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Both the Northern and Italian Renaissance took place in the midst of political and religious upheaval. As divisions were established surrounding the Christian faith the role of art shifted introducing new influences across the regions. For Italy, the sixteenth century was a time of large-scale economic growth and literacy with the introduction of the printing press. However, disputes ignited when the Church’s beliefs and practices began to be questioned by a group of European reformers known as, Protestants. Stokstad and Cothren write, “religious reformers within the established Church challenged its beliefs and practices, especially Julius II’s sale of indulgences promising forgiveness of sins and assurance of salvation in exchange for a financial contribution to the Church.” Early disagreements would lay the foundations for the two regions' artistic tastes and practices. Reformation’s rejection of the Church’s practices caused Pope Paul III to issue the Council of Trent in 1542 limiting, “what could be represented in Christian art and led to the destruction of some works. Traditional images of Christ and the saints were approved, but art was examined closely for traces of heresy and profanity” (Stokstad and Cothren). Simultaneously, members of the Society of Jesus saw art as a tool of propaganda, focusing their viewers on Christ, Christian values, and education, sparking the rise of the Counter-Reformation. Disputes regarding politics and religion directly impacted the lives of artists. Some lost their steady income from patrons due to religious divides and others found their pieces being destroyed, ridding the environment of  “idols.” Others in the North, abandoned religious composition together, seeking stability in secular paintings of portraits, landscapes, or still lives.

The North’s refusal of the Church’s doctrines finds its way into their art and distinctive qualities. There was a desire to display the beauty of humanness and an emphasis on realism. Providing the space for secular paintings allows artists to identify the importance of their presence in the artistic process. These individuals are no longer seen as lowly laborers but instead as intellectual peers, rewarded for their ingenuity. Elements of the artist find their way into pieces with self-portraits, writing, or symbolism. Other influences include changes in patrons, no longer being excluded by religious authority, and instead relying on the elite. Portraits and scenes of the elite were often done in oil on wood, the popular medium of the region because it allowed for an intricate slow drying process that granted time for highly detailed pieces. Northern art’s focus on humanism separated its work from the classical style of Italy, concentrating on the importance of life observation and honest depictions.

The art of Italy during the 16th century sought to reinvigorate or provide “spiritual refreshment” as stated in the Titian module, its relationship with the Christian faith and the Classics. Biblical stories were still popular and heavenly scenes were commonly depicted with an idealized gaze. Other subject matter including Greco-Roman myths can be seen in the Mannerist style with, highly imaginative scenes filled with contorted bodies and shallow backgrounds. One of the most important breakthroughs in this era of art is understanding linear perspective. One-point linear perspective allowed artists to expand the illusionary quality of their pieces into the background. Images that once felt flat now stretched back infinitely and objects could lay in space appropriately.

Both Northern and Italian art produced beautiful work that displayed emotionally rich landscapes, stories, and portraits. While advancements in technology, economics, and literacy deeply benefitted both regions in their artistic expansion challenges in politics and religion tested the two territories to the limit. The role of education would forever alter the landscape of European art, encouraging the public to engage in civic debate and stay proactive in social consciousness.

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Leonardo da Vinci, "Mona Lisa," 1503-1506, oil on wood panel

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When discussing the sixteenth-century Italian Renaissance it’s hard not to include Leonardo da Vinci, an artist considered to be a “genius” of his time. This early Renaissance portrait’s portrayal of Mona Lisa shocked its viewers during this time. The choice to include a female portrait who gazes at her audience while adorned in slightly revealing clothing for her time was uncharacteristic for its time. Additionally, the cloudy naturalistic background paired with the unconventional portrait lays the foundation for the rest of the century’s artistic style. The rusty color palette combined with the sfumato background ultimately creates an eerie portrait that even today we question the story that accompanies the piece.

*Image courtesy of the Louvre Museum

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Bronzino, "Allegory with Venus and Cupid," 1545, oil on panel

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Bronzino’s “Allegory with Venus and Cupid,” demonstrates the highly dramatized and contortionist qualities of the Mannerist style. Similar to Jan van der Straet’s “La Vanité, la Modération, et la Mort” this piece includes turbulent composition with masks strewn throughout the foreground, figures contorted in anguish in the background, and various animals seeking refuge wherever they can find space. Bronzino’s piece is a perfect example of what the textbook describes as a desire to move away from, “artificiality, grace, and elegance” and adopt, “the ordered balance and lifelike references that were hallmarks of High Renaissance art.” Here we see a stark difference from the organized scenes of paintings of fourteenth-century renaissance art. Movement and disruption are welcomed and leave audiences captivated by the scenes before them.

*Image courtesy of Pearson

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Jacopo Zanguidi, "Venus led by Cupid towards dead Adonis," 1569, oil on canvas

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Zanguidi’s "Venus led by Cupid towards dead Adonis" is a prime example of the High Renaissance of the sixteenth century. Choices in subject matter, compassion, and techniques illustrate a transition from previous artistic styles. The detailed depiction of Cupid and Adonis pairs with Stokstad and Cothren's description of the style as, “a sense of gravity and decorum, a complex but ordered relationship of individual parts to the whole, and an emulation of principles artists saw in ancient Classical art.” The image shies away from the popular subject matter of biblical text that ran supreme previously. Instead, we see a return to the classics, referring to ancient stories of gods and goddesses. Like Leonardo Da Vinci’s Mona Lisa, we see the use of Sfumato and Chiaroscuro throughout the piece’s background, a characteristic adopted by the High Renaissance. The combination creates a “dream vs. nightmare” quality dividing the space between Venus and Adonis.

*Image courtesy of the Louvre Museum

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Jan van der Straet, "La Vanité, la Modération (ou la Modestie) et la Mort," 1569, Oil on wood

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“La Vanité, la Modération, et la Mort” by Jan van der Straet (aka Giovanni Stradano) is another piece that demonstrates the rise of humanist qualities in art. With the fall of Rome in 1527, we see a struggle in artistic circles and larger social circles for the combination of Christian piety and a return to classical humanism. Like Zanguidi’s “Venus led by Cupid towards dead Adonis,” van der Straet utilizes many popular High Renaissance techniques including Sfumato and Chiaroscuro. However, this piece also includes the contrapposto with Vanity leaning against Moderation. I think the detailed quality of both the foreground and background is what really makes this stand out as a High Renaissance to me. Death looming in the back and the scattering of jewels on the ground creates drama and storytelling for viewers to look at.

*Image courtesy of the Louvre Museum

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Caravaggio, "The Musicians," 1597, Oil on canvas

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Caravaggio’s, “The Musicians,” chooses not to blatantly depict religious figures or classical texts. However, Caravaggio does opt to include a self-portrait with the figure staring directly at the viewer in the back (MET Museum). Like Jan van Eyck’s, “Arnolfini Portrait,” his presence within the piece signifies a change in the status of artists. Artists are no longer being seen as lowly laborers or artistic vessels for god. Instead, their artistry is seen as a noble talent worthy of fame and recognition. The inclusion of Caravaggio’s face in the piece demonstrates an importance of “the artist” and a desire to forever immortalize both their art and themselves.

*Image courtesy of MET Museum

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Albrecht Dürer, "The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse," 1497-1498, Woodcut

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Dürer’s use of woodcuts in his art represented the changes in technology during his time. The invention of the printing press in the North caused a rise in printmaking across the area. The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse illustrates the story from the book of Revelation. Biblical imagery still remained popular in this region’s art scene, drawing on desires to replicate Christ-like self-images and connecting the beauty of the natural world to the heavens. I think Dürer’s print demonstrates the evolution of Gothic art influences (focus on human-ness, nature, and beauty) and return to religious imagery.

*Image courtesy of Pearson

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Jan Gossaert, "Carondelet Diptych: Portrait of Jean Carondelet," 1517, Oil on wood

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Flemish painter, Jan Gossaert, connects the bridge between Italian and Northern art. During his youth he spent time in Italy, later combining both the Italian and Northern art styles. Although the portrait does not derive from a biblical story I think it is the desire to replicate Christ and his image. The patron, Jean Carondelet is seen praying Virgin Mary. Like Dürer’s, “The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse” there is a continuation of the biblical imagery we saw in the fourteenth century but elevated with new art practices. Although I couldn’t find any clear transcriptions of what is included on the back of the Diptych, I think the ornamentation of both sides of the piece shows that this piece is not solely for religious purposes but for decoration and personal enjoyment as well.

*Image courtesy of the Louvre Museum

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Grégoire Guérard, "Saint George slaying the dragon," 1520, Oil on panel

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Guérard’s Saint George slaying the dragon illustrates a martyr that will eventually die for his Christian faith. The subject matter of the painting foreshadows the legacy of the violent bloodshed to sweep through France during the mid-1500s. The fight for dominance between Catholics and Huguenots will end with Henry IV’s signing of the Edict of Nantes in 1598, proclaiming tolerance for Protestants (Stokstad and Cothren). The milky quality of Guérard’s oil paints suggests a stone quality similar to sculpture. I think it’s important that this painting opts to shy away from the rich color palettes we’ve seen in pieces like Bronzino’s “Allegory with Venus and Cupid.” Although the piece commemorates a saint, a holy figure, there are no gold or rich reds to draw attention to his importance. The subtlety of the image and its story shows a rejection of boastfulness and an appreciation for humility.

*Image courtesy of the Louvre Museum

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Pieter Bruegel the elder, "The Harvesters, 1565, Oil on wood panel

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Bruegel’s “The Harvesters” is a model example of the focus on the natural world in sixteenth-century Northern art. In this piece, the never-ending fields of wheat become the centerpiece while the harvesters sit as decorative additions. The painting’s landscape seems to stretch out forever leading viewers to find themselves leaning into the piece, as though it will allow them to see further into the oil painting. Bruegel depicts the beauty in mundanity as opposed to extravagance we see in "La Vanité, la Modération, et la Mort.” Instead, depicting manual laborers in the midst of escaping the sun, taking a moment to slow down which he may have been asking his audience to do the same.

*Image courtesy of Pearson

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Otto van Veen, "Portrait of Otto van Veen at his easel, surrounded by his family," 1584, Oil on canvas

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Similar to Caravaggio’s “The Musicians,” Otto van Veen’s portrait highlights the significance of the artist and his craft, placing himself at the center of his own piece. The Protestant Reformation of the 1500s resulted in a large conflict between religion and art. While Italy moved towards classical images, the North looked to isolate itself from these practices. In some regions, religious images were destroyed and patronage from religious spheres was lost resulting in a shift to secular themes and portraiture. Both the portrait and makeshift family portrait written on the two objects on the bottom corners commemorate the painter’s legacy behind him and for the future.

*Image courtesy of the Louvre Museum

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Bertoja, Jacopo Zanguidi, and Italie. “Vénus Conduite Par L'Amour Vers Adonis Mort.” Musée Du Louvre, 2 Jan. 2023, https://collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010065048.

Caravaggio. “The Musicians.” Metmuseum.org, https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/435844?deptids=11&%3Bwhen=A.D.%2B1400-1600&%3Bwhere=Italy&%3Bao=on&%3Bft=%2A&%3Boffset=120&%3Brpp=40&%3Bpos=127.

Champagne, France, and Grégoire Guérard. “Saint Georges Terrassant Le Dragon.” Musée Du Louvre, 17 Dec. 2022, https://collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010057745.

Gand, Lizzy, Titian, 2022, Accessed 1 Jan. 2023.

Gossaert, Jan, and Pays-Bas. “Diptyque Carondelet : Portrait De Jean Carondelet.” Musée Du Louvre, 17 Dec. 2022, https://collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010061778.

Straet, Jan van der, and Pays-Bas du Sud. “La Vanité, La Modération (Ou La Modestie) Et La Mort.” Musée Du Louvre, 17 Dec. 2022, https://collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010059881.

Stokstad, Marilyn, and Michael Cothren. Art: A Brief History, Rental Edition. PEARSON, 2019.

Veen, Otto van, and Pays-Bas. “Portrait D'otto Van Veen à Son Chevalet, Entouré Des Siens.” Musée Du Louvre, 17 Dec. 2022, https://collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010061941.