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Make the best use of your ONE computer classroom.

''Half a loaf is better than none''

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Paula Mattila: ELPs are great for learner autonomy:

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Paula Mattila: ELPs are great for learner autonomy:

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Here is a quick look by a top expert into the ELPs but check also http://kielisalkku.edu.fi

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Global Conversations in Literacy Research

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Five questions to Prof. David Little on the European Language Portfolio

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1) What is the European Language Portfolio? 2) Where did it come from? 3) What is the purpose of it? 4) How many ELPs are there? 5) Could you tell us a little about the work you do for the ECML in Graz?

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One computer activity: Guess the word! From a workshop at my English Academy.

Played by teams: students sitting in"U" shape help a chosen one to discover

what is the word or concept written on a tablet , you can give them some time for example 30 seconds,

you just need one tablet and motivation!

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To reflect on what we and our generation have been doing to update

new learning skills to interact with technology

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Medieval helpdesk with English subtitles

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A classroom having learner autonomy in practice,

Youtube video

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Learner Autonomy across the border from theory to practice.m4v

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A good information on Learner Autonomy in wikipedia

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The term "learner autonomy" was first coined in 1981 by Henri Holec, the "father" of learner autonomy. Many definitions have since been given to the term, depending on the writer, the context, and the level of debate educators have come to. It has been considered as a personal human trait, as a political measure, or as an educational move.

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How the teacher can promote learner autonomy through CALL.

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CALL and the Teacher's Role in Promoting Learner Autonomy - CALL-EJ Online

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In the last decade high technology, notably in the form of computers, has established a powerful presence in foreign and second language pedagogy. A common justification for the use of computers in language teaching and learning is that is that it is said to promote learner autonomy, which researchers and practitioners alike now set as a very important goal.

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Strategies for a 1 Computer Classroom

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Strategies for teachers - One Computer Classroom

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Learn strategies for using one computer effectively in your elementary classroom. Topics include: using the computer as teacher tool, using the computer as multi-media chalk board, teaching students use the computer as a tool for individual input as part of a larger group or class project, using the computer as learning center or station, and using the Computer as Cooperative Learning Tool.

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Are you a teacher in a one-computer classroom? Do you long to incorporate technology into your lessons but believe it is more of a hassle than it's worth? Education World writer Glori Chaika explores strategies experienced teachers use to help them turn their one computer into a dynamic, creative teaching tool. Included: Strategies that work!

"I find it's kind of like having some candy but not enough for everyone."

That's how Phyllis Stallworth, a fourth-grade teacher at Little Oak Elementary (Slidell, Louisiana) describes life in her one-computer classroom. "Writing a story or working on a project can take forever if the person on the computer works very slowly," Stallworth tells Education World.

It's not that Stallworth doesn't have technology skills. It's not that she doesn't want to make good use of that single computer by her desk. "I know enough to do something exciting with the computer, but sometimes I find it's more of a hassle than it's worth," says Stallworth.

Stallworth is not alone!

MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES THAT WORK

Bottlenecks are sure to occur in a one-computer classroom, but teachers can keep them to a minimum with careful management strategies.

In many classrooms, the single computer is relegated to the back wall. But Joan Peebles, a technology coordinator in Madison, Wisconsin, has a different idea. Be sure to place the computer in an easily accessible and easily supervised place, she recommends. Also, keep the computer away from direct sunlight, water, magnets, and chalk dust.

Another strategy is to create "stations" or multiple activities, using the computer as only one of the tools necessary to complete assignments. Students can conduct research not only on the Internet but also through interviews and in bound encyclopedias, magazines, and books. Every 15 to 20 minutes, students rotate from one station to another.

If the computer is used as a station, a strategy for moving students through that station is a necessity. Following are some possible traffic strategies:

Post a schedule. Allow a set amount of time for each student at the computer station. Students are responsible for getting to the station at the appointed time.

Draw Popsicle sticks. Write each student's name on a Popsicle stick. Place the can of Popsicle sticks at the computer station. Draw a stick at the start of the day. The person whose name is on the stick will start the day at the station. That student will draw a stick to determine who goes next.

Establish color-coded groups. Divide the class into five groups. Write the names of each group on a different sheet of colored paper, and post the papers by the computer station. The students in each group will spend time at the computer on a given day (for example, the students in the red group will have computer time on Mondays). The students within a group will go to the computer in assigned or random order.

ADDITIONAL STRATEGIES

Many teachers in one-computer classrooms project the computer screen onto a larger screen that the entire class can see. However, when using such devices with small screens, you may find distortion; 32-inch or larger screens seem to work best for Internet displays.

Other teachers encourage students to quickly print articles and read them at their desks while different students use the computer for new tasks. Though this rapid race to print may result in printing some articles that are unneeded, teachers find toner and paper much less expensive than additional computers.

Still others borrow computers, use the computer lab, ask if a student can work quietly on an unused computer in another teacher's room, or provide alternate times during which students can access the computer -- before school, at lunch, during recess, or after school.

Many teachers are scroungers! And scrounging often results in locating additional computers! Sometimes those computers are old ones that don't have all the bells and whistles -- but they can be fine for word processing. Newer computers can be used for Internet access or multimedia projects that require high-speed modems or special features.

If one computer is all you have, what are the minimum feature requirements for that computer? In order to serve a classroom full of students well, SouthEast Initiatives Regional Technology in Education Consortium technology consultant Donna Ashmus suggests that a computer in today's classroom include a word processor, CD encyclopedia, multimedia presentation software, spreadsheet or graphing software, a Web browser, and an e-mail program. Some content-specific software would be nice too, Ashmus adds.

PLANNING AND ORGANIZING ARE ESSENTIAL

"In a one-computer classroom, it is imperative to plan carefully and be extremely organized," cautions Lynne Heller, a teacher at P.S. 64 in Queens, New York. "I make sure each child knows exactly what to do. If writing, students complete a rough draft in their journals first. I provide step-by-step instructions and samples of the work to be completed. I really prepare those kids before they even get to the computer.

"With so much time between assigning an activity and everyone completing it, I use checklists to monitor completed assignments," adds Heller.

As sponsor of the school newspaper at Northshore High School (Slidell, Louisiana), journalism teacher Kathleen Modenbach has found planning and organization of paramount importance. But she has benefited from a little extra help too.

"I recruited people from outside the school!" she explains to Education World. "Although I used trained 'experts' from the class and paired experienced students with ones new to technology use, I also recruited tech-savvy parents and volunteers to help me. It made my life so much easier."

ACTIVITIES FOR A ONE-COMPUTER CLASSROOM

After exploring management strategies and computer placement, what can you actually do with one computer in the classroom? "My favorite computer-related experience was the first Internet project I ever ran myself," sixth-grade teacher Jane Scaplen tells Education World.

"My students created sets of five clues leading to the identity of a figure of importance in Canadian history and sent them via e-mail, one clue a day for five days," said Scaplen, who teaches at Sacred Heart Elementary School in Marystown, Newfoundland. "Classes in other parts of the world tried to identify the figure in as few clues as possible. We sent our clues at 8:15, just before classes started in the morning, but students in France did not receive them until they returned from lunch and those in British Columbia were still in bed -- a little lesson for my students on the effects of the rotation of Earth and time zones!

"Don't feel you need to know everything to get started," she continues. "There's always someone who's willing to give you a hand -- even if it's a virtual one!"

Instructional technologist Karen Cole offers additional suggestions, such as having a student check the weather forecast at weather.com and e-mail it to the school principal, who can announce it before school ends so everyone will know how to dress the next day.

STILL MORE SUGGESTIONS

Article by Glori Chaika
Education World®
Copyright © Education World

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One Computer in Your Classroom? | Education World

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Are you a teacher in a one-computer classroom? Do you long to incorporate technology into your lessons but believe it is more of a hassle than it's worth? Education World writer Glori Chaika explores strategies experienced teachers use to help them turn their one computer into a dynamic, creative teaching tool.

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How to Thrive -- Not Just Survive -- in a One-Computer Classroom

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Are you a teacher in a one-computer classroom? Do you long to incorporate technology into your lessons but believe it is more of a hassle than it's worth? Education World writer Glori Chaika explores strategies experienced teachers use to help them turn their one computer into a dynamic, creative teaching tool. Included: Strategies that work!

"I find it's kind of like having some candy but not enough for everyone."

That's how Phyllis Stallworth, a fourth-grade teacher at Little Oak Elementary (Slidell, Louisiana) describes life in her one-computer classroom. "Writing a story or working on a project can take forever if the person on the computer works very slowly," Stallworth tells Education World.

It's not that Stallworth doesn't have technology skills. It's not that she doesn't want to make good use of that single computer by her desk. "I know enough to do something exciting with the computer, but sometimes I find it's more of a hassle than it's worth," says Stallworth.

Stallworth is not alone!

MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES THAT WORK

Bottlenecks are sure to occur in a one-computer classroom, but teachers can keep them to a minimum with careful management strategies.

In many classrooms, the single computer is relegated to the back wall. But Joan Peebles, a technology coordinator in Madison, Wisconsin, has a different idea. Be sure to place the computer in an easily accessible and easily supervised place, she recommends. Also, keep the computer away from direct sunlight, water, magnets, and chalk dust.

Another strategy is to create "stations" or multiple activities, using the computer as only one of the tools necessary to complete assignments. Students can conduct research not only on the Internet but also through interviews and in bound encyclopedias, magazines, and books. Every 15 to 20 minutes, students rotate from one station to another.

If the computer is used as a station, a strategy for moving students through that station is a necessity. Following are some possible traffic strategies:

Post a schedule. Allow a set amount of time for each student at the computer station. Students are responsible for getting to the station at the appointed time.

Draw Popsicle sticks. Write each student's name on a Popsicle stick. Place the can of Popsicle sticks at the computer station. Draw a stick at the start of the day. The person whose name is on the stick will start the day at the station. That student will draw a stick to determine who goes next.

Establish color-coded groups. Divide the class into five groups. Write the names of each group on a different sheet of colored paper, and post the papers by the computer station. The students in each group will spend time at the computer on a given day (for example, the students in the red group will have computer time on Mondays). The students within a group will go to the computer in assigned or random order.

ADDITIONAL STRATEGIES

Many teachers in one-computer classrooms project the computer screen onto a larger screen that the entire class can see. However, when using such devices with small screens, you may find distortion; 32-inch or larger screens seem to work best for Internet displays.

Other teachers encourage students to quickly print articles and read them at their desks while different students use the computer for new tasks. Though this rapid race to print may result in printing some articles that are unneeded, teachers find toner and paper much less expensive than additional computers.

Still others borrow computers, use the computer lab, ask if a student can work quietly on an unused computer in another teacher's room, or provide alternate times during which students can access the computer -- before school, at lunch, during recess, or after school.

Many teachers are scroungers! And scrounging often results in locating additional computers! Sometimes those computers are old ones that don't have all the bells and whistles -- but they can be fine for word processing. Newer computers can be used for Internet access or multimedia projects that require high-speed modems or special features.

If one computer is all you have, what are the minimum feature requirements for that computer? In order to serve a classroom full of students well, SouthEast Initiatives Regional Technology in Education Consortium technology consultant Donna Ashmus suggests that a computer in today's classroom include a word processor, CD encyclopedia, multimedia presentation software, spreadsheet or graphing software, a Web browser, and an e-mail program. Some content-specific software would be nice too, Ashmus adds.

PLANNING AND ORGANIZING ARE ESSENTIAL

"In a one-computer classroom, it is imperative to plan carefully and be extremely organized," cautions Lynne Heller, a teacher at P.S. 64 in Queens, New York. "I make sure each child knows exactly what to do. If writing, students complete a rough draft in their journals first. I provide step-by-step instructions and samples of the work to be completed. I really prepare those kids before they even get to the computer.

"With so much time between assigning an activity and everyone completing it, I use checklists to monitor completed assignments," adds Heller.

As sponsor of the school newspaper at Northshore High School (Slidell, Louisiana), journalism teacher Kathleen Modenbach has found planning and organization of paramount importance. But she has benefited from a little extra help too.

"I recruited people from outside the school!" she explains to Education World. "Although I used trained 'experts' from the class and paired experienced students with ones new to technology use, I also recruited tech-savvy parents and volunteers to help me. It made my life so much easier."

ACTIVITIES FOR A ONE-COMPUTER CLASSROOM

After exploring management strategies and computer placement, what can you actually do with one computer in the classroom? "My favorite computer-related experience was the first Internet project I ever ran myself," sixth-grade teacher Jane Scaplen tells Education World.

"My students created sets of five clues leading to the identity of a figure of importance in Canadian history and sent them via e-mail, one clue a day for five days," said Scaplen, who teaches at Sacred Heart Elementary School in Marystown, Newfoundland. "Classes in other parts of the world tried to identify the figure in as few clues as possible. We sent our clues at 8:15, just before classes started in the morning, but students in France did not receive them until they returned from lunch and those in British Columbia were still in bed -- a little lesson for my students on the effects of the rotation of Earth and time zones!

"Don't feel you need to know everything to get started," she continues. "There's always someone who's willing to give you a hand -- even if it's a virtual one!"

Instructional technologist Karen Cole offers additional suggestions, such as having a student check the weather forecast at weather.com and e-mail it to the school principal, who can announce it before school ends so everyone will know how to dress the next day.

STILL MORE SUGGESTIONS

Article by Glori Chaika
Education World®
Copyright © Education World

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
One Computer in Your Classroom? | Education World

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Are you a teacher in a one-computer classroom? Do you long to incorporate technology into your lessons but believe it is more of a hassle than it's worth? Education World writer Glori Chaika explores strategies experienced teachers use to help them turn their one computer into a dynamic, creative teaching tool.

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This Wordle speaks my mind..

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Effective Teaching in Large Classes

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One Computer Classroom in 18 slides

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Nice Ten Tips on How to Manage Our Classrooms: Worth Watching:

Don't Miss it.

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Top 10 Proven Classroom Management Tips for Teachers

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One Computer Classroom

With only one or two computers in a classroom, how can a teacher utilize the computer as an instructional tool for instruction rather than a reward for completing work?

Links:

1http://ddl.nmsu.edu/teachers/onecomputer.html

2http://www.internet4classrooms.com/links_grades_kindergarten_12/one_computer_classroom_lesson.htm

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Top 10 Reasons to Use Technology in the Classroom

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Top 10 Reasons to Use Technology in Education: iPad, Tablet, Computer, Listening Centers

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These are the 9 steps to Learners Autonomy..

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This PDF explains how we can encourage Learner Autonomy!

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Log onto this Link, re-arrange the words to make aparagraph using MS word,then post it on your class padlet.

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Log onto this link;

http://www.wordle.net/thumb/wrdl/7311426/re-arrange_making_aparagraph

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learners need to be autonomous to be engage in the teaching/ learning process

teacher should be the moderator the facilitator

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Learner Autonomy across the border from theory to practice.m4v

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Developing Autonomy in Language Learners
“I never teach my students. I simply provide the situations in which
they can learn.” Eins tein

Main goals:
• Make your students independent of the teacher
• Help the learner to become independent and become his/her own mentor
• provide students with the tools to be able to learn on their own
• make your students part of the decision making about classroom activities

The role of teacher in developing learner autonomy:
• model role
• moderator
• facilitator

How autonomy starts in classroom:
• Give them choice
• Show them ways of learning
• Use the learners’ interest
• Talk about it in classroom

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How to become a more autonomous English learner - Live Language

What is an autonomous learner?

An autonomous, or independent, learner is someone who takes charge of their own learning. They know their preferred learning styles, are aware of their strengths and actively seek to work on their weaknesses, inside and outside of the classroom, through a variety of activities.
Why is this important?
It is crucial that students are able to communicate as effectively as possible outside of the classroom, when they do not have their teacher to support them. Becoming a more autonomous learner also means that a student is likely to make quicker progress.
How can you do to become a more autonomous learner?

1. Assess your work, and that of your classmates, before turning to the teacher.

2. Think about what you want to improve and set achievable goals.

3. Ask yourself: how do I learn best? For more information on learner styles see this recent blog post.

4. Keep a learner diary to self-reflect on your progress: what have you learnt well and what has been challenging.

5. Make your learning fun by choosing activities which suit your personality and tastes: keep up to date with the latest news, listen to insightful talks, meet and chat with new students through our Live Language social programme, catch the newest movies and hang out with classmates and native speakers to relax after a busy day studying.

TOP

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How to become a more autonomous English learner

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How to become a more autonomous English learner - Live Language What is an autonomous learner? An autonomous, or independent, learner is someone who takes charge of their own learning. They know their preferred learning styles, are aware of their strengths and actively seek to work on their weaknesses, inside and outside of the classroom, through a variety of activities.

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this article about activities to promote learner's autonomy

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The Internet TESL Journal

Galina Kavaliauskienë
ukk [at] ltu.lt
Law University of Lithuania, (Vilnius, Lithuania)

Introduction

I believe that many EFL teachers, like myself, have experienced the frustration of investing endless energy in designing interesting, from the teacher's point of view, tasks and organizing various activities for students, but getting little response. Learners are often reluctant to use the target language in pair/small group work. Students do not reflect on their mistakes and, consequently, do not learn from their errors. Even really motivated learners do not always seem to attain their potential.

The common phenomenon among learners is a passive role they assume in the process of learning -- they rely on teachers too much and are reluctant to develop a sense of responsibility for the outcome of their learning. This holds for other subjects as well as for foreign languages.

It is unreasonable to expect that encouraging a student to become more independent, or autonomous, in acquiring language skills will bring about any tangible changes. Learners have to be taught the skill 'how to learn'. Learning this skill is a slow process and can only be perfected in a step-by-step manner.

First, learners need to become aware of the ways they learn best, which involves their learning styles and strategies (Brazis, Kavaliauskienë, 2000). Naturally, it takes time for learners to find out what are the most effective techniques and activities for each person.

Second, learners have to change their passive attitude to learning to a more active attitude, i.e. to become less dependent on the teacher and take charge of their own learning (Wilga M. Rivers, 1992). Teacher's role is to involve students in search for interesting materials, e.g. surfing the Internet, or finding pen-friends on the Internet, taking part in competitions, chat-clubs, encouraging to read English books, newspapers, magazines, etc.

Finally, learners have to be given a chance to gain experience in 'swapping places' with a teacher, which means changing the traditional role of a teacher, developing the art of negotiation, emphasizing the importance of self-assessment, etc. (Grudzinska, 2000). This involves tasks and activities designed and administered by the learners themselves. The diversity of tasks may cover grammar, games, written work, audio- and video- recordings, news items, translation -- you name it -- anything that interests learners will benefit them.

This article presents some techniques I have used in order to involve my students in active preparation and administration of activities. I hope my experience may be of interest to other English teachers who like experimenting in the classroom and trying out various techniques.

Crossword Session

In this activity students assume the teacher's traditional role of designing a task and carrying out the activity.

For many students learning professional vocabulary is a tedious task. Learners find it difficult to retrieve a specific item impromptu (speaking or writing). The possible cause of this failure is that vocabulary items have not been consolidated, i.e. have not been transferred to a long-term memory and either remained in a short-term memory or have been forgotten. Some items might be recognizable when encountered by learners, but usually learners complain that they are short for words and use rudimentary vocabulary because appropriate terms have not been effectively activated.

In this activity a situational context and a lexical content are intertwined. Students use the wordlist of target vocabulary from the topic-based reading materials. Students choose the items they want to process and design a crossword working in pairs. It is advisable to limit the number of vocabulary items (about 10) and to set the time limit (7 to 10 minutes). Each pair is expected to deliver their crossword either on the chalkboard or transparency using an overhead projector. One student reads the definitions, and another writes the item as soon as somebody generates the answer. Students are awarded a point for each correct answer. In case of an inaccurate definition, a point is awarded to a person who corrects it. The guessing activity should not take longer than 10 minutes. The idea is to have a fast performance and delivery. The activity also helps develop fast-thinking, which is necessary in spontaneous speech. It can be administered as a warm-up or between other activities, like writing or reading, for students to unwind. The crosswords designed by other pairs should be administered in the follow-up lessons, one at a time. Thus, learners will be able to recollect and process the task-based vocabulary during a few weeks. Naturally, different pairs will choose diverse vocabulary items, which also encourages revising. Learners' interaction, cooperation, assessment and self-assessment is lively and takes place in a friendly atmosphere: students argue over definitions, pronunciation and spelling, and enjoy awarding the titles of 'the best', 'the second best' and 'the third best' performers.

An example of a crossword and definitions are presented below. This crossword example was prepared by a pair of learners using vocabulary from the reading text 'The Law and the Family' (Powell, 1993). Although the visual design may seem unprofessional, this crossword puzzle serves the goals.

DOWN

ACROSS

Grammar Training

The usage of English tenses is rather problematic to Lithuanian learners. The most likely cause of students' difficulty is a difference between grammar systems of English and the mother tongue. There are only three tenses in Lithuanian -- Present, Past and Future. There are no notions of either Continuous or Perfect tenses and learners find the usage very confusing. Although students are very familiar with the structures of all the tenses, they tend to simplify their usage to simple forms. The technique presented below demonstrates an opportunity for students to practice the usage of various tenses within the topic-based context.

The activity is prepared at home and administered by learners in class. Learners use authentic professional materials either from professional journals, CNN or BBC news, newspapers and so on. Each pair prepares a passage in which verbs are replaced by infinitives and reproduced on transparencies or handouts. In the classroom, all peers exchange their ideas and suggest the choice(s) of a tense. All students are involved in the discussion and present their arguments for or against the suggested usage. This activity is very lively, particularly when there is an alternative possibility. Learners argue the points enthusiastically, and as a rule a final decision is reached without the teacher's intervention. Learners enjoy awarding 'prizes' to their peers and demonstrate the ability of being objective in their evaluation. It is noteworthy that students should complete the activity during the lesson, and the teacher's feedback should follow the learners' self-assessment. It is advisable to have no more than one such activity during a lesson, so that students do not get bored or frustrated in case it is rather hard.

Here is an example.

BICYCLE PATROLS
The use of bicycle patrol (1) ___________ foot patrol in many areas. (REPLACE)

Lately US law enforcement agencies (2) _____________to recognize the many benefits of patrolling

on bikes. (BEGIN)

Patrolling on bikes (3) ____________ high visibility, accessibility and mobility. (PROVIDE)

Bicycle patrols (4) _____________ crime by the capability to approach crimes in progress without

being seen or heard. (REDUCE)

The element of surprise (5) _____________ police to catch more suspects.. (HELP)

Police bicycles (6) ______________ with radar or computerized communication systems. (EQUIP)

Electric bikes travel up to 20 mph and (7) ____________ pedaling. (NOT NEED)

Answer key

1 replaces / has replaced 2 have begun 3 provides / has provided 4 reduce / have reduced 5 helps / has helped 6 are equipped / have been equipped / were equipped 7 do not need

Variation

A possible variation of this activity is combining two tasks: selecting the word order and the tense.
A useful tip: usage of tenses is better understood and learnt from a context. The choice of tenses out of the context is often ambiguous. The following example is a part of a passage, which is meant to demonstrate the format of the exercise. Students-peers have to determine the logical word order and choose the appropriate tense:

/ a student / for two years / to juvenile offenders' / be sent / institution / for making / death calls / anonymous /
/ until his trial / be remanded / accused of harassing / in custody / young girls / the youth / last month /

Answer Key:
A student has been sent to juvenile offenders' institution for two years for making anonymous death calls. The youth accused of harassing young girls was remanded in custody until his trial last month.

Translation

A way towards bilingualismDeveloping bilingualism in learners demands their awareness of the word-combinations and options that language allows (Kavaliauskienë, Janulevièienë, 2001). Students find it hard to understand the language of agreements, contracts, treaties, laws and conventions, although they seem to know the meanings of most words.

This activity is designed to give students practice in translating short legal excerpts from English into the mother tongue. It is advisable to select two passages of similar scope that do not contain new vocabulary items. Prepare two passages of approximately the same difficulty and scope. Divide the class into an equal number of pairs and give different passages to the students sitting next to each other. Ask students to translate their passages into the mother tongue and set the time limit for translating.

As soon as students have finished translating, collect the original English texts and ask students to exchange their translations in mother tongue. Set the time limit and ask them to translate their peers' work back into English.

As soon as students have finished the translating, give them original texts and let the pairs who swapped their translations compare and analyze their work. The emphasis is on the difficulties they encountered in translation both ways. A whole class discussion is a follow-up activity.

The final stage is to provide a copy of an officially approved legal document in the learners' mother tongue so that learners can compare their own understanding and translation with the official version. As it is obvious from my description, this activity is time-consuming, because learners need some time for reflection, analysis and discussion. Discussions concern different aspects of language -- a choice of vocabulary, collocations, structure of sentences, style, etc.

I applied this technique for fostering comprehension of the Schengen Agreement documents. The majority of students were baffled by the usage of vocabulary items like 'alien' which they associated with 'a being from space' and not 'a foreigner'; 'a technical support function' has been understood as some 'computer software' which actually is 'a service' in the Schengen Information System; the term 'Contracting Party' some learners have understood either as 'a political party' or 'an entertainment contract'.

It is noteworthy that the use of the translation technique is not the old-fashioned way of teaching languages that was common in the middle of the 20th century. The communicative approach to translating is a useful means for teaching comprehension of legal texts, which are hard to follow because of the formal wording and change in the meaning of otherwise familiar vocabulary. Now that my students are aware of translation benefits, they bring their own legal excerpts into the classroom for peers to translate, analyze and discuss.

References

Brazis, R and Kavaliauskienë,G Application of Multiple Intelligences Theory to Teaching English, in 'Network', A Journal for English Language Teacher Education, Vol. 3, No 2, April 2000, pp. 47-51.

Powell, R Law Today, 1993, Longman Group UK Ltd.

Rivers, Wilga M. Communicating Naturally in a Second Language, Theory and Practice in Language Teaching, 1992, CUP.

Grudzinska, Z Autonomy in Learning Foreign Languages,

http://www.iatefl.org.pl/sig/al/n4olsztyn.htm
Kavaliauskienë, G and Janulevièienë, V Using the Lexical Approach for the Acquisition of ESP Vocabulary, The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VII, No 3, March 2001

http://iteslj.org/Articles/Kavalaiuskiene-LA.html

The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VIII, No. 7, July 2002
http://iteslj.org/ http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Kavaliauskiene-Autonomy.html

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Three Activities to Promote Learners' Autonomy

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The Internet TESL Journal Galina Kavaliauskienëukk [at] ltu.ltLaw University of Lithuania, (Vilnius, Lithuania) I believe that many EFL teachers, like myself, have experienced the frustration of investing endless energy in designing interesting, from the teacher's point of view, tasks and organizing various activities for students, but getting little response.

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This slide show clearly explains what learner autonomy is and provides some strategies about how to

implement it is class.

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Approaches To Learner Autonomy In Language Learning

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Approaches to Learner Autonomy in Language Learning Erin Lowry Senior English Language Fellow Centro Colombo Americano Armenia November 25, 2008

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Learner autonomy workshop

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British Council QiC LAC: Learner Autonomy Session 2 Part 4 of 4

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British Council Colombia Teacher Training Learner Autonomy

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Hi friends,

watch this video from Philippines about One computer classroom with 58 students.

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Classroom Management Strategies To Take Control Of Noisy Students

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Only 1 computer for 58 pupils and it really works.

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A collection of interesting ways of using a mobile in the classroom

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"Nine steps to learner autonomy" an article by D.Nunan.

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Does your staff need Educational Technology training? The K-12 Teachers Alliance can help you plan your in-service professional development at no additional cost.

Regardless of your school's cell phone policy, the reality in most schools is that students have phones in their pockets, purses, or hoodies. Why not get these tools out in plain sight and use them for good and not evil?

Here are some easy to use strategies to use cell phones in the classrooms.

Why Use Cell Phones as Learning Tools

Cell phones are different from a computer lab filled with computers or a cart of netbooks because the cell phone is personal technology. Most students have invested a great deal of time learning about the features of the cell phone, how to navigate and the limitations of the phone. The other reason to really rethink the cell phone debate is because learning on the cell phone can extend beyond the walls of the school or the confines of a class period.

Some people may want to ban cell phones from classrooms, but I disagree. We didn't ban pens in our schools because students can pass notes during class. The pencils have also survived even though you could poke someone in the eye. And the amount of paper that is generated in most schools is almost criminal. This is a new time in education and with dwindling budgets , so we need to rethink possibilities, stretching every dollar. These mini computers are walking through the doors each day, let's put them to work.

Before you consider trying any of these ideas, make sure you understand the policies that are in place and your have checked with your administrator.

Cell Phone Learning Strategies

Recording Lectures: The "Flipped" Classroom
Many teachers are structuring their lessons in what is being coined "Flipped Classroom". These teachers are recording their "lectures" using video or audio and students are listening to that outside of class as the homework and in class they are completing the practice and the teacher serves as a guide, re-teaching as needed. On most cell phones with a data plan students can watch a video of a previous lesson of an appropriate clip on .

Use Cell Phones as Your Student Response System
Using www.polleverywhere.com and your students' cell phones, you can track instant answers from all your students. It's free for classrooms of 30 people or less.

Gina Hartman an eMINTS Instructional Specialist at Francis Howell School District in Missouri shared a fantastic new Web 2.0 site named http://wiffiti.com . The teacher creates a wiffiti screen and students can text in their opinions.

One teacher used this to summarize Act 1, Scene 1 from Romeo and Juliet. They texted in the short summary and it showed up on the screen. In another classroom the students had think about the time period that Andrew Johnson was in office and text something into the wiffiti screen that would have been something he would have tweeted back then. I love this example, talk about engaging students.

Delivering Materials
As more curriculum materials are delivered digitally creative teachers are delivering materials directly to students on their personal cell phones. One such platform is School Town . This learning platform makes it possible for teachers and students to collaborate in discussion areas and chat with each other making blended learning a real possibility.

Awesome Teacher Apps

: One of my most beloved apps is dropbox. Dropbox allows all my computers and my phone to interact together. So the photo I take on my cell phone can be put in my Dropbox app and now it is available on all my devices, love it!

: Next in line of cool apps for the classroom is Evernote. This handy app lets you type a text note, or clip a web page. If your phone has a camera you can snap a photo, and now you can also grab a screenshot. Like dropbox it doesn't matter what device you are on, they all sync together.

Solving Common Problems Using Cell Phones in Class

Students without Cell Phones / Smart Phones
Other issues arise because not every student has a cell phone. The easiest way to work around this is to have students working in groups, collaborating and solving problems together. Now we only need one cell phone to report out the group work. If we get creative, any problem can be solved.

Wireless Access
Wireless access might be another problem. Smart phone users will usually try and find a wireless network instead of going through the provider signal. With all these added devices your network may be burdened. Also cell phone reception is an issue in many schools. If this is the case, you may want to focus more of the group work or homework-related cell phone strategies.

Keeping Cell Phone Use Appropriate
Thinking about using cell phone in the classroom we need to make sure we involve our students in the conversation. Let them teach us about how to reduce the fear of theft or inappropriate use. Every student should be reminded every day about appropriate technology use, and what to do if the rules are broken. We need to help students understand the ramifications of things like cyberbullying , sexting and posting things to social networking sites.

Where do you stand on the cell phone in class debate? Share your thoughts or your creative ways to use cell phones in school in the comments section!

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How to Use Cell Phones as Learning Tools

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Does your staff need Educational Technology training? The K-12 Teachers Alliance can help you plan your in-service professional development at no additional cost. Regardless of your school's cell phone policy, the reality in most schools is that students have phones in their pockets, purses, or hoodies.

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SiSAL Journal

Mainly about Learning to Foster Autonomy: The Role of Teacher Education Materials.

It is done by:

Hayo Reinders, Middlesex University, UK

Cem Balcikanli, Gazi University, Turkey
These guys did a great job giving us the jest of everything we need to learn about:
1. learner autonomy

2. teacher autonomy

3. teacher education

4. teacher education resources.

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Cem Balcikanli, Gazi University, Turkey
Reinders, H., & Balcikanli, C. (2011). Learning to foster autonomy: The role of teacher education materials Studies in Self-Access Learning Journal, 2 (1), 15-25.
Abstract
In recent years there has been an increased appreciation of the interrelationship between learner autonomy and teacher autonomy, both in the classroom and in the self-access centre. One obvious impact on learners' autonomy is their teachers' understanding of what autonomy means, and their ability to implement it in the classroom. Especially for beginning teachers, knowledge of learner autonomy is likely to be shaped in large part by the professional training they receive and the amount of attention given to the topic during their teacher education. It is therefore important to ask to what extent teacher training courses prepare teachers for fostering autonomy, including those teachers working in self-access centres. This study attempts to answer that question by critically investigating a range of popular teacher training course materials widely used in professional programmes worldwide. We apply an evaluative framework to identify 1) what information teachers are given about learner autonomy, and 2) the extent to which the materials cover the teaching of different skills for independent learning. Perhaps surprisingly, despite the growing interest in autonomy, it was found that the selected books included almost no information about learner autonomy at all and did not, with one or two minor exceptions, focus on the development of skills for supporting autonomous learning.

Keywords: learner autonomy, teacher autonomy, teacher education, teacher education resources.
Introduction
Learner autonomy, as a subject for research and as an educational goal, has gained a lot of traction in recent years. Autonomy is now a common theme at conferences and in professional journals, and is well on the radar of the average language teacher. The idea that learners need to be able to take control over their own learning to be successful not just in class, but also to learn independently without a teacher outside the class, has become widely accepted in mainstream language teaching (Benson, 2001). Breen's process syllabus (1987) and Nunan's learner-centred approach (1988) are examples of this but also more recent approaches to learning and teaching, such as task-based language teaching, include elements that can support the development of autonomous learning skills (cf. Errey & Schollaert, 2005). In general, there is now a broader awareness of the importance of developing language and autonomous learning skills in addition to the language competencies. The development of learner autonomy is sometimes carried out through "learner training" or dedicated strategy instruction often through self-access centres (Gardner & Miller, 1999), but the most likely context in which learners should come into contact with the idea of autonomy and develop appropriate skills is the language course. As such, the classroom teacher is likely to have a major impact on students' development towards autonomy. Much depends, then, on the teacher's knowledge of autonomy and his/her ability to implement it into the curriculum, either with or without the use of self-access facilities to complement classroom teaching. However, it is still unclear how teachers develop this knowledge and the necessary practical skills. It is likely that teacher education courses and the materials used in them play an important role (Lamb & Reinders, 2008), but this has not been directly investigated yet. For this reason, this study looks at eleven popular teacher education books to establish if they deal with learner autonomy and if so, how they teach teachers to foster autonomy in the classroom. In particular we were interested to identify if the books show teachers how to foster autonomy in the classroom. We will begin by reviewing the relevant literature on developing learner autonomy before describing our study.
Learning to Foster Autonomy
Learner autonomy is a multi-faceted and complex construct that includes political, psychological, and pedagogical dimensions (Benson, 1996, Reinders, 2011). At a practical level, the development of autonomy requires learners to build up a skillset that allows them to direct their own learning. Most learners do not naturally have this skillset and need explicit instruction to develop it: "...if learners are not trained for autonomy, no amount of surrounding them with resources will foster in them that capacity for active involvement and conscious choice, although it might appear to do so" (Hurd, 1998, p. 72-73). But what do teachers need in order to be able to foster autonomy? Much will depend on their own conception of autonomy and their experience in implementing it at the chalk face. There are two aspects to this, one has to do with the teacher's own autonomy, and the other with a set of teaching skills relevant for developing autonomy. In the literature, there has been an increasing attention given to teacher autonomy (McGrath, Sinclair, & Lamb, 2000; Lamb & Reinders, 2008). Teacher autonomy has been defined as the ability to improve one's own teaching through one's own efforts (see Lamb & Reinders, 2008). It therefore includes both the teacher's ability to make decisions about teaching and their own professional development. This assumes both a degree of political autonomy in the sense that teachers need to have the freedom to make such decisions, as well as knowledge of themselves as teachers and as learners, in order to know how to make such decisions. Teacher autonomy is also usually conceived of as including the ability to understand the students' learning needs and the ability to support them in their development towards autonomy. It is this latter ability that we are investigating in this article.

Very little previous research exists that investigates the development of such skills and the ways in which teachers are supported in this. This research focuses either on existing programmes (Vieira, Paiva, Marques & Fernandes, 2008), who describe the development of a teacher education programme that attempts to "involve teachers in action-based inquiry into the development of pedagogy for autonomy in schools" or on professional literature for beginning teachers (teacher training materials/textbooks). The programme "aims at promoting student teachers' critical reflectivity by helping them to: (1) problematise the contexts of teaching and teacher development, (2) inquire into pedagogical theories and practices, (3) promote learner-centred pedagogy, and (4) value self-direction and collaboration in professional development." The programme is based on and uses small-scale action research projects conducted by the student-teachers in which they learn about ways to encourage reflection, experimentation, regulation, and negotiation. This is an innovative programme, which has been operating for 15 years now and to which a great deal of expertise and resources have been committed. It is probably safe to say that such expertise and resources are not generally available to most beginning teachers and such programmes are unlikely to be representative of the experience of most teachers. For practical reasons it would have been difficult for us to get insight into the contents of professional courses in a range of countries. Instead we decided to focus on the contents of the most commonly used teacher education literature.
Methodology
This study took place in Gazi University, with one of the authors providing support from a distance. Our aim was to identify the most popular, widely used, and currently available course books for language teachers. First, we identified eleven of the most popular books for courses in language teaching based on publicly available sales-rankings, such as through Amazon.com and other popular book sellers. Although we cannot be completely certain that the books we selected are indeed those that sold the largest number of copies, we do not doubt that they are among the most commonly used around the world. The criteria for inclusion were that the books teach beginning language teachers, cover a wide range of skills (excluding books on, for example, teaching vocabulary or grammar), and are widely used in many countries. The books we selected are listed in Table 1.

In order to investigate if and, if so, how the books provide information to teachers about how to foster autonomy, we drew on a framework for self-directed learning developed by one of the authors (Reinders, 2010). This includes eight stages in the self-directed learning process (see Table 2). These stages are iterative; they form a cycle that repeats and builds on itself. They are an expansion and adaptation of the five-step model developed by Knowles (1975) and are widely considered to be the key skills learners need to be able to self-direct their learning. We investigated if the books covered ways of supporting learners at these stages. It is worth noting here that we are fully aware that self-directed learning and learner autonomy are not interchangeable. Autonomy, for example, includes a more political aspect relating to an individual's freedom to make their own choices about their education, as well as a more philosophical view relating to "the ability for individuals to choose and follow their own conception of a life that they deem to be suitable for themselves" (Winch, 2006, p. 1). We are not diminishing the importance of these elements of autonomy, but they are less easily identifiable from materials and were therefore considered to be beyond the scope of this article. Instead, we decided to focus on the more practical skills involved in the development of autonomy.

Figure 1 shows how these eight stages form a cycle, and how they are grounded in and impact on students' reflection, motivation, and their interaction (with the language and other learners).

Next, the eleven textbooks were investigated by the two authors to identify if and how they discussed the eight stages mentioned in Table 1. Each of us went through each of the eleven books and marked any instances where the books mentioned autonomy or any of the skills in Table 1. We made a distinction between cases where the books provided adescription oflearner autonomy and where they provided suggestions and materials on how to foster autonomy (e.g., sample materials, models). In case of a mismatch between the evaluation of both researchers, the findings were discussed until all discrepancies (of which there were very few to begin with) were resolved.
Results
Upon analysis of the results, it immediately became clear that descriptions of learner autonomy were virtually non-existent and that in only very few instances the skills in Table 1 were discussed. We will look at some examples now.

In Professional Development for Language Teachers by Richards and Farrell (2005), mention is made of the use of portfolios and their potential role in developing in learners' awareness of the learning process. This book also discusses the use of portfolios by the teacher and, implicitly, as this is not mentioned, by the student to monitor progress. It includes an example of a teacher's portfolio and vignettes from teachers who have used portfolios with their students. The book also talks about the importance of learners being able to plan their own learning but it does not include specific instructions on how to do this, nor does it make explicit reference to learner autonomy. The course book Tasks for Teacher Education: A Reflective Approach by Tanner and Green (1998) does mention the importance of learners setting their own goals, albeit not in any length. It also talks about the importance of learners planning their own learning but does not include information about how to teach learners how to do this. Similarly, it discusses the importance of learners monitoring their own progress, without going into any practical detail. The book Training Foreign Language Teachers: A Reflective Approach by Wallace (1991) only mentions the need for learners to plan their learning, under the heading of "microteaching." The book Teacher Education for Languages for Specific Purposes by Howard and Brown (1997) includes some information about the importance of independent learning strategies, but these are limited to strategies that teachers use to develop their own skills. The books in Table 3 did not include any information about the skills listed in Table 2.

The chart below summarises the state of play. Out of 11 books, only 4 cover information about autonomy. None of the books included examples, or specific instructions.
Discussion
The results above are surprising, and from the perspective of researchers interested in learner autonomy, disappointing. Although there was some limited discussion of portfolios and the importance of planning and monitoring in some of the books, none made any attempt to cover the skills identified in Table 2, and none discussed the topic of learner autonomy explicitly or to any depth. In the few occasions where the books discussed skills, such as planning and monitoring, no explicit guidance was given to the readers, no examples or models included, and no specific instructions on how to incorporate these subjects into a lesson.

Teacher autonomy and learner autonomy are closely linked and without sufficient knowledge and guidance, teachers are unlikely to develop the skills to be able to foster learner autonomy in their own classrooms. The last decades have seen major changes in language education with a focus towards more communicative, more authentic, and more learner-focused pedagogies, but clearly there is still a considerable way to go before the development of language-learningskills, and the importance of preparing learners for, and supporting them in language use outsidethe language classroom becomes a standard area of attention in textbooks.

We would like to acknowledge some limitations to this study. One of these, of course, is that teachers' development does not only result from their interaction with textbooks. People learn from many sources, not least of which are the teacher educators who facilitate the teacher development courses they take, as well as classroom observations and journal reflections. Nonetheless, we feel the course textbook is an important source of information and therefore important to look at. Secondly, it can be argued that the model of self-directed learning used in this study only reflects one aspect of autonomy, and only includes some of the more practical skills that learners need to develop. It is possible that the textbooks discuss aspects of learning, such as choice and freedom, critical reflection, and the development of a general awareness, but for practical reasons we had to limit ourselves to only those aspects that we could relatively easily recognise as relating to the development of autonomy. It also became clear to both of us after studying these eleven textbooks that very little attention is given to such aspects of teaching.

In conclusion, the results show that despite the common interest in learner autonomy teachers are not necessarily provided with sufficient information in teacher training texts to develop an understanding of learner autonomy, at least not at a practical level. This is likely to extend to those working in self-access centres. Without such an understanding, perhaps it is not surprising that we often find learners struggling to develop as autonomous learners. One implication of this is that materials writers need to pay more explicit attention to the ways in which teachers can develop learner autonomy and provide beginning teachers with more information about autonomy and, in particular, with specific guidance and examples of how to foster autonomy in and outside of the classroom. Another important implication is that teacher educators, and of course the teachers they teach, cannot rely on popular textbooks to cover this important subject and will instead have to complement the course book with additional materials and instruction. If learner autonomy is less likely to develop without teacher autonomy, then more attention needs to be given to the contents of teacher education materials.
Notes on the contributors
Dr. Hayo Reinders ( www.innovationinteaching.org) is Head of Learner Development at Middlesex University in London. He is also Editor of Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, and Convenor of the AILA Research Network for CALL and the Learner. Hayo's interests are in CALL, autonomy, and out-of-class learning. He is a speaker for the Royal Society of New Zealand. His most recent books are on teacher autonomy, teaching methodologies, and second language acquisition and he edits a book series on 'New Language Learning and Teaching Environments' for Palgrave Macmillan.

Dr. Cem Balcikanli works as a lecturer in the ELT Department of Gazi University, Turkey. He is also Publications Coordinator of the AILA Research Network for CALL and the Learner. He has widely published articles on learner/teacher autonomy, use of Web 2.0 technologies in language learning/teaching and teaching Turkish as a foreign language. He takes active part in the in-service training programs of the Ministry of Education as a trainer and has contributed to a number of projects run by the Ministry for primary, secondary and tertiary levels.
References
Benson, P. (1996). Concepts of autonomy in language learning. In R. Pemberton , E. Li, W. Or, & H. Pierson. Taking control. Autonomy in language learning. (pp. 27-34). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.

Benson, P. (2001). Teaching and researching autonomy in language learning. London: Longman.

Breen, M. (1987). Contemporary paradigms in syllabus design (parts I and II). Language Teaching, 20, 91-92/157-174.

Brown, H. D. (2006). Principles of language learning and teaching. Addison Wesley Longman.

Cary, S. (2007). Working with second language learners: Answers to teachers' ten top questions. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Crookes, G. (2003). A practicum in TESOL. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Errey, L., & Schollaert, R. (2005). Whose learning is it anyway? Developing learner autonomy through task-based language learning. Coronet Books.

Flaitz, J. (2003). Understanding your international students: An educational, cultural, and linguistic guide. Michigan, U.S: University of Michigan Press.

Gardner, D., & Miller, L. (1999). Establishing self-access. From theory to practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Howard, R., & Brown, G. (1997). Teacher education for languages for specific purposes.Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters Ltd.

Hurd, S. (1998). Too carefully led or too carelessly left alone? Language Learning Journal, 17, 70-74.

James, P. (2001). Teachers in action: Tasks for in-service language teacher education and development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Knowles, M. (1975). Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers. New York: Cambridge: The Adult Education Company.

Lamb, T., & Reinders, H. (Eds.). (2008). Learner and teacher autonomy: Concepts, realities, and responses. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

McGrath, I., Sinclair, B., & Lamb, T. (2000). Learner autonomy, teacher autonomy: Future directions. Harlow: Longman.

Nunan, D. (1988). The learner-centred classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Phillips, D. K., & Carr, K. (2006). Becoming a teacher through action research: P rocess, context, and self-study. New York: Routledge.

Reinders, H. (2010). Towards a classroom pedagogy for learner autonomy: A framework of independent language learning skills. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 35(5),40-55.

Reinders, H. (2011). Towards an operationalisation of autonomy. In Ahmed, A. Cane, G. & Hanzala, M. T eaching English in multilingual contexts: Current challenges, future directions. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

Richards, J. C., & Farrell, T. S. C. (2005). P rofessional development for language teachers: Strategies for teacher learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Tanner, R., & Green, C. (1998). Task for teacher education: A reflective approach. Harlow: Pearson.

Ur, P. (1998). A course in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Vieira, F., Paiva, M., Marques, I., & Fernandes, I. (2008). Teaching education towards teacher and learner autonomy: What can be learnt from teacher development practices? In T. Lamb & H. Reinders (Eds). Learner and teacher autonomy: Concepts, realities, and responses. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Wallace, M. (1991). Training foreign language teachers: A reflective approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Winch, C. (2006). Education, autonomy and critical thinking. New York and London: Routledge.

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Learning to Foster Autonomy: The Role of Teacher Education Materials

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Hayo Reinders, Middlesex University, UK Cem Balcikanli, Gazi University, Turkey Reinders, H., & Balcikanli, C. (2011). Learning to foster autonomy: The role of teacher education materials Studies in Self-Access Learning Journal, 2 (1), 15-25. Paginated PDF version Abstract In recent years there has been an increased appreciation of the interrelationship between learner autonomy and teacher...

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This paper discusses autonomy, student empowerment, and the use of learning-styles and strategies in language learning and will show how these can be implemented through a classroom methodology which makes use of tools available through WWW.

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Roller Coaster Physics: STEM in Action
How to put autonomy into practice

The teacher's plan is the following

Lesson Objective

Use knowledge of energy and motion to construct roller coasters

Length

14 min

Questions to Consider

-How does "chiming" benefit both the teacher and students?

-Why does having more constraints make students better problem solvers?

-What strategies does Ms. Migdol use to get all students engaged in this project?

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The lower semi-circle illustrates how activities undertaken autonomously by learners day to day can support and underpin their learning in a formal managed learning environment and could be utilized to good effect in the delivery of teaching, training and learning in a formal context.

The upper semi-circle of the diagram describes different models that can be used to enhance the learning experience. Any or all might be appropriate. The degree of learner autonomy increases from left to right as the use of technology enables individuals to engage in their own self-directed activities.

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Strategies for teachers - One Computer Classroom

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Learn strategies for using one computer effectively in your elementary classroom. Topics include: using the computer as teacher tool, using the computer as multi-media chalk board, teaching students use the computer as a tool for individual input as part of a larger group or class project, using the computer as learning center or station, and using the Computer as Cooperative Learning Tool.

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Watch this interesting and useful video : Petra Pointner helping us to enhance learner autonomy with Web 2.0 technology. She also talks about Wallwisher, now called Padlet

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Learner Autonomy , Aesthetics & Online Language Learning

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Petra Pointner helping us to enhance learner autonomy with Web 2.0 technology

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Petra Pointner's 2011 ISTEK ELT conference workshop

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What is learner autonomy: Here one can find some definitions about learner autonomy with the authors.

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Twenty Ideas for Using Mobile Phones in the language Classroom

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LLAS Centre for Languages Linguistics & Area Studies

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Learner Autonomy , Aesthetics & Online Language Learning

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Learner Autonomy: A Theoretical Phantasm?

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Supporting the autonomous learner in the classroom is an innovative attempt to foster learner engagement and learning outcomes. Some proponents go so far as to stress the importance of the concept of learner autonomy for lifelong learning. The literature suggests several instruments (i.e. portfolios, diaries, learning contracts or individualised learning plans) in order to engender learner autonomy.

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This paper suggests a theoretical framework to convey the principal processes of learner autonomy and
an analytical framework to understand this construct at the operationalised level

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This article gives a powerful insight into Learner Autonomy. It's really a great read for us all.

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The Internet TESL Journal Dimitrios Thanasoulas
akasa74 [at] hotmail.com

1. Introduction

Over the last two decades, the concepts of learner autonomy and independence have gained momentum, the former becoming a 'buzz-word' within the context of language learning (Little, 1991: 2). It is a truism that one of the most important spin-offs of more communicatively oriented language learning and teaching has been the premium placed on the role of the learner in the language learning process (see Wenden, 1998: xi). It goes without saying, of course, that this shift of responsibility from teachers to learners does not exist in a vacuum, but is the result of a concatenation of changes to the curriculum itself towards a more learner-centred kind of learning. What is more, this reshaping, so to speak, of teacher and learner roles has been conducive to a radical change in the age-old distribution of power and authority that used to plague the traditional classroom. Cast in a new perspective and regarded as having the 'capacity for detachment, critical reflection, decision-making, and independent action' (Little, 1991: 4), learners, autonomous learners, that is, are expected to assume greater responsibility for, and take charge of, their own learning. However, learner autonomy does not mean that the teacher becomes redundant, abdicating his/her control over what is transpiring in the language learning process. In the present study, it will be shown that learner autonomy is a perennial dynamic process amenable to 'educational interventions' (Candy, 1991), rather than a static product, a state, which is reached once and for all. Besides, what permeates this study is the belief that 'in order to help learners to assume greater control over their own learning it is important to help them to become aware of and identify the strategies that they already use or could potentially use' (Holmes & Ramos, 1991, cited in James & Garrett, 1991: 198). At any rate, individual learners differ in their learning habits, interests, needs, and motivation, and develop varying degrees of independence throughout their lives (Tumposky, 1982).

2. What is Autonomy?

For a definition of autonomy, we might quote Holec (1981: 3, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 1) who describes it as 'the ability to take charge of one's learning'. On a general note, the term autonomy has come to be used in at least five ways (see Benson & Voller, 1997: 2):

for situations in which learners study entirely on their own;

for a set of skills which can be learned and applied in self-directed learning;

for an inborn capacity which is suppressed by institutional education;

for the exercise of learners' responsibility for their own learning;

for the right of learners to determine the direction of their own learning.

It is noteworthy that autonomy can be thought of in terms of a departure from education as a social process, as well as in terms of redistribution of power attending the construction of knowledge and the roles of the participants in the learning process. The relevant literature is riddled with innumerable definitions of autonomy and other synonyms for it, such as 'independence' (Sheerin, 1991), 'language awareness' (Lier, 1996;James & Garrett, 1991), 'self-direction' (Candy, 1991), 'andragogy' (Knowles, 1980; 1983 etc., which testifies to the importance attached to it by scholars. Let us review some of these definitions and try to gain insights into what learner autonomy means and consists of. As has been intimated so far, the term autonomy has sparked considerable controversy, inasmuch as linguists and educationalists have failed to reach a consensus as to what autonomy really is. For example, in David Little's terms, learner autonomy is 'essentially a matter of the learner's psychological relation to the process and content of learning--a capacity for detachment, critical reflection, decision-making, and independent action' (Little, 1991: 4). It is not something done to learners; therefore, it is far from being another teaching method (ibid.). In the same vein, Leni Dam (1990, cited in Gathercole, 1990: 16), drawing upon Holec (1983), defines autonomy in terms of the learner's willingness and capacity to control or oversee her own learning. More specifically, she, like Holec, holds that someone qualifies as an autonomous learner when he independently chooses aims and purposes and sets goals; chooses materials, methods and tasks; exercises choice and purpose in organising and carrying out the chosen tasks; and chooses criteria for evaluation.
To all intents and purposes, the autonomous learner takes a (pro-) active role in the learning process, generating ideas and availing himself of learning opportunities, rather than simply reacting to various stimuli of the teacher (Boud, 1988; Kohonen, 1992; Knowles, 1975). As we shall see, this line of reasoning operates within, and is congruent with, the theory of constructivism. For Rathbone (1971: 100, 104, cited in Candy, 1991: 271), the autonomous learner is a self-activated maker of meaning, an active agent in his own learning process. He is not one to whom things merely happen; he is the one who, by his own volition, causes things to happen. Learning is seen as the result of his own self-initiated interaction with the world.

Within such a conception, learning is not simply a matter of rote memorisation; 'it is a constructive process that involves actively seeking meaning from (or even imposing meaning on) events' (Candy, 1991: 271).

Such "inventories" of characteristics evinced by the putative autonomous learner abound, and some would say that they amount to nothing more than a romantic ideal which does not square with reality. This stands to reason, for most of the characteristics imputed to the "autonomous learner" encapsulate a wide range of attributes not commonly associated with learners. For instance, Benn (1976, cited in Candy, 1991: 102) likens the autonomous learner to one '[w]hose life has a consistency that derives from a coherent set of beliefs, values, and principles--[and who engages in a] still-continuing process of criticism and re-evaluation', while Rousseau ([1762] 1911, cited in Candy, 1991: 102) regards the autonomous learner as someone who 'is obedient to a law that he prescribes to himself'. Within the context of education, though, there seem to be seven main attributes characterising autonomous learners (see Omaggio, 1978, cited in Wenden, 1998: 41-42):

1. Autonomous learners have insights into their learning styles and strategies;

2. take an active approach to the learning task at hand;

3. are willing to take risks, i.e., to communicate in the target language at all costs;

4. are good guessers;

5. attend to form as well as to content, that is, place importance on accuracy as well as appropriacy;

6. develop the target language into a separate reference system and are willing to revise and reject hypotheses and rules that do not apply; and

7. have a tolerant and outgoing approach to the target language.

Here, some comments with respect to the preceding list are called for. The points briefly touched upon above are necessary but not sufficient conditions for the development of learner autonomy, and many more factors such as learner needs, motivation, learning strategies, and language awareness have to be taken into consideration. For example, the first point hinges upon a metalanguage that learners have to master in order to be regarded as autonomous, while points 4) and 7) pertain to learner motivation. In view of this, an attempt will be made, in subsequent sections, to shed some light on some of the parameters affecting, and interfering with, learners' self-image as well as their capacity and will to learn. It is of consequence to note that autonomy is a process, not a product. One does not become autonomous; one only works towards autonomy. One corollary of viewing autonomy in this way is the belief that there are some things to be achieved by the learner, as well as some ways of achieving these things, and that autonomy 'is learned at least partly through educational experiences [and interventions]' (Candy, 1991: 115). But prior to sifting through the literature and discussing learning strategies, motivation, and attitudes entertained by learners, it would be pertinent to cast learner autonomy in relation to dominant philosophical approaches to learning. The assumption is that what is dubbed as learner autonomy and the extent to which it is a permissible and viable educational goal are all too often 'based on [and thus constrained by] particular conceptions of the constitution of knowledge itself' (Benson, 1997, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 20).
3. Learner Autonomy and Dominant Philosophies of Learning

In this section, three dominant approaches to knowledge and learning will be briefly discussed, with a view to examining how each of them connects up with learner autonomy. Positivism, which reigned supreme in the twentieth century, is premised upon the assumption that knowledge reflects objective reality. Therefore, if teachers can be said to hold this "objective reality," learning can only 'consist--in the transmission of knowledge from one individual to another' (Benson & Voller, 1997: 20). Congruent with this view, of course, is the maintenance and enhancement of the "traditional classroom," where teachers are the purveyors of knowledge and wielders of power, and learners are seen as 'container[s] to be filled with the knowledge held by teachers' (ibid.). On the other hand, positivism also lends support to the widespread notion that knowledge is attained by dint of the 'hypothesis-testing' model, and that it is more effectively acquired when 'it is discovered rather than taught' (ibid.) (my italics). It takes little perspicacity to realise that positivism is incongruent with, and even runs counter to, the development of learner autonomy, as the latter refers to a gradual but radical divorce from conventions and restrictions and is inextricably related to self-direction and self-evaluation.

Constructivism is an elusive concept and, within applied linguistics, is strongly associated with Halliday (1979, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 21). As Candy (1991: 254) observes, '[o]ne of the central tenets of constructivism is that individuals try to give meaning to, or construe, the perplexing maelstrom of events and ideas in which they find themselves caught up'. In contrast to positivism, constructivism posits the view that, rather than internalising or discovering objective knowledge (whatever that might mean), individuals reorganise and restructure their experience. In Candy's terms (Candy, 1991: 270), constructivism 'leads directly to the proposition that knowledge cannot be taught but only learned (that is, constructed)', because knowledge is something 'built up by the learner' (von Glasersfeld & Smock, 1974: xvi, cited in Candy, 1991: 270). By the same token, language learning does not involve internalising sets of rules, structures and forms; each learner brings her own experience and world knowledge to bear on the target language or task at hand. Apparently, constructivism supports, and extends to cover, psychological versions of autonomy that appertain to learners' behaviour, attitudes, motivation, and self-concept (see Benson & Voller, 1997: 23). As a result, constructivist approaches encourage and promote self-directed learning as a necessary condition for learner autonomy.

Finally, critical theory, an approach within the humanities and language studies, shares with constructivism the view that knowledge is constructed rather than discovered or learned. Moreover, it argues that knowledge does not reflect reality, but rather comprises 'competing ideological versions of that reality expressing the interests of different social groups' (Benson & Voller, 1997: 22). Within this approach, learning concerns issues of power and ideology and is seen as a process of interaction with social context, which can bring about social change. What is more, linguistic forms are bound up with the social meanings they convey, in so far as language is power, and vice versa. Certainly, learner autonomy assumes a more social and political character within critical theory. As learners become aware of the social context in which their learning is embedded and the constraints the latter implies, they gradually become independent, dispel myths, disabuse themselves of preconceived ideas, and can be thought of as 'authors of their own worlds' (ibid.: 53).

4. Conditions for Learner Autonomy

The concern of the present study has so far been with outlining the general characteristics of autonomy. At this juncture, it should be reiterated that autonomy is not an article of faith, a product ready made for use or merely a personal quality or trait. Rather, it should be clarified that autonomous learning is achieved when certain conditions obtain: cognitive and metacognitive strategies on the part of the learner, motivation, attitudes, and knowledge about language learning, i.e., a kind of metalanguage. To acknowledge, however, that learners have to follow certain paths to attain autonomy is tantamount to asserting that there has to be a teacher on whom it will be incumbent to show the way. In other words, autonomous learning is by no means "teacherless learning." As Sheerin (1997, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 63) succinctly puts it, '[t]eachers--have a crucial role to play in launching learners into self-access and in lending them a regular helping hand to stay afloat' (my italics).

Probably, giving students a "helping hand" may put paid to learner autonomy, and this is mainly because teachers are ill-prepared or reluctant to 'wean [students]--away from teacher dependence' (Sheerin, 1997, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 63). After all, 'it is not easy for teachers to change their role from purveyor of information to counsellor and manager of learning resources--And it is not easy for teachers to let learners solve problems for themselves' (Little, 1990, cited in Gathercole, 1990: 11). Such a transition from teacher-control to learner-control is fraught with difficulties but it is mainly in relation to the former (no matter how unpalatable this may sound) that the latter finds its expression. At any rate, learner-control--which is ancillary to autonomy--'is not a single, unitary concept, but rather a continuum along which various instructional situations may be placed' (Candy, 1991: 205). It is to these 'instructional situations' that we will turn in the next section. In this section, it is of utmost importance to gain insights into the strategies learners use in grappling with the object of enquiry, i.e., the target language, as well as their motivation and attitude towards language learning in general. A question germane to the discussion is, what does it mean to be an autonomous learner in a language learning environment?

4.1. Learning Strategies

A central research project on learning strategies is the one surveyed in O'Malley and Chamot (1990). According to them, learning strategies are 'the special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information' (O'Malley and Chamot, 1990: 1, cited in Cook, 1993: 113)--a definition in keeping with the one provided in Wenden (1998: 18): 'Learning strategies are mental steps or operations that learners use to learn a new language and to regulate their efforts to do so'. To a greater or lesser degree, the strategies and learning styles that someone adopts 'may partly reflect personal preference rather than innate endowment' (Skehan, 1998: 237). We will only briefly discuss some of the main learning strategies, refraining from mentioning communication or compensatory strategies (see Cook, 1993 for more details).

4.1.1. Cognitive Strategies

According to O'Malley and Chamot (1990: 44), cognitive strategies 'operate directly on incoming information, manipulating it in ways that enhance learning'. Learners may use any or all of the following cognitive strategies (see Cook, 1993: 114-115):

repetition, when imitating others' speech;

resourcing, i.e., having recourse to dictionaries and other materials;

translation, that is, using their mother tongue as a basis for understanding and/or producing the target language;

note-taking;

deduction, i.e., conscious application of L2 rules;

contextualisation, when embedding a word or phrase in a meaningful sequence;

transfer, that is, using knowledge acquired in the L1 to remember and understand facts and sequences in the L2;

inferencing, when matching an unfamiliar word against available information (a new word etc);

question for clarification, when asking the teacher to explain, etc.

There are many more cognitive strategies in the relevant literature. O'Malley and Chamot (1990) recognise 16.
4.1.2. Metacognitive Strategies

According to Wenden (1998: 34), 'metacognitive knowledge includes all facts learners acquire about their own cognitive processes as they are applied and used to gain knowledge and acquire skills in varied situations'. In a sense, metacognitive strategies are skills used for planning, monitoring, and evaluating the learning activity; 'they are strategies about learning rather than learning strategies themselves' (Cook, 1993: 114). Let us see some of these strategies:

directed attention, when deciding in advance to concentrate on general aspects of a task;

selective attention, paying attention to specific aspects of a task;

self-monitoring, i.e., checking one's performance as one speaks;

self-evaluation, i.e., appraising one's performance in relation to one's own standards;

self-reinforcement, rewarding oneself for success.

At the planning stage, also known as pre-planning (see Wenden, 1998: 27), learners identify their objectives and determine how they will achieve them. Planning, however, may also go on while a task is being performed. This is called planning-in-action. Here, learners may change their objectives and reconsider the ways in which they will go about achieving them. At the monitoring stage, language learners act as 'participant observers or overseers of their language learning' (ibid.), asking themselves, "How am I doing? Am I having difficulties with this task?", and so on. Finally, when learners evaluate, they do so in terms of the outcome of their attempt to use a certain strategy. According to Wenden (1998: 28), evaluating involves three steps: 1) learners examine the outcome of their attempts to learn; 2) they access the criteria they will use to judge it; and 3) they apply it.
4.2. Learner Attitudes and Motivation

Language learning is not merely a cognitive task. Learners do not only reflect on their learning in terms of the language input to which they are exposed, or the optimal strategies they need in order to achieve the goals they set. Rather, the success of a learning activity is, to some extent, contingent upon learners' stance towards the world and the learning activity in particular, their sense of self, and their desire to learn (see Benson & Voller, 1997: 134-136). As Candy (1991: 295-296) says, 'the how and the what of learning are intimately interwoven--[T]he overall approach a learner adopts will significantly influence the shape of his or her learning outcomes' (my italics). In other words, language learning--as well as learning, in general--has also an affective component. 'Meeting and interiorising the grammar of a foreign language is not simply an intelligent, cognitive act. It is a highly affective one too--' (Rinvolucri, 1984: 5, cited in James & Garrett, 1991: 13). Gardner and MacIntyre (1993: 1, cited in Graham, 1997: 92) define 'affective variables' as the 'emotionally relevant characteristics of the individual that influence how she/he will respond to any situation'. Other scholars, such as Shumann (1978) and Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991) attach less importance to learners' emotions, claiming that 'social and psychological factors' give a more suitable description for students' reactions to the learning process. Amongst the social and affective variables at work, self-esteem and desire to learn are deemed to be the most crucial factors 'in the learner's ability to overcome occasional setbacks or minor mistakes in the process of learning a second [or foreign] language' (Tarone & Yule, 1989: 139). In this light, it is necessary to shed some light on learner attitudes and motivation.

Wenden (1998: 52) defines attitudes as 'learned motivations, valued beliefs, evaluations, what one believes is acceptable, or responses oriented towards approaching or avoiding'. For her, two kinds of attitudes are crucial: attitudes learners hold about their role in the learning process, and their capability as learners (ibid.: 53). In a sense, attitudes are a form of metacognitive knowledge. At any rate, 'learner beliefs about their role and capability as learners will be shaped and maintained--by other beliefs they hold about themselves as learners' (ibid.: 54). For example, if learners believe that certain personality types cannot learn a foreign language and they believe that they are that type of person, then they will think that they are fighting a "losing battle," as far as learning the foreign language is concerned. Furthermore, if learners labour under the misconception that learning is successful only within the context of the "traditional classroom," where the teacher directs, instructs, and manages the learning activity, and students must follow in the teacher's footsteps, they are likely to be impervious or resistant to learner-centred strategies aiming at autonomy, and success is likely to be undermined.

In a way, attitudes are 'part of one's perception of self, of others, and of the culture in which one is living [or the culture of the target language]' (Brown, 1987: 126), and it seems clear that positive attitudes are conducive to increased motivation, while negative attitudes have the opposite effect. But let us examine the role of motivation.

Although the term 'motivation' is frequently used in educational contexts, there is little agreement among experts as to its exact meaning. What most scholars seem to agree on, though, is that motivation is 'one of the key factors that influence the rate and success of second or foreign language (L2) learning. Motivation provides the primary impetus to initiate learning the L2 and later the driving force to sustain the long and often tedious learning process' (Dornyei, 1998: 117). According to Gardner and MacIntyre (1993: 3), motivation is comprised of three components: 'desire to achieve a goal, effort extended in this direction, and satisfaction with the task'.

It is manifest that in language learning, people are motivated in different ways and to different degrees. Some learners like doing grammar and memorising; others want to speak and role-play; others prefer reading and writing, while avoiding speaking. Furthermore, since '[the learning of a foreign language] involves an alteration in self-image, the adoption of new social and cultural behaviours and ways of being, and therefore has a significant impact on the social nature of the learner' (Williams, 1994: 77, cited in Dornyei, 1998:122), an important distinction should be made between instrumental and integrative motivation. Learners with an instrumental orientation view the foreign language as a means of finding a good job or pursuing a lucrative career; in other words, the target language acts as a 'monetary incentive' (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993: 3). On the other hand, learners with an integrative orientation are interested in the culture of the target language; they want to acquaint themselves with the target community and become integral parts of it. Of course, this approach to motivation has certain limitations (see Cookes and Schmidt, 1991, cited in Lier, 1996: 104-105), but an in-depth analysis is not within the purview of this study. The bottom line is that motivation is 'a central mediator in the prediction of language achievement' (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993: 3), as various studies have shown (see Kraemer, 1990; Machnick and Wolfe, 1982; et al.).

4.3. Self-esteem

Closely related to attitudes and motivation is the concept of self-esteem, that is, the evaluation the learner makes of herself with regard to the target language or learning in general. '[S]elf-esteem is a personal judgement of worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes that the individual holds towards himself' (Coopersmith, 1967: 4-5, cited in Brown, 1987: 101-102). If the learner has a 'robust sense of self', to quote Breen and Mann (1997, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 134), his relationship to himself as a learner is unlikely to be marred by any negative assessments by the teacher. Conversely, a lack of self-esteem is likely to lead to negative attitudes towards his capability as a learner, and to 'a deterioration in cognitive performance', thus confirming his view of himself as incapable of learning (Diener and Dweck, 1978, 1980, cited in Wenden, 1998: 57).

Now that we have examined some of the factors that may enhance, or even militate against, the learner's willingness to take charge of her own learning and her confidence in her ability as a learner, it is of consequence to consider possible ways of promoting learner autonomy. To say, though, that learner autonomy can be fostered is not to reduce it to a set of skills that need to be acquired. Rather, it is taken to mean that the teacher and the learner can work towards autonomy by creating a friendly atmosphere characterised by 'low threat, unconditional positive regard, honest and open feedback, respect for the ideas and opinions of others, approval of self-improvement as a goal, collaboration rather than competition' (Candy, 1991: 337). In the next section, some general guidelines for promoting learner autonomy will be given, on the assumption that the latter does not mean leaving learners to their own devices or learning in isolation.

5. How Can Learner Autonomy be Promoted?

To posit ways of fostering learner autonomy is certainly to posit ways of fostering teacher autonomy, as '[t]eachers' autonomy permeates into [learners'] autonomy' (Johnson, Pardesi and Paine, 1990, cited in Gathercole, 1990: 51). Nevertheless, our main focus will be on what the learner can do in order to attain a considerable degree of autonomy, even though the success of the learner is, to a great extent, determined--alas! vitiated--by the educational system and the requisite role of the teacher.

5.1. Self-reports

According to Wenden (1998: 79-95), a good way of collecting information on how students go about a learning task and helping them become aware of their own strategies is to assign a task and have them report what they are thinking while they are performing it. This self-report is called introspective, as learners are asked to introspect on their learning. In this case, 'the [introspective] self-report is a verbalization of one's stream of consciousness' (Wenden, 1998: 81). Introspective reports are assumed to provide information on the strategies learners are using at the time of the report. However, this method suffers from one limitation: '[t]he concentration put on thinking aloud might detract from [learners'] ability to do the task efficiently' (ibid.: 83), thus rendering the outcome of the report spurious and tentative.

Another type of self-report is what has been dubbed as retrospective self-report, since learners are asked to think back or retrospect on their learning. Retrospective self-reports are quite open ended, in that there is no limit put on what students say in response to a question or statement that points to a topic in a general way. There are two kinds of retrospective self-reports: semi-structured interviews and structured questionnaires. A semi-structured interview may focus on a specific skill with a view to extracting information about learners' feelings towards particular skills (reading, listening, etc.), problems encountered, techniques resorted to in order to tackle these problems, and learners' views on optimal strategies or ways of acquiring specific skills or dealing with learning tasks. A structured questionnaire seeks the same information but in a different way: by dint of explicit questions and statements, and then asking learners to agree or disagree, write true or false, and so forth.

It could be argued that self-reports can be a means of raising awareness of learners' strategies and the need for constant evaluation of techniques, goals, and outcomes. As Wenden (1998: 90) observes, 'without awareness [learners] will remain trapped in their old patterns of beliefs and behaviors and never be fully autonomous'.

5.2. Diaries and Evaluation Sheets

Perhaps one of the principal goals of education is to alter learners' beliefs about themselves by showing them that their putative failures or shortcomings can be ascribed to a lack of effective strategies rather than to a lack of potential. After all, according to Vygotsky (1978), learning is an internalised form of a formerly social activity, and 'a learner can realize [his] potential interactively--through the guidance of supportive other persons such as parents, teachers, and peers' (Wenden, 1998: 107). Herein lies the role of diaries and evaluation sheets, which offer students the possibility to plan, monitor, and evaluate their learning, identifying any problems they run into and suggesting solutions. Let us have a look at the following diaries based on authentic student accounts of their language learning:

A.
Dear Diary,
These first few days have been terrible. I studied English for eight years·just think, eight years, but I only learned a lot of grammar. I can't speak a word. I don't dare. I can't express myself in the right way, so I am afraid to speak.
The other day I started watching TV, so I could get accustomed to the sound. I don't understand TV news very well·only a few words. I can't get the main point. In school it's easy to understand, but I can't understand the people in the stores.
What can I do?
Yours Truly,
Impatient
(from Wenden, 1998: 102)
B.
Dear Diary,
I read the New York Times every day. Every day I learn many new expressions-a lot of vocabulary. But I can't use this vocabulary in conversation. The same thing happens with what I learn at school. I can't use it when I want to talk to Americans or even with my own Spanish friends.
I need some help.
Yours Truly,
Confused
(from Wenden, 1998: 102)

Alongside diaries, students can also benefit from putting pen to paper and writing on their expectations of a course at the beginning of the term, and then filling in evaluation sheets, or reporting on the outcomes of a course, at the end of the term. These activities are bound to help learners put things into perspective and manage their learning more effectively. Let us consider two such reports:

1.
What do I want to do this year?
"I want to speak more English and I'd like to spell better that I do now. I would like to work with another boy or girl who is willing to speak English with me and make some activities in English. Materials: Challenge to think and crosswords.
I would like to get a more varied language and I would like to be better at spelling, especially the words used in everyday situations. How: I will prepare Îtwo minutes' talk' for every lesson, I will write down new words five times and practise pronouncing them. I will get someone or myself to correct it. I will read at least two books÷difficult ones÷and make book-reviews.ä
(Beginning of term÷4th year of English
[from Dam, 1990, cited in Gathercole,
1990: 30])
2.
What do you feel you know now that you didn't know before?
"I think that we have grown better at planning our own time. We know more about what we need to do and how to go about it. We try all the time to extend our vocabulary and to get an active language. Evaluation also helped us. It is like going through things again.ä
(End of term÷4th year of English
[from Dam, 1990, cited in Gathercole,
1990: 32])

So far, one of the assumptions underlying this discussion on learner autonomy has been that the teacher has not relinquished his "authority"; rather, that he has committed himself to providing the learners with the opportunity to experiment, make hypotheses, and improvise, in their attempt to master the target language and, along with it, to learn how to learn in their own, individual, holistic way (see Papaconstantinou, 1997). It may be the case that learner autonomy is best achieved when, among other things, the teacher acts as a facilitator of learning, a counsellor, and as a resource (see Voller, 1997, cited in Benson and Voller, 1997: 99-106). In other words, when she lies somewhere along a continuum between what Barnes (1976, cited in Benson and Voller, 1997: 99) calls transmission and interpretation teachers. As Wright (1987: 62, cited in Benson and Voller, 1997: 100) notes, transmission teachers believe in subject disciplines and boundaries between them, in content, in standards of performance laid down by these disciplines that can be objectively evaluated--that learners will find it hard to meet the standards; interpretation teachers believe that knowledge is the ability to organize thought, interpret and act on facts; that learners are intrinsically interested and naturally inclined to explore their worlds--that learners already know a great deal and have the ability to refashion that knowledge.

The interpretation teacher respects learners' needs and is 'more likely to follow a fraternal-permissive model' (emphasis added) (Stevick, 1976: 91-93, cited in Benson and Voller, 1997: 100). It is with this type of teacher that the role of persuasive communication is most congruent.

5.3. Persuasive Communication as a Means of Altering Learner Beliefs and Attitudes

Inasmuch as the success of learning and the extent to which learners tap into their potential resources in order to overcome difficulties and achieve autonomy are determined by such factors as learners' motivation, their desire to learn, and the beliefs they hold about themselves as learners and learning per se, it is manifest that changing some negative beliefs and attitudes is bound to facilitate learning. 'Attitude change [is assumed to] be brought about through exposure to a persuasive communication [between the teacher and the learners]' (Wenden, 1998: 126). According to the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) of attitude change developed by Petty and Cacciopo (1986, cited in Wenden, 1998: 126), there are several ways of bringing about this change, however, our concern will only be with persuasive communication.

A persuasive communication is a discussion presenting information and arguments to change a learner's evaluation of a topic, situation, task, and so on. These arguments could be either explicit or implicit, especially when the topic is deemed of importance. If, for instance, a deeply ingrained fear or belief precludes the learner from engaging in the learning process, persuasive communication purports to help bring these facts to light and identify the causes that underlie them. It should be noted, though, that no arguments to influence students' views are given. Rather, the communication comprises facts that show what learners can do to attain autonomy and that learners who do so are successful (see Wenden, 1998: 126). This approach is based on the assumption that when learners are faced with convincing information about a situation, 'they can be led to re-examine existing evaluations they hold about it and revise or change them completely' (ibid.: 127).

6. Conclusion

This study is far from comprehensive, as we have only skimmed the surface of the subject and the puzzle called learner autonomy. Many more pieces are missing. For instance, no mention has been made of the role of the curriculum in promoting learner autonomy, despite the debate on the relationship between classroom practice and ideological encoding (Littlejohn, 1997, cited in Benson and Voller, 1997: 181-182). At any rate, the main point of departure for this study has been the notion that there are degrees of learner autonomy and that it is not an absolute concept. It would be nothing short of ludicrous to assert that learners come into the learning situation with the knowledge and skills to plan, monitor, and evaluate their learning, or to make decisions on content or objectives. Nevertheless, learner autonomy is an ideal, so to speak, that can, and should, be realised, if we want self-sufficient learners and citizens capable of evaluating every single situation they find themselves in and drawing the line at any inconsistencies or shortcomings in institutions and society at large. Certainly, though, autonomous learning is not akin to "unbridled learning." There has to be a teacher who will adapt resources, materials, and methods to the learners' needs and even abandon all this if need be. Learner autonomy consists in becoming aware of, and identifying, one's strategies, needs, and goals as a learner, and having the opportunity to reconsider and refashion approaches and procedures for optimal learning. But even if learner autonomy is amenable to educational interventions, it should be recognised that it 'takes a long time to develop, and--simply removing the barriers to a person's ability to think and behave in certain ways may not allow him or her to break away from old habits or old ways of thinking' (Candy, 1991: 124). As Holyoake (1892, vol. 1, p. 4) succinctly put it, '[k]nowledge lies everywhere to hand for those who observe and think'.

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The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VI, No. 11, November 2000
http://iteslj.org/ http://iteslj.org/Articles/Thanasoulas-Autonomy.html

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Thanasoulas - What is Learner Autonomy and How Can It Be Fostered (TESL/TEFL)

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The Internet TESL Journal Dimitrios Thanasoulasakasa74 [at] hotmail.com Over the last two decades, the concepts of learner autonomy and independence have gained momentum, the former becoming a 'buzz-word' within the context of language learning (Little, 1991: 2).

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A fun visual image representing the possible processes of an autonomous learner