s.v. הלכות צורכי צבור

^ Zipor, Moshe A. (2009). Rofé, A.; Segal, M.; Talmon, S.; Talshir, Z. (eds.). "The Blessing of the Priests is not Read and Not Translated?". Textus - Studies of the Hebrew University Bible Project. 24. The Hebrew University Magnes Press: 231. OCLC 761216587.

^ Tractate Soferim 7:2

^ Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, Hil. Tefillah 13:25; Tur and Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chaim 285:1, who writes that one should take care to review the entire weekly biblical lection (Parashah) for that particular week, or what is known as shenayim miqra we'ehad targum, (lit. "two scriptural verses and one [verse] from the Targum"), i.e. reading aloud its verses along with its designated Aramaic translation, known as the Targum. Beyond this, Rabbi Joseph Karo does not say how this should be done.

^ Babylonian Talmud (Berakhot 8a-b)

^ Ratzaby, Yitzhak (1996). Shulhan Arukh ha-Mekutzar (Orach Chaim) (in Hebrew). Vol. 2. Benei Barak. p. 9 (item # 13). OCLC 875084492.

Michael L. Klein, "Converse Translation: A Targumic Technique", in: ^ Biblica (1976), vol. 57, no. 4, p. 515

^ Ben Maimon, M. (1956). Guide for the Perplexed. Translated by Michael Friedländer (2nd ed.). New York: Dover Publishers. p. 31 (part 1, ch. 21).

^ Ben Maimon, M. (1956). Guide for the Perplexed. Translated by Michael Friedländer (2nd ed.). New York: Dover Publishers. pp. 35-37 (part 1, chs. 27-28).

^ Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901-1906). "AKIBA BEN JOSEPH". The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls., citing F. Rosenthal, Bet Talmud, ii. 280

The literal words used in the Hebrew text are: "and you shall be like ^ elohim." The word elohim, however, is a Hebrew homonym, having multiple meanings. It can mean either God, angels, judges, potentates (in the sense of "rulers" or "princes"), nobles, and gods (in the lower case). In most English translations of Genesis 3:5 it is rendered as "gods" (in the lower case), and which, according to Onkelos, is a mistranslation and should be translated as "potentates."

Cited by ^ Maimonides in his Guide for the Perplexed, Part 3, chapter 44.

Cf. ^ Philo of Alexandria, The Special Laws ii.1, who wrote that from this verse it is learnt that one should never lightly assay to invoke the name of God.

Rabbi ^ Zechariah Dhahiri said in his commentary Ṣeidah la'derekh (Victuals for the Road) on Genesis 43:16, "For these men shall dine with me baṣa'harayim (בצהרים‎). It has been translated [in Aramaic] בשירותא‎, to instruct that it was not really noon time, but at its end, when he eats during the time of the meal at evening. The proof of which is had at what David said, may peace be upon him, 'Evening and morning and at noon I utter my complaint and moan, and he hears my voice' (Ps. 55:17), which [noon time] is actually during the Afternoon Prayer. Moreover, the Sages have already said that that time is when there is but left in the day an hour and a half [before sunset]. This, then, is the matter, `for these men shall dine with me baṣa'harayim` The words of Onkelos are correct" (END QUOTE). See Ṣeidah la'derekh, published in Taj - Pentateuch, 2 volumes, Hasid Publishers, Jerusalem 1991 (Hebrew) (OCLC 68810829), s.v. Gen. 43:6, copied from Jewish Theological Seminary, Lutzki MS. 931, New York. Written in 1685 (anno 1,996 of the Seleucid Era).

Onkelos' words are explained by the biblical exegete ^ Rashi in his commentary on the same verse, saying that Onkelos' translation is a play on words and that it is an allusion to King David who, at first, was an important personage during the reign of King Saul, in this case compared to a "cub" (Hebrew: גור), hence: "governor" (Aramaic: שלטון), but in the end, he was like unto a "lion" (Hebrew: אריה) when he was anointed king of Israel.

In accordance with a teaching in the ^ Jerusalem Talmud (Nedarim 3:9 [13a]): "Rabban Shimon ben Gamliel said: May God forbid! The angel [of death] did not seek to kill Moses, but rather the infant!" Still, the matter is disputed, some holding that it was Moses, Zipporah's bridegroom, whom the angel of death sought to kill for not performing the circumcision on one of their sons, as relayed in the Palestinian Aramaic Targum.

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Targum Onkelos (or Onqelos; Jewish Babylonian Aramaic: תַּרְגּוּם אֻנְקְלוֹס‎, Targūm 'Unqəlōs) is the primary Jewish Aramaic targum ("translation") of the Torah, accepted as an authoritative translated text of the Five Books of Moses and thought to have been written in the early second century CE.

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Latin Vulgate translation

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The Gutenberg Bible (also known as the 42-line Bible, the Mazarin Bible or the B42) was the earliest major book printed in Europe using mass-produced metal movable type. It marked the start of the " Gutenberg Revolution" and the age of printed books in the West. The book is valued and revered for its high aesthetic and artistic qualities as well as its historical significance. It is an edition of the Latin Vulgate printed in the 1450s by Johannes Gutenberg in Mainz, in present-day Germany. Forty-nine copies (or substantial portions of copies) have survived. They are thought to be among the world's most valuable books, although no complete copy has been sold since 1978. In March 1455, the future Pope Pius II wrote that he had seen pages from the Gutenberg Bible displayed in Frankfurt to promote the edition, and that either 158 or 180 copies had been printed (he cited sources for both numbers).

The 36-line Bible, said to be the second printed Bible, is also sometimes referred to as a Gutenberg Bible, but may be the work of another printer.

The Gutenberg Bible, an edition of the Vulgate, contains the Latin version of the Hebrew Old Testament and the Greek New Testament. It is mainly the work of St Jerome who began his work on the translation in AD 380, with emendations from the Parisian Bible tradition, and further divergences.

While it is unlikely that any of Gutenberg's early publications would bear his name, the initial expense of press equipment and materials and of the work to be done before the Bible was ready for sale suggests that he may have started with more lucrative texts, including several religious documents, a German poem, and some editions of Aelius Donatus's , a popular Latin grammar school book.

Preparation of the Bible probably began soon after 1450, and the first finished copies were available in 1454 or 1455. It is not known exactly how long the Bible took to print. The first precisely datable printing is Gutenberg's 31-line Indulgence which certainly existed by 22 October 1454.

Gutenberg made three significant changes during the printing process.

Spine of the Lenox copy

Some time later, after more sheets had been printed, the number of lines per page was increased from 40 to 42, presumably to save paper. Therefore, pages 1 to 9 and pages 256 to 265, presumably the first ones printed, have 40 lines each. Page 10 has 41, and from there on the 42 lines appear. The increase in line number was achieved by decreasing the interline spacing, rather than increasing the printed area of the page. Finally, the print run was increased, necessitating resetting those pages which had already been printed. The new sheets were all reset to 42 lines per page. Consequently, there are two distinct settings in folios 1-32 and 129-158 of volume I and folios 1-16 and 162 of volume II.

The most reliable information about the Bible's date comes from a letter. In March 1455, the future Pope Pius II wrote that he had seen pages from the Gutenberg Bible, being displayed to promote the edition, in Frankfurt. It is not known how many copies were printed, with the 1455 letter citing sources for both 158 and 180 copies. Scholars today think that examination of surviving copies suggests that somewhere between 160 and 185 copies were printed, with about three-quarters on paper and the others on vellum.

The production process: Das Werk der Bücher

A vellum copy of the Gutenberg Bible owned by the U.S. Library of Congress, on display at the Thomas Jefferson Building in Washington, D.C.

In a legal paper, written after completion of the Bible, Johannes Gutenberg refers to the process as Das Werk der Bücher ("the work of the books"). He had introduced the printing press to Europe and created the technology to make printing with movable types finally efficient enough to facilitate the mass production of entire books.

Many book-lovers have commented on the high standards achieved in the production of the Gutenberg Bible, some describing it as one of the most beautiful books ever printed. The quality of both the ink and other materials and the printing itself have been noted.

The paper size is 'double folio', with two pages printed on each side (four pages per sheet). After printing the paper was folded once to the size of a single page. Typically, five of these folded sheets (ten leaves, or twenty printed pages) were combined to a single physical section, called a quinternion, that could then be bound into a book. Some sections, however, had as few as four leaves or as many as twelve leaves.

The 42-line Bible was printed on the size of paper known as 'Royal'. A full sheet of Royal paper measures 42 x 60 centimetres and a single untrimmed folio leaf measures 42 x 30 cm. There have been attempts to claim that the book was printed on larger paper measuring 44.5 x 30.7 cm, but this assertion is contradicted by the dimensions of existing copies. For example, the leaves of the copy in the Bodleian Library, Oxford, measure 40 × 28.6 cm. This is typical of other folio Bibles printed on Royal paper in the fifteenth century. Most fifteenth-century printing papers have a width-to-height ratio of 1:1.4 (e.g. 30:42 cm) which is mathematically a ratio of 1 to the square root of 2. Many suggest that this ratio was chosen to match the so-called Golden Ratio of 1:1.6; in fact the ratios are not at all similar (a difference of about 12 per cent). The ratio of 1:1.4 was a long established one for medieval paper sizes. A single complete copy of the Gutenberg Bible has 1,288 pages (4×322 = 1288) (usually bound in two volumes); with four pages per folio-sheet, 322 sheets of paper are required per copy. The Bible's paper consists of linen fibers and is thought to have been imported from Caselle in Piedmont, Italy based on the watermarks present throughout the volume.

In Gutenberg's time, inks used by scribes to produce manuscripts were water-based. Gutenberg developed an oil-based ink that would better adhere to his metal type. His ink was primarily carbon, but also had a high metallic content, with copper, lead, and titanium predominating. Head of collections at the British Library, Kristian Jensen, described it thus: "if you look [at the pages of The Gutenberg Bible] closely you will see this is a very shiny surface. When you write you use a water-based ink, you put your pen into it and it runs off. Now if you print that's exactly what you don't want. One of Gutenberg's inventions was an ink which wasn't ink, it's a varnish. So what we call printer's ink is actually a varnish, and that means it sticks to its surface."

Each unique character requires a piece of master type in order to be replicated. Given that each letter has uppercase and lowercase forms, and the number of various punctuation marks and ligatures (e.g. the character " ﬁ", commonly used in writing) the Gutenberg Bible needed a set of 290 master characters. It seems probable that six pages, containing 15,600 characters altogether, would be set at any one moment.

The Gutenberg Bible is printed in the blackletter type styles that would become known as Textualis (Textura) and Schwabacher. The name Textura refers to the texture of the printed page: straight vertical strokes combined with horizontal lines, giving the impression of a woven structure. Gutenberg already used the technique of justification, that is, creating a vertical, not indented, alignment at the left and right-hand sides of the column. To do this, he used various methods, including using characters of narrower widths, adding extra spaces around punctuation, and varying the widths of spaces around words.

Rubrication, illumination and binding

Initially the rubrics-the headings before each book of the Bible-were printed, but this practice was quickly abandoned at an unknown date, and gaps were left for rubrication to be added by hand. A guide of the text to be added to each page, printed for use by rubricators, survives.

The spacious margin allowed illuminated decoration to be added by hand. The amount of decoration presumably depended on how much each buyer could or would pay. Some copies were never decorated. The place of decoration can be known or inferred for about 30 of the surviving copies. It is possible that 13 of these copies received their decoration in Mainz, but others were worked on as far away as London. The vellum Bibles were more expensive, and perhaps for this reason tend to be more highly decorated, although the vellum copy in the British Library is completely undecorated.

There has been speculation that the " Master of the Playing Cards", an unidentified engraver who has been called "the first personality in the history of engraving," was partly responsible for the illumination of the copy held by the Princeton University library. However, all that can be said for certain is that the same model book was used for some of the illustrations in this copy and for some of the Master's illustrated playing cards.

Although many Gutenberg Bibles have been rebound over the years, nine copies retain fifteenth-century bindings. Most of these copies were bound in either Mainz or Erfurt. Most copies were divided into two volumes, the first volume ending with The Book of Psalms. Copies on vellum were heavier and for this reason were sometimes bound in three or four volumes.

The Bible seems to have sold out immediately, with some initial purchases as far away as England and possibly Sweden and Hungary. At least some copies are known to have sold for 30 florins (equivalent to about 100 grams of gold), which was about three years' wages for a clerk. Although this made them significantly cheaper than manuscript Bibles, most students, priests or other people of moderate income would not have been able to afford them. It is assumed that most were sold to monasteries, universities and particularly wealthy individuals. At present only one copy is known to have been privately owned in the fifteenth century. Some are known to have been used for communal readings in monastery refectories; others may have been for display rather than use, and a few were certainly used for study. Kristian Jensen suggests that many copies were bought by wealthy and pious laymen for donation to religious institutions.

The Gutenberg Bible had a profound effect on the history of the printed book. Textually, it also had an influence on future editions of the Bible. It provided the model for several later editions, including the 36 Line Bible, Mentelin's Latin Bible, and the first and third Eggestein Bibles. The third Eggestein Bible was set from the copy of the Gutenberg Bible now in Cambridge University Library. The Gutenberg Bible also had an influence on the Clementine edition of the Vulgate commissioned by the Papacy in the late sixteenth century.

Joseph Martini, a New York book dealer, found that the Gutenberg Bible held by the library of the General Theological Seminary in New York had a forged leaf, carrying part of Chapter 14, all of Chapter 15, and part of Chapter 16 of the Book of Ezekiel. It was impossible to tell when the leaf had been inserted into the volume. It was replaced in the fall of 1953, when a patron donated the corresponding leaf from a defective Gutenberg second volume which was being broken up and sold in parts. This made it "the first imperfect Gutenberg Bible ever restored to completeness." In 1978, this copy was sold for US$2.2 million to the Württembergische Landesbibliothek in Stuttgart, Germany.

Locations of known complete Gutenberg Bibles

As of 2009, 49 Gutenberg Bibles are known to exist, but of these only 21 are complete. Others have pages or even whole volumes missing. In addition, there are a substantial number of fragments, some as small as individual leaves, which are likely to represent about another 16 copies. Many of these fragments have survived because they were used as part of the binding of later books.

Austria (1)

Austrian National Library, Vienna

27

complete

paper

One of only two copies to contain the "tabula rubricarum" (index of rubrics) on four leaves at the end. Obtained from Friedrich Karl Joseph von Erthal in 1793.
Online images (in German)

Belgium (1)

Library of the University of Mons-Hainaut, Mons

1

incomplete

paper

Vol. I, 104 leaves missing, bequeathed by Edmond Puissant to the city of Mons in 1934, but not identified until 1950. Part of the same copy as the volume in Indiana (see below).

17

incomplete

paper

Is distinguished by being inscribed with the earliest date that appears on any copy - 24 August 1456 on the first volume and 15 August 1456 on the second volume, the dates on which the rubricator and binder (Henricus Cremer) completed his work.
Online images of vol. 1

Bibliothèque Mazarine, Paris

16

complete

paper

The first copy to be discovered around 1760 in the Bibliothèque Mazarine (hence the name Mazarin Bible) by Guillaume-François Debure and described in the first volume of his Bibliographie instructive: ou Traite de la connoissance des livres rares et singuliers devoted to theology, which was published in Paris in 1763.
Online images of vol. 1 and vol. 2 (in French)

Bibliothèque Municipale, Saint-Omer

18

incomplete

paper

Vol. I, one missing leaf. Acquired from the Abbey of Saint Bertin.
Online images (in French)

Hochschul- und Landesbibliothek Fulda, Fulda

4

incomplete

vellum

Vol. I. Two individual leaves from Vol. II survive in other libraries.

Göttingen State and University Library, Göttingen

2

complete

vellum

Registered in Unesco's Memory of the World Programme since 2001.
Online images

Bavarian State Library, Munich

5

complete

paper

One of only two copies to contain the "tabula rubricarum" (index of rubrics) on four leaves at the end.
Online images of vol. 1 and vol. 2 (in German)

Württembergische Landesbibliothek, Stuttgart

10

incomplete

paper

Purchased in April 1978 for US$2.2 million from the General Theological Seminary.
Online images

Japan (1)

Keio University Library, Tokyo

incomplete

paper

Originally part of the Estelle Doheny bequest to St. John's Seminary in Camarillo, California. Vol. I, sold in October 1987 to Maruzen booksellers for US$4.9 million (plus an auction house commission of $490,000) for a total of $5.4 million. Purchased by Keio University in 1996.
Online images

Poland (1)

Diocesan Museum in Pelplin

28

incomplete

paper

It has a blot on page 46 and it lacks a page 217 in Volume Two.

Portugal (1)

Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal, Lisbon

29

complete

paper

Formerly owned by Cardinal Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne.
Online images.

Russian State Library, Moscow

48

incomplete

vellum

Acquired in 1886 by the German Museum of Books and Writing, Leipzig, as part of the book collection of Heinrich Klemm. At the end of World War II, it was taken as war booty and transferred to the Russian State Library in Moscow, where it remains today.

Spain (2)

Biblioteca Universitaria y Provincial, Seville

32

incomplete

paper

New Testament only
Online images (in Spanish)

Eton College Library, Eton College

23

complete

paper

Printed in Mainz with the original 15th Century Erfurt binding, stamped calfskin, signed by Johannes Vogel. Donated by John Fuller (1757-1834). Belonged in the 15th century to the Carthusians at Erfurt. Only copy to retain the original binding in both volumes and is complete. Also the only copy with the original binding to be signed with the binders mark. Illuminated copy, probably in Erfurt.

John Rylands Library, Manchester

25

complete

paper

Acquired for £80 by George Spencer, 2nd Earl Spencer some time before 1814, Enriqueta Augustina Rylands bought it in 1892 for the John Rylands Library.
Online images of 11 pages

Henry E. Huntington Library, San Marino, California

36

incomplete

vellum

Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center, University of Texas at Austin

39

complete

paper

Purchased in 1978 for US$2.4 million.
Online images

Binding of the copy at the University of Texas at Austin

Today, few copies remain in religious institutions, with most now owned by university libraries and other major scholarly institutions. After centuries in which all copies seem to have remained in Europe, the first Gutenberg Bible reached North America in 1847. It is now in the New York Public Library. In the last hundred years, several long-lost copies have come to light, considerably improving the understanding of how the Bible was produced and distributed.

In 1921 a New York rare book dealer, Gabriel Wells, bought a damaged paper copy, dismantled the book and sold sections and individual leaves to book collectors and libraries. The leaves were sold in a portfolio case with an essay written by A. Edward Newton, and were referred to as "Noble Fragments". In 1953 Charles Scribner's Sons, also book dealers in New York, dismembered a paper copy of volume II. The largest portion of this, the New Testament, is now owned by Indiana University. The matching first volume of this copy was subsequently discovered in Mons, Belgium.

The only copy held outside Europe or North America is the first volume of a Gutenberg Bible (Hubay 45) at Keio University in Tokyo. The Humanities Media Interface Project (HUMI) at Keio University is known for its high-quality digital images of Gutenberg Bibles and other rare books. Under the direction of Professor Toshiyuki Takamiya, the HUMI team has made digital reproductions of 11 sets of the bible in nine institutions, including both full-text facsimiles held in the collection of the British Library.

The last sale of a complete Gutenberg Bible took place in 1978, which sold for $2.4 million. This copy is now in Austin, Texas. The price of a complete copy today is estimated at $25−35 million.

A two-volume paper edition of the Gutenberg Bible was stolen from Moscow State University in 2009 and subsequently recovered in an FSB sting operation in 2013.

Possession of a Gutenberg Bible by a library has been equated to keeping a "trophy book".

Niels Henry Sonne. America's Oldest Episcopal Seminary Library and the Needs It Serves. New York?: General Theological Seminary, 1953.

St. Mark's Library (General Theological Seminary). The Gutenberg Bible of the General Theological Seminary. New York: St. Mark's Library, the General Theological Seminary, 1963.

The Gutenberg Bible of 1454, Göttingen Library, Facsimile Edition, 2 vols + booklet, ed. Stephan Füssel, 1400 pp. Taschen: Cologne. In Latin

MSNBC: In the book world, the rarest of the rare

^ Klooster, John W. (2009). Icons of invention : the makers of the modern world from Gutenberg to Gates. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-34744-3. OCLC 647903993.

^ White, Eric Marshall (2002). "Long Lost Leaves from Gutenberg's Mons-Trier II Bible". Gutenberg Jahrbuch. 77: 19-36.

Paul Needham, 'Format and Paper Size in Fifteenth-century Printing', In: ^ Materielle Aspekte in der Inkunabelforschung, Wiesbaden, 2017, pp. 59-108: p. 83.

Man, John (2002). ^ Gutenberg: How One Man Remade the World with Words, New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-21823-5.

Paul Needham, 'Format and Paper Size in Fifteenth-century Printing', In: ^ Materielle Aspekte in der Inkunabelforschung, Wiesbaden, 2017, p. 83.

Neil Harris, 'The Shape of Paper', subsection 'Sheet-size and the Bologna Stone', in: ^ Paper and Watermarks as Bibliographical Evidence, Lyon, Institut d'histoire du livre, 2017, http://ihl.enssib.fr/en/paper-and-watermarks-as-bibliographical-evidence Archived 2018-08-26 at the Wayback Machine.

^ BBC Radio 4 programme "Gutenberg: In the Beginning Was the Printer", first broadcast 21-10-2014

^ Television presentation, "The Machine that Made Us", presenter: Stephen Fry

Estes, Richard (2005). The 550th Anniversary Pictorial Census of the Gutenberg Bible. Gutenberg Research Center. p. 151.

^ Shestack, Alan (1967). Fifteenth Century Engravings of Northern Europe. National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC. LCCN 67029080.

^ van Buren, Anne H.; Edmunds, Sheila (March 1974). "Playing Cards and Manuscripts: Some Widely Disseminated Fifteenth Century Model Sheets". The Art Bulletin. 56 (1): 12-30. doi:10.1080/00043079.1974.10789835. ISSN 0004-3079. JSTOR 3049193.

^ Needham, Paul (1999). "The Changing Shape of the Vulgate Bible in Fifteenth-Century Printing Shops". In Saenger, Paul; Van Kampen, Kimberly (eds.). The Bible as Book:the First Printed Editions. British Library. pp. 53-70. ISBN 0-7123-4601-5.

St. Mark's Library (General Theological Seminary). The Gutenberg Bible of the General Theological Seminary. New York: St. Mark's Library, the General Theological Seminary, 1963.

^ "ISTC (Incunabula Shorttitle Catalogue)". AMPLE. Consortium of European Research Libraries. June 5, 2018. Archived from the original on June 5, 2018.

^ "Vor ungefähr 600 Jahren wurde Gutenberg geboren. Mainz ehrt ihn auf verschiedene Weisen: Heute für Stielaugen". Berliner Zeitung. 18 April 2000.

^ White, Eric Marshall; Rosenstein, Natalee; Travis, Trysh; Adams, Peter W.; Baensch, Robert E. (2003). "Book reviews". Publishing Research Quarterly. 19 (2): 65-72. doi:10.1007/s12109-003-0009-3. ISSN 1053-8801. S2CID 189906589.

^ "German Museum of Books and Writing "Signs - Books - Networks"". Archived from the original on 21 April 2016.

^ Christopher Morley; Ken Kalfus; Walter Jack Duncan (January 1990). Christopher Morley's Philadelphia. Fordham Univ Press. pp. 76-. ISBN 978-0-8232-1270-5.

^ Hetzer, Armin (1996). Translated from German and Russian by Gregory Walker. "'The Return from the States of the Former Soviet Union of Cultural Property Removed in the 1940s' as a Bibliographical Undertaking". Solanus. 10. ISSN 0038-0903 - via Internet Archive. The 'trophy' books fulfilled a threefold function. A part of them consisted of trophies in the stricter sense, for example the Gutenberg Bible now held in the Russian State Library (formerly the Lenin Library). Such books are not put to use for practical purposes: they are simply objects of beauty. Another part was ... [p. 17]

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The Gutenberg Bible (also known as the 42-line Bible, the Mazarin Bible or the B42) was the earliest major book printed in Europe using mass-produced metal movable type. It marked the start of the " Gutenberg Revolution" and the age of printed books in the West.

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עוד ביטויים: מתוך אתר ניבים וביטויים מהתנכ

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עוד ביטויים: מתוך אתר ניבים וביטויים מהתנכ

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רחב ידיים

קל רגליים

שם נפשו בכפו

שלח יד

אוזלת יד

תאווה לעיניים

תקע כף

תחזקנה ידיך

שרירות לב

אטם אוזנו

אמר אל ליבו

אמיץ לב

גילה את אזנו

דבקה לשונות לחיכו

דבש וחלב תחת לשונו

דמו בראשו

דמעות שליש

העלים עין

יד לפה

כבד פה וכבד לשון

כליון עיניים

לב אבן

מבטן ומלידה

מוות וחיים ביד הלשון

מעשה ידי אדם

נתן בכוס עינו

על אפו ועל חמתו

פיק ברכיים

שפתיים ישק

שרירות לב

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עד מאה ועשרים 

# data[].attributes.subject
עד מאה ועשרים 

# data[].attributes.body
וּמֹשֶׁה בֶּן־מֵאָה וְעֶשְׂרִים שָׁנָה בְּמֹתוֹ; לֹא־כָהֲתָה עֵינוֹ וְלֹא־נָס לֵחֹה (דברים לד, ז)

# data[].attributes.headline
 מגדול ועד קטן (אסתר א, כ)

# data[].attributes.subject
 מגדול ועד קטן (אסתר א, כ)

# data[].attributes.body
קרי: כל שכבות העם

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לא טוב היות האדם לבדו (בראשית ב, יח)

# data[].attributes.subject
לא טוב היות האדם לבדו (בראשית ב, יח)

# data[].attributes.body
יש שיר על פי מילים של נתן זך

וַיֹּאמֶר יְהוָה אֱלֹהִים לֹא טוֹב הֱיוֹת הָאָדָם לְבַדּוֹ אֶעֱשֶׂה לּוֹ עֵזֶר כְּנֶגְדּוֹ

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טוב שכן קרוב מאח רחוק (משלי כז, י)

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טוב שכן קרוב מאח רחוק (משלי כז, י)

# data[].attributes.headline
לך בכוחך זה (שופטים ו, יד)

# data[].attributes.subject
לך בכוחך זה (שופטים ו, יד)

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וַיִּפֶן אֵלָיו יְהוָה וַיֹּאמֶר לֵךְ בְּכֹחֲךָ זֶה וְהוֹשַׁעְתָּ אֶת יִשְׂרָאֵל מִכַּף מִדְיָן הֲלֹא שְׁלַחְתִּיךָ (ה' אל גדעון)

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ולא נודע כי בא אל קירבה (בראשית מא, כא)

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ולא נודע כי בא אל קירבה (בראשית מא, כא)

# data[].attributes.body
ויש גם שיר של שלמה גרוניך הם המשפט הזה

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ואהבת לרעך כמוך (ויקרא יט, יח)

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ואהבת לרעך כמוך (ויקרא יט, יח)

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לֹא תִקֹּם וְלֹא תִטֹּר אֶת בְּנֵי עַמֶּךָ וְאָהַבְתָּ לְרֵעֲךָ כָּמוֹךָ אֲנִי יְהוָה

# data[].attributes.headline
ניבים וביטויים מהתנכ

# data[].attributes.subject
ניבים וביטויים מהתנכ

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קטגוריה:ניבים, ביטויים ופתגמים מהתנ"ך - ויקימילון

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ארץ זבת חלב ודבש

# data[].attributes.subject
ארץ זבת חלב ודבש

# data[].attributes.body
שמות ג, ח

דברים כו, ט

יחזקאל כ, ו

# data[].attributes.headline
אין כל חדש תחת השמש (קהלת א, ט)

# data[].attributes.subject
אין כל חדש תחת השמש (קהלת א, ט)

# data[].attributes.headline
באו מים עד נפש (תהילים סט, ב)

# data[].attributes.subject
באו מים עד נפש (תהילים סט, ב)

# data[].attributes.body
המצב בלתי נסבל עד לסכנת חיים ממש

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אורים ותומים 

# data[].attributes.subject
אורים ותומים 

# data[].attributes.body
שמות כח, ל

נחמיה ז, סה

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האדם יראה לעיניים וה' יראה ללבב (שמואל א, טז, ז)

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האדם יראה לעיניים וה' יראה ללבב (שמואל א, טז, ז)

# data[].attributes.headline
אבנים שחקו מים (איוב יד, יט)

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אבנים שחקו מים (איוב יד, יט)

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משמעות: אין דבר העומד בפני הרצון וההתמדה.

דקדוקית: מבנה תחבירי חריג: מושא-פועל-נושא (קרי: מים שחקו אבנים)

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צדק צדק תרדוף (דברים טז, כ)

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צדק צדק תרדוף (דברים טז, כ)

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לא זו הדרך ולא זו העיר

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לא זו הדרך ולא זו העיר

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לא זו הדרך ולא זו העיר (מלכים ב ו:יט)

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ציר זמן עם כל ספר וספר מסומן

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ציר זמן עם כל ספר וספר מסומן

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היתרון שבציר זמן דלעיל הוא שכל ספר וספר מופיע מפאת עצמו ולא מחוטב בתוך חטיבה יותר גדולה וכוללנית.

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BibleGateway.com: A searchable online Bible in over 150 versions and 50 languages.

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Read, hear, and study Scripture at the world’s most-visited Christian website. Grow your faith with devotionals, Bible reading plans, and mobile apps.

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1- האם להוסיף שספר משלי מיוחס לשלמה המלך.

2- האם להוסיף שספר איוב מיוחס לתקופת בית שני? יש המיחסים לתקופת ספר בראשית?

3- האם להוסיף שכתיבת התורה מיוחסת למשה.

4- שיר השלום - כתוב בזמנו של שלמה האם להוסיף שכתיבה מיוחסת לשלמה.

5- איכה - להוסיף שמתיחס לחורבן בית ראשון.

6- קהלת - האם להוסיף מיוחס לשלמה. כתוב רק לבנו של דוד.

7- אסתר - האם להוסיף: העלילה מתרחשת בפרס לאחר חורבן בית ראשון והגלות.

8 - דניאל - שבוי בבבל, לאחר חורבן בית ראשון.

9 - עזרא ונחמיה - בעקבות הצהרת כורש ובאפוטרופסות וגיבוי הממלכה הפרסית.

10 - הוספת הביטוי: 12 השבטים.

11- מלכים: להוסיף חורבן בית ראשון ע"י הבבלים.

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The books of the Bible: names, meanings, remembering hints

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The books of the Bible: names, meanings, remembering hints

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עמיר בניון - פרק א'

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על השפעת תרגומי התנ"ך על התפתחות האנגלית

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על השפעת תרגומי התנ"ך על התפתחות האנגלית

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רשימה של ביטויים שמקורם בKJV ניתן למצוא בעמ' 8-9.

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Zoom is the leader in modern enterprise video communications, with an easy, reliable cloud platform for video and audio conferencing, chat, and webinars across mobile, desktop, and room systems. Zoom Rooms is the original software-based conference room solution used around the world in board, conference, huddle, and training rooms, as well as executive offices and classrooms. Founded in 2011, Zoom helps businesses and organizations bring their teams together in a frictionless environment to get more done.

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שירים מגוונים

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שירים מגוונים

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משום מה ישנם הרבה שירים (יחסית) המבוססים על פסוקים או נרטיבים מספר עמוס:

1) "על שלשה פשעי דמשק", ההמנון של ותיקי גולני.

2) "חוזה לך ברח", אושיק לוי. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SJERiP0P8ms

אציין שישנם שירים רבים הקשורים לימי מלחמה בקטגוריה הזו (כמו "על שלשה פשעי דמשק") - למשל "מדרום תפתח הטובה" (הפך של "מצפון תפתח הרעה" בנבואת ירמיהו הראשונה.) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SJERiP0P8ms

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OldIsraeliSongs משירי ארץ ישראל הישנה והטובה

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צוות הווי גולני - על שלושה פשעי דמשק

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תרגומים מועדפים לתנכ לאנגלית

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תרגומים מועדפים לתנכ לאנגלית

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JPS= Jewish Publication Society

NRSV= New Revised Standard Version (builds on King James)

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שלומי: השפעת העברית על האנגלית

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שלומי: השפעת העברית על האנגלית

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פני האדמה -- face of the earth

להסביר כשאנחנו מלמדים את המילה פנים

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שמע

שמע ישראל ה' אלהינו ה' אחד

אפשרויות תרגום שונות למילה - שמע

כולל רבדים שונים: ליטרלי ומטאפורי

להביא דוגמאות תרגום שונות

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הנה מה טוב ומה נעים

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הנה מה טוב ומה נעים

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בראשית היו שמים / גבי שושן

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בראשית היו שמים / גבי שושן

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גבי שושן - בראשית "2011"

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מערכת שלמה של מילונים,

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מערכת שלמה של מילונים, קונקורדנציות, והכל עם קישורים

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נא להתחבר לחשבונכם

עבור תכונה זו, צריכים להיות מחוברים לחשבון משתמש.

אם יש לכם חשבון באתר על־התורה, אנא היכנסו לחשבונכם.

אם עדיין אין לכם חשבון באתר על־התורה, אנא הירשמו.

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Study Tanakh with all your chosen commentaries on one page.

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Johannes Gutenberg printed about 180 copies of the Bible in Latin on both paper and vellum around 1455.

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The Gutenberg Bible has been on display in a large bronze and glass case at the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library since 1963. At almost 600 years old, its typeface and illustrations are still vibrant, and the pages remain flexible, in no small part, because of the consistent care the Bible receives from Yale Library conservators.

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Sefaria: a Living Library of Jewish Texts Online

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The largest free library of Jewish texts available to read online in Hebrew and English including Torah, Tanakh, Talmud, Mishnah, Midrash, commentaries and more.

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Get Study Material Sponsors & Donors Member's site Talmud by the Daf Talmud by Maseches Chumash Nevi'im & Kesuvim Haftarah Highlights Yerushalmi Mishnah Halachah Mishnah Berurah Orders Dafyomi Central Kollel Iyun Hadaf Feedback Ask a Question

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זה אב.

אב ואם פה.

זה עץ ושם הר.

בן קם.

בנימין קם ושר.

אין ים פה, יש ים שם.

מי זה? אברהם או יצחק? זה אברהם! זה לא יצחק.

יעקב מת, יוסף חי.

יד על פה.

יד על לב.

יד על אף.

מה זה? זה גן עם עץ.

יש גן בין הר ובין ים.

זה אף וזה פה.

מה יש פה? יש פה אש.

בן שר עם בת.

זה אח לא טוב! זה אח רע.

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This is the way of writing in modern Hebrew

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This is the way of writing in modern Hebrew