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Illocutionary type: Question

Illocution: Requesting A to provide further explanation for their assertion that the man is gay

Nonexplicit: does not use a performative verb

Direct: Question/interrogative, locution and illocutionary form match

Literal: asking a question

Expressed: intention is to have A provide an explanation, from a genuine position of wanting to understand.

But also, a possibility of it being Implied:

B may already disagree with A. A used the word "disgusting" on the gay person, so B could be casting judgement on what they believe to be an inappropriate comment. They may be implying that they strongly disagree with A's assertion, and flout the Maxim of Quantity in asking a question instead to sound more polite, rather than outright disagreeing with A.

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The illocution of B’s second utterance might have been to tell A that his explanation for why he thinks the guy is gay is not valid, and the illocutionary type is representative.

This utterance was

non-explicit (no performative verb)

indirect (illocutionary type (representative) does not match the locutionary type (expected - declarative, actual - interrogative))

implied (inference necessary)

non-literal (B heard the answer the first time)

The effect is that A is able to deduce additional meaning from B's words (since the speech act is implied and non-literal): B is passive-aggressively telling A that he does not agree with his reasoning behind thinking that the guy is gay.

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a). Presupposition because if S'pore's mainstream media must not continue to be "responsible and balanced" in handling LGBT topics, then it must still be true that S'pore's mainstream media has been "responsible and balanced".

b). B can be happy to serve on the committee does not necessarily mean that he would be able to serve, hence it flouted the relation maxim as a result generating an implicature that he is able to serve on the committee

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a) Does B’s first utterance violate any of Grice’s maxims? If so, what is a possible implicature?

- Relation. B’s first utterance is not clearly answering A’s yes/no question.

- Quantity: B is not answering A’s question in an informative way

- B implies that being gay does not make one disgusting. It is also possible that B does think the other man is disgusting but does not believe that being gay links to this.

b) Does B’s second utterance violate any of Grice’s maxims? If so, what is a possible implicature?

Manner: B is intentionally being vague and repeating his initial question

- B could be implying that the man’s manner of dressing does not define his sexuality.

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(a) (i)
- Students cook meals and serve the meals to their grandparents.
- Students cook their grandparents as ingredients and serve the grandparents as food.
- Students cook meals and serve their grandparents in other ways.
[(?) Students cook meals and serve somebody's grandparents, ambiguous as to whose].

(ii) Both structurally and lexically ambiguous.
Structural: "and" can be linked with both "cook" and "serve" or separately.
Lexically: "serve": (Old French servir -- set table, serve at table VS Latin servire -- to be in service, devoted)

(iii) polysemy -- similarity in providing service.

(b) (i)
- Stadium's air conditioning does not work, sports fans who visit the stadium protest.
- Stadium's air conditioning does not work, electircal fan system is failing.
- Stadium's air conditioning does not work, encourages the ongoing protest. (structural where N V vs VP of V N)

(ii) Lexical.
Lexical: "fans" (American English, shortening of 'fanatic' -- devotee VS Old English fann, West Saxon -- device to make an air current).

(iii) homonymy

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a)

Possible interpretations:
1. There are untrue claims in advertisements that people are paying too much for power.
2. Advertisements are featuring individuals who claim they are overpaying for power
3. There are advertisements claiming that people are falsely stating that they overpay for power.
4. The claims in EMA's ads about people overpaying for power are false

Causes of ambiguity:
1. Structural ambiguity
2. Lexical ambiguity
--> claims: money vs statements
--> power: electrical VS authority

b)
Possible interpretations: (see table above)

Causes for ambiguity:
1. lexical ambiguity

1. Who: could refer to father or could refer to the S’pore teen

2. He: could refer to father or could refer to the S’pore teen

3. His: could refer the father, the Carousell buyer, or the S’pore teen

2. Structural ambiguity

Shifting reference - Relationship between ambiguous words

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a) L.A. voters approve urban renewal by landslide: The word "landslide" is lexically ambiguous, it is a polyseme.

Interpretation 1: L.A. voters approved urban renewal by way of a sliding mass of earth.

Interpretation 2: L.A. voters approved urban renewal with a huge majority.

Interpretation 3: L.A. voters approved urban renewal near a landslide (the renewal happens near a landslide)

Interpretation 4: L.A. voters approved urban renewal near a landslide (the vote happened near a landslide)

b) Biden and Macron hold phone call over Taiwan: The words "hold" and "over" are lexically ambiguous:
- "hold" is a homonym, homophone, and a homograph.
- "over" is a homonym, homophone, and a homograph.

Interpretation 1: Biden and Macron had a phone call regarding Taiwan.

Interpretation 2: Biden and Macron had a phone call while above Taiwan.

Interpretation 3: Biden and Macron put a phone call regarding Taiwan on hold.

Interpretation 4: Biden and Macron put a phone call on hold while above Taiwan.

Interpretation 5: Biden and Macron used a phone call to threaten Taiwan.

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4a) “The President of the United States” and “Trump’s successor”. Both refer to the same object in the real world which in this case is the American politician with the birth name of Joseph Robinette Biden Jr. However, the former evokes the mental image of the current head of state and head of government of the United States, while the latter evokes the mental image of the person named Joe Biden.

OR

·       The tallest building in the world and the largest building in the world

o   Same extension: both refer to Burj Khalifa

o   Different intensions: the tallest building in the world: means its built to be the highest, largest building in the world: the biggest building does not necessarily need to be tall it could just be wide

4b) “He picked it up.” The intension is fixed as “it” refers to the object in the real world that “he” picked up. However, the actual object that “it” refers to depends on the speaker.

OR

·       Today is going to be a good day

o   The reference for today shifts depending on the speaker as it refers to the current day from the perspective of the speaker. Today for the writer of the sentence could be referring to the day when they wrote it, but if the next speaker reads it the day after, that day will be “today”.

4c) “Infinity”. The intension of “infinity” is something that is endless and without bound. However, it is not an actual object that exists in the real world.

OR

·       A unicorn in the industry

o   Unicorns do not exist in the real world

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Determining allophones of one phoneme or different phonemes

1. Assume no free variation (for test purposes).
2. Look for minimal pairs.
a. If found, the two sounds are contrastive and must be allophones of different phonemes, aka different phonemes.           Analysis completed.
b. If not found, proceed.
3. Write down all the environments (X__Y, #Z) to see if the sounds are in complementary distribution. Com dis means they never appear in the same environment (Environments never overlap).
-environments overlap? Different phonemes. Analysis completed.
4.  See if they share phonetic similarity (Slight difference in parameters, aka voicing, place, manner).
-(almost) no similarity? Different phonemes. Analysis completed.

They are in complementary distribution AND share phonetic similarities, so they’re allophones of the same phoneme.

Generalization
Look into the environment lists and find commonalities (before/after between certain categories: high/mid/low /front/back/central vowels? fricatives? nasals? always initials? refer to vowel and consonant charts).

Choose represented allophone
Represented allophone should be the one that occurs in less restricted environments.

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a). "The lecturer", "English language and linguistics"

b). "English language and linguistics"

c). "at the university"

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Arguments
- "the lecturer" (xii)
- "english language and english linguistics" (ii compare xvii and xviii)
Complement
- "english language and english linguistics" (non-subject argument)
Adjuncts
- "at the uni" (iii cf iv; v cf xvii and xviii; v cf xi)

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a) The lecturer, English language, linguistics, the university.

b) at the university.

c) teaches English language and linguistics at the university.

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(a) 3 Noun phrases - 'The lecturer’, ‘English language and linguistics’, 'the university'
- Given that ‘the lecturer’ can be replaced with ‘They’ in (i), ‘The lecturer’ must be a noun phrase.

- Additionally, from (ii), we can see that ‘English language and linguistics’ can be replaced with ‘they’, thus it must also be a noun phrase.

- However, since (xvii) and (xviii) are not acceptable under this interpretation, ‘English language’ and ‘linguistics’ individually are not noun phrases
- 'the university' is made up of a determiner followed by a noun, and therefore is a noun phrase as well

(b) 1 Preposition Phrase - ‘at the university’

- Made up of the preposition ‘at’ and the noun phrase ‘the university’, and modifies the verb phrase ‘teaches English language and literature’.

(c) 2 Verb Phrases - 'teaches English language and linguistics' and 'teaches English language and linguistics at the university'
- Both can be replaced by “does so” as seen from (iii) and (iv) of the acceptability judgments.

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Determining allophones of one phoneme or different phonemes

1. Assume no free variation (for test purposes).

2. Look for minimal pairs.

a. If found, the two sounds are contrastive and must be allophones of different phonemes, aka different phonemes.           Analysis completed.

b. If not found, proceed.

3. Write down all the environments (X__Y, #Z) to see if the sounds are in complementary distribution. Com dis means they never appear in the same environment (Environments never overlap).

-environments overlap? Different phonemes. Analysis completed.

4.  See if they share phonetic similarity (Slight difference in parameters, aka voicing, place, manner).

-(almost) no similarity? Different phonemes. Analysis completed.

They are in complementary distribution AND share phonetic similarities, so they’re allophones of the same phoneme.

Generalization

Look into the environment lists and find commonalities (before/after between certain categories: high/mid/low /front/back/central vowels? fricatives? nasals? always initials? refer to vowel and consonant charts).

Choose represented allophone

Represented allophone should be the one that occurs in less restricted environments.

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1. Memorize IPA, charts of consonants and vowels.

3 parameters for consonants: place, manner, voicing (always include all 3 of them while describing consonants)

4 parameters for vowels: height, backness, tense, rounding

(If possible, draw the vowel chart before starting anything else)

2. Read carefully and respond accurately.

E.g., “List front vowels in Speaker A’s second turn”

No front vowels from A's other turns;

No transcriptions of words, just vowels.

3. Give conclusions before elaboration.

Especially for questions like: Is this...? What is...? Why?

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toves: It is a noun. It is the pluralised form of “tove”. It is also preceded by a determiner “the” and the adjective “slithy” to form the phrase “the slithy toves”.
slithy: It is an adjective that modifies the noun “toves”. It also occurs between a determiner “the” and a noun “toves”.
Jabberwock: It is a noun. It is preceded by a determiner.

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Frumious: Adjective, occurs between a determiner and a noun (assuming Bandersnatch is a noun).

Bandersnatch: Noun, it is preceded by a determiner and an adjective (assuming Frumious is an adjective), and is capitalised (i.e. Proper Noun).

Vorpal: Adjective, occurs between a possessive determiner and a noun. Possibly modifies the noun 'sword'.

Alternatively, Noun, occurs after a possessive determiner 'his'.

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two possible structures:

THE MOME RATHS

Preceded by quantificational determiner “the”

Followed by a noun (?)

Assuming this, likely an adjective

THE MOME RATHS OUTGRABE

Marked for plurality by -s

Noun?

THE MOME RATHS OUTGRABE

Assuming it is preceded by a noun, “outgrabe” appears to modify the noun

Past tense?

Maybe a verb?

ADJ-N-VERB
Example: The "brown fox ran"

MOME

Follows a determiner and precedes a verb, could be a noun, assuming this is a noun, “raths” is a verb and “outgrabe” is an adverb or preposition

RATHS

Follows the noun, and exhibits tense agreement with the subject

Or continuous tense, and this is a verb

OUTGRABE

Or adverb used to modify the verb it succeeds

N-V-ADV
Example: The "fox runs outside"

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In (s3l1): preposition because it follows after a noun (i.e., in hand) and could also follow after a determiner (e.g., in the hand).
Manxome (s3l2): adjective because det+__+noun.
Uffish (s4l1): thought is either n or v. But thought(v)+"he stood" doesnt make sense because (...). And preposition "in" precedes, and succeeded by noun "thought"

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whiffling
- verb
- affected by tense
- distributional property; agrees with "Jabberwock"
- exhibits agreement with preposition "through"
tulgey
- adjective
- modifies the noun "wood"
- occurs between determiner "the" and the noun "wood"
burbled
- verb
- can be marked for tense; past tense
- exhibits agreement with subject "Jabberwock"

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Harry
Hermione
Ron

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1a) Musician (-iən), American (-n), Singaporean (-iən) and Profession (-iən) contain different affixes. American and Singaporean contain affixes that exhibit allomorphy, while the others do not. *Profession is used here in the meaning of 'an act of profession'

1b) Student (-ənt) Attendant (-ənt) and Assistant (-ənt) contain the same affix. Pregnant does not contain an affix.

1c)

Excel-lent (contains affix)

Absorb-ent (contains affix)

Diligent has no affixes

Please-ant (contains affix)

Excellent, absorbent, and pleasant are the same affix (-ənt) None of the affixes exhibit allomorphy.

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a)  Dispense < Dispensable < Indispensable = “unable to be dispensed”. Not structurally ambiguous.

b)
a.  Flame < Flammable < Inflammable = “unable to be set aflame”
b.  Inflame < Inflammable = “able to become inflamed”
c.  This word is structurally ambiguous.
Note: there is no structural ambiguity for this as flame and inflame mean the same thing

c)
a.
Criminal Lawyer

/            \

Criminal law    yer

/    \

Crimi  nal

“Someone who practices criminal law”
b.
Criminal Lawyer

/    \          /   \

Crimi  nal    law  yer

“A lawyer who is a criminal”

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Only for the purpose of this course.

Identifying accents (US, UK, SG)

a. post-vocalic r: US

b. [ɒ][ɜ]: UK

c. merging vowels:
no [ɪ][ʊ][æ][ɜ][ɒ][ɑ] in SGE

d. diphthongs
US3 [aɪ], [aʊ], [ɔɪ]
UK6 [ɪə], [ʊə], [eə]
SG5 (no [eə], tense [i]&[u])
*diphthongized vowels are not diphthongs

e. vowels: W3-Slides27

UK [əʊ] vs US, SG [o] or [oʊ]

UK, SG [ɔ] or [ɒ] vs US [ɑ]

Tense & Lax

[i] vs [ɪ]
[u] vs [ʊ]
[e] vs [ɛ]
[o] vs [ɔ]
[ɜ] vs [ə]

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a) painkillers: kill < kill-er (derivational affix, verb to noun) < pain-killer (compounding) < painkiller-s (inflectional affixation)

b) intolerant: tolerate < tolera-nt (derivational affixation, verb to adj) < in-tolerant (derivational affixation, meaning changes)

c) moisturizer: moist < moist-ure (derivational affixation, adj to noun) < moistur-ize (derivational affixation, noun to verb) < moisturize-r (derivational affixation, verb to noun)

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(d) Independently

Depend < Dependent (affixation) < Independent (affixation) < Independently (affixation)

(e) Chairmanship

Chair < Chairman (compounding) < Chairmanship (affixation)

(f) Dehumidifier

Humid < Humidify (affixation) < Dehumidify (affixation) < Dehumidifier (affixation)

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a) [pɹil] preel. not an actual English word but possible as [p] and [r] are both possible consonants to appear syllable initially
b) [skɹiʧ] screech
c) [njus] news
d) [pnju] pnu. Not possible. PHONOTACTIC CONSTRAINTS, [p] cannot occur immediately before [n] in an English syllable.
e) [shɑk] se-hack. Not possible to have 2 fricatives back to back at the start of the word

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f).  This word is not possible because it violates the phonotactic constraints of English, specifically the arrangement of sound sequences – plosive cannot occur immediately before nasal in an English syllable.

g). This is the transcription for the word, “used”.

h). This is the transcription for the word, “bluffed”.

i).  This word is not possible because it violates the phonotactic constraints of English, specifically the arrangement of sound position – nasal stop cannot occur syllable-initially in English.

j). This word is not possible because it violates the phonotactic constraints of English, because [n] should be [ŋ] beside a [k].

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Allophones of same phoneme
- Only [s] occurs word-initially
- [z] always occurs after nasal sounds
- [s] never occurs after nasals
- phonetic similarity: only differ in terms of voicing
- Occur in different phonetic environments, therefore in complementary distribution

- [z] more restricted (because there are more non-nasal sounds than nasal sounds so [s] is less restricted]

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Allophones of the same phoneme

[s] and [ʃ] are in complementary distribution - [s] precedes only non-front vowels and [ʃ] precedes only front vowels.

[s] and [ʃ] are also phonetically similar.

[s] is less restricted as there are more non-front vowels than front vowels.

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Left to right: Dan, Amanda, Sarji, Khang Hou, Ian

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The narrator is a speaker of Singapore English. The word "teacher" is pronounced without the [ɹ] which is evidence of r-dropping. Furthermore, the word "dad" is pronounced with a [ɛ] instead of [æ], which suggests the merging of vowels [ɛ] and [æ]. Hence, we could identify that the narrator is a speaker of Singapore English.

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I believe speaker A is a speaker of US English.

“Sorry”, which would be [sɒri] in US English (the vowel is pronounced the same in “hot” or “rock”, is instead pronounced [sɑɹi]. The IPA notation here implies a vowel sound closer to “half” or “father”. Speaker A has the tendency to pronounce with [ɑ] in lieu of [ɒ] such as in “sorry”, “on”, and “copied”.

“You” is notated as [jə]. Rather than the notation of [ju] as in “boot” or “loo”, this pronunciation of the word uses the same sound as the first vowel in “ago” or “avoid”. Speaker A also has the tendency to pronounce [ə] instead of [u] such as in “to”, “you”, and “today”.

In addition, there is the use of [əɹ] instead of [ɜ] in "girl"

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Speaker B is likely a speaker of UK English.

This is because the [ɒ] is exclusively utilised in UK English, and Speaker B uses it in /kɒpi/.

Also, Speaker B used [əʊ] instead of [o] in /dəʊnt/, which is also exclusively utilised in UK English.

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a. [aɪ]
b. [ɛ] [ə] [ʌ] [oʊ] [eɪ]
c. [ʊ] [ɪ] [ɛ]
d. [b] [d]
e. [s] [θ] [h]

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Left to right: Kelly, Trestan, Lavonne, Yik Hong, Aliya

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Left to right: San, Grace, Feng Rui, Hasanah, Amy, Li Ze

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Left to right:
Bryan, Clara, Ryan, Jeremy, Ian Tan

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Left to right:
Megan
Shaun
Rui Yi
Victor
Phuong
Jaime

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a. Both [θ] and [ð] are dental fricatives.

[θ] is a voiceless dental fricative whereas [ð] is a voiced dental fricative. Since both are dental fricative, the manner and place of articulation are the same.

Manner of articulation: Narrow constriction creating turbulence in the airflow.

Place of articulation: Dental; tip of tongue makes contact with upper front teeth.

Voicing:

Producing the [θ] sound allows vocal folds to be far apart to allow air to pass through freely, without vibration of the vocal folds.

Producing the [ð] sound brings the vocal folds together, causing them to vibrate as air passes through.

b.  The original transcription is of “think” is [θɪŋk], representing a voiceless interdental fricative sound.

In Cockney (UK) english, [fiŋk] is representing a voiceless labio-dental fricative sound.

The original transcription of “that” is [ðæt], representing a voiced interdental fricative sound. However, in Cockney (UK) english, [væt] is representing a voiced labio-dental fricative sound.

The difference for Cockney english lies in the place of articulation.

c. In Singapore English, both [tiŋk] and [dæt] are alveolar stop-plosive sound. In Singapore english, the airflow is completely blocked in the mouth when pronouncing the words, whereas in standard english there is still constricted airflow.

d. The difference is that both [s] and [z] are alveolar fricative sound while [θ] and [ð] are inter- dental fricative sound. [s] and [θ] are voiceless while [z] and [ð] are voiced. The difference lies in the place of articulation.

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a). Entailment because if I have not finished my math homework, I might have or have not finished some of my homework. If I have finished my math homework then it must be true that I have finished some of my homework.

b). Presupposition because why would B talk about math homework if no homework is assigned in the first place.

c). Neither because A asked about whether B have finished all of his/her homework but he replied that he finished his/her math homework without answering the question directly thus it is an implicature and not a entailment nor a presupposition.

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Illocutionary type intended by adult: Representative

Illocutionary type inferred by child: Directive

1. Not explicit (not a performative verb)

1. Verb: cough

2. Voluntary act (as the boy demonstrates)

3. Cannot be performed with simple words

4. Cannot be used with hereby…(i think)

2. Indirect

1. Declarative (locutionary type)

1. Tenseable verb: cough & coughed

2. But directive illocutionary type should be paired with imperative

3. Expressed

1. Illocutionary type can be inferred by hearer

4. Literal

1. Can be inferred to be a literal demand (as seen from his response)

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a).

[no] = “my”

[ʔo] = “your”

[po] = “his”

[ʧam] = “our”

[aamaj] = “son”

[ki] = “house”

[taana] = “blanket”

[peew] = “wife”

[huukapi] = “pipe”

[um] = “plural forms of animate noun” (i.e., sons, wives)

[m] = “plural forms of inanimate noun” (i.e., pipes, blankets, houses)

b). [um] and [m] exhibits allomorphy where [um] occurs before consonants while [m] occurs before vowels.

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Two answers?

They are allophones of the same phoneme, but our group for 2 possible phonemes:

/z/ -> [ʃ] / tends to be at word start and before front vowels

/z/ -> [z] / elsewhere

/ʃ/ -> [z] / occurs word middle, and after a voiced nasal stop (consonant)

/ʃ/ -> [ʃ] / occurs elsewhere