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You might think you know what it takes to lead a happier life... more money, a better job, or Instagram-worthy vacations. You're dead wrong. Yale professor Dr. Laurie Santos has studied the science of happiness and found that many of us do the exact opposite of what will truly make our lives better. Based on the psychology course she teaches at Yale - the most popular class in the university's 300-year history - The Happiness Lab with Dr. Laurie Santos will take you through the latest scientific research and share some surprising and inspiring stories that will change the way you think about happiness.

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Dr. Laurie Santos is Professor of Psychology and Head of Silliman College at Yale University. Professor and podcast host Dr. Laurie Santos is an expert on human cognition and the...

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The Happiness Lab with Dr. Laurie Santos | Pushkin Industries

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Based on the most popular course in Yale University history, The Happiness Lab with Dr. Laurie Santos explores the science of being happy. Listen along - you'll be glad you did.

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An Overview of IDEA and Section 504

Since 1975, every child with a disability has been entitled to a free and appropriate public education (FAPE) designed to meet his individual needs under the rules and regulations of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). This federal law governs all special education services and provides some funding to state and local education agencies to guarantee special education and related services for those students who meet the criteria for eligibility in a number of distinct categories of disability, each of which has its own criteria.

According to the U.S. Department of Education, approximately 5.5 million children with disabilities receive special education and related services and are protected by IDEA. However, some kids with special needs do not receive services under IDEA, but are served under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Section 504, a civil rights law, prohibits discrimination on the basis of disabling conditions by programs and activities receiving or benefiting from federal financial assistance. This statute does not require the federal government to provide additional funding for students identified with special needs. Schools must provide these children with reasonable accommodations comparable to those provided to their peers under the rulings of Section 504. Although not a financing statute, Section 504 does provide for enforcement of the mandate: A school that is found by the Office of Civil Rights to be out of compliance with Section 504 may lose its federal financing.

For some children, providing the appropriate modifications and accommodations they need is the only way they will be successful in their school experiences. A thorough understanding of the provisions of these two laws and how they differ can help you and your child's teachers plan the most appropriate education for your child.

An Overview of the Differences

The major differences between IDEA and Section 504 are in the flexibility of the procedures. For a child to be identified as eligible for services under Section 504, there are less specific procedural criteria that govern the requirements of the school personnel. Schools may offer a student less assistance and monitoring with Section 504 because there are fewer regulations by the federal government to instruct them, especially in terms of compliance.

In contrast, a child identified for services under IDEA must meet specific criteria. The degree of regulation is more specific in terms of time frames, parental participation, and formal paperwork requirements. IDEA also addresses the special education of students with disabilities from preschool to graduation only (from ages 3 to 21). Section 504 covers the lifespan and safeguards the rights of persons with disabilities in many areas of their lives, including employment, public access to buildings, transportation, and education.

The criteria for identification, eligibility, appropriate education, and due process procedures under IDEA and Section 504 vary. It is important for you and your child's teachers to understand how these laws differ, and how those differences could affect your child's education.

Identification and Eligibility

In order for children with disabilities to receive services, they must by identified and then determined to be eligible for these services. Under IDEA guidelines, school districts are required to identify and evaluate all children suspected of having a disability whose families reside within the district. Section 504 does not have this requirement.

IDEA

Covers all school-aged children who fall within one or more specific categories of qualifying conditions (i.e., autism, specific learning disabilities, speech or language impairments, emotional disturbance, traumatic brain injury, visual impairment, hearing impairment, and other health impairments).

Requires that a child's disability adversely affects her educational performance.

Section 504

Covers individuals who meet the definition of qualified "handicapped" person - for example, a child who has or has had a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits a major life activity or is regarded as handicapped by others. (Major life activities include: walking, seeing, hearing, speaking, breathing, learning, working, caring for oneself, and performing manual tasks.)

Does not require that a child need special education to qualify. Note: Students who are ineligible for services or are no longer entitled to services under IDEA (e.g., kids with LD who no longer meet IDEA eligibility criteria) may be entitled to accommodations under Section 504.

Evaluation

A child with a disability is assessed to determine what services, if any, are needed.

IDEA

Requires that the child be fully and comprehensively evaluated by a multidisciplinary team.

Requires informed and written parental consent.

Requires a reevaluation of the child at least once every three years, or if conditions warrant a reevaluation, or if the child's parent or teacher requests a reevaluation.

Provides for independent evaluation at the district's expense if parents disagree with first evaluation.

Does not require reevaluation before a significant change in placement.

Section 504

Evaluation draws on information from a variety of sources and is documented.

Decisions about the child, evaluation data, and placement options are made by knowledgeable individuals. Such decisions do not require written consent of the parents, only that the parents are notified.

Requires "periodic" reevaluation.

No provisions made for independent evaluation at school's expense.

Requires reevaluation before a significant change in placement.

Responsibility to Provide FAPE

FAPE is an acronym for a Free and Appropriate Education.

IDEA

Requires an individualized education program (IEP).

"Appropriate" education means a program designed to provide "educational benefit" for a person with disabilities.

Placement may be any combination of special education and general education classrooms.

Provides related services, if required. Related services may include speech and language therapy, occupational therapy, physical therapy, counseling services, psychological services, social services, and transportation.

Section 504

Does not require an IEP, but does require a plan.

"Appropriate" means an education comparable to the education provided to those students who are not disabled.

Placement is usually in a general education classroom. Children can receive specialized instruction, related services, or accommodations within the general education classroom.

Provides related services, if needed.

Due Process Procedures

Sometimes parents and school districts disagree about how a child with disabilities should be educated. When this happens, there are procedures in place to handle these disagreements.

IDEA

Must provide impartial hearings for parents who disagree with the identification, evaluation, or placement of the student.

Requires written consent.

Describes specific procedures.

An impartial appointee selects a hearing officer.

Provides "stay-put" provision (the student's current IEP and placement continues to be implemented) until all proceedings are resolved.

Parents must receive ten days' notice prior to any change in placement.

Enforced by U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education.

Section 504

Must provide impartial hearings for parents who disagree with the identification, evaluation, or placement of the student.

Does not require parental consent.

Requires that parents have an opportunity to participate and be represented by legal counsel - other details are left to the discretion of the school.

A hearing officer is usually appointed by the school.

No "stay-put" provisions.

Does not require that parents are notified prior to the student's change of placement, but they still must be notified.

Enforced by U.S. Department of Education, Office of Civil Rights.

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individuals with disabilities education act

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differences between idea and section 504

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Understanding the Differences Between IDEA and Section 504

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Since 1975, every child with a disability has been entitled to a free and appropriate public education (FAPE) designed to meet his individual needs under the rules and regulations of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).

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In 2000, fewer than 100,000 students with autism were served by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), a federal law requiring access to free public education for disabled children and young adults. By 2018, less than two decades later, that number had to more than 700,000 students - over 10 percent of the 6,964,000 disabled students who were covered that year.

4 Teaching Strategies for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Even though ASD is not considered a learning disability, it can still create challenges to academic success by impacting communication, socialization, and other key aspects of a child's behavior and development. However, educators can overcome these challenges by implementing effective academic strategies for students with autism, which we've supplied four examples of below.

Strategy #1: Limiting Sensory Overload

While it's impossible to eliminate potential distraction, teachers can still make a positive difference by identifying and managing sources of sensory overload. For example, Autism Speaks that some students who have ASD might feel discomfort with making sustained eye contact, changing in busy locker rooms, or standing in crowded lines. By taking simple actions to avoid or accommodate these scenarios - for instance, granting students with ASD "a few minutes to unwind after walking in a noisy hallway," or allowing students to "dress when the locker room is empty" - educators can make the classroom a more welcoming and less distracting environment.

Strategy #2: Using Rewards and Incentives (Applied Behavior Analysis)

Only individuals who meet certain educational and professional requirements can become ABA therapists. However, teachers can implement the basic ideas of ABA, such as positive reinforcement in the classroom (or online classroom). To explore these topics in-depth, read about how teachers can use reward systems to encourage better student engagement .

Strategy #3: Providing Appropriate Feedback for Students with ASD

Strategy #4: Focusing on Autism Reading Comprehension Strategies

1. Begin cultivating a passion for reading at the earliest age possible.

2. Choose reading material that is likely to be intellectually stimulating for the student, such as material that is related to his or her subjects of interest. It is common for children with ASD to develop intense interests in specific subjects, which may provide ideal reading material.

3. Communicate with the student's family to encourage at-home reading activities.

4. Talk about the figurative or metaphorical meanings that exist "between the lines" in fiction.

5. Teach technological literacy , so that your students can easily read on a variety of devices.

Using these three success strategies for teaching kids with autism, educators can diversify their professional skill sets while promoting a more inclusive environment for students.

Our accredited programs in school psychology , teacher education , and special education offer a wide range of academic options for undergraduate , , and transfer students . NU students can pursue their passion through programs like the Master of Science in Educational Counseling , the Graduate Certificate in Autism, the MS in ABA, or other academic majors, combining theory and analysis with hands-on fieldwork to build the foundations for a rewarding and dynamic career.

Additional Sources
https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=64
https://www.webmd.com/brain/autism/news/20180426/more-us-kids-being-diagnosed-with-autism
https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/All-Disorders/Learning-Disabilities-Information-Page
https://www.additudemag.com/autism-learning-disability-symptoms/
https://www.understood.org/en/learning-thinking-differences/getting-started/what-you-need-to-know/is-autism-a-learning-disability
https://www.autismspeaks.org/autism-statistics
https://www.medicinenet.com/autism_symptoms_and_signs/symptoms.htm
https://www.appliedbehavioranalysisprograms.com/faq/controversy-surrounding-aba/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7265021/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4918912/
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1750946717301460
https://www.readingrockets.org/article/reading-comprehension-and-autism-primary-general-education-classroom
https://www.readingfoundation.org/the-impact
https://www.readandspell.com/us/autism-and-reading-comprehension

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4 Best Teaching Strategies for Students with Autism | NU

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Students living with autism often face a number of educational challenges. NU shares successful teaching strategies for students with autism.

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How general education teachers can support students with ASD | Autism Speaks

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Click here for some great tips to share with your child’s teachers to help them create an inclusive classroom environment.

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What accommodations are helpful for an autistic student? - Autism Awareness

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Autistic students often find learning in the classroom environment overwhelming. There are many demands and expectations such as shifting focus, taking tests, listening, following instructions, doing homework, coping with a noisy environment, processing information, socializing, and organizing tasks. These are just a few examples. Most autistic students will require accommodations to support their unique learning styles and needs. The word…

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Intellectual Functioning

Intellectual functioning-also called intelligence-refers to general mental capacity, such as learning, reasoning, problem solving, and so on.

One way to measure intellectual functioning is an IQ test. Generally, an IQ test score of around 70 or as high as 75 indicates a significant limitation in intellectual functioning.

Adaptive Behavior

Adaptive behavior is the collection of conceptual, social, and practical skills that are learned and performed by people in their everyday lives.

Conceptual skills-language and literacy; money, time, and number concepts; and self-direction.
Social skills-interpersonal skills, social responsibility, self-esteem, gullibility, naïveté (i.e., wariness), social problem solving, and the ability to follow rules/obey laws and to avoid being victimized.

Practical skills-activities of daily living (personal care), occupational skills, healthcare, travel/transportation, schedules/routines, safety, use of money, use of the telephone.

Standardized tests can also determine limitations in adaptive behavior.

Age of Onset

The condition originates during the developmental period, which is defined as before the age of 22. Intellectual disability is one of several conditions known collectively as developmental disabilities.

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Intellectual functioning-also called intelligence-refers to general mental capacity, such as learning, reasoning, problem solving, and so on. One way to measure intellectual functioning is an IQ test. Generally, an IQ test score of around 70 or as high as 75 indicates a significant limitation in intellectual functioning.

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What are IDDs?

IDDs are differences that are usually present at birth and that uniquely affect the trajectory of the individual's physical, intellectual, and/or emotional development. Many of these conditions affect multiple body parts or systems.

Intellectual disability starts any time before a child turns 18 and is characterized by differences with both:

Intellectual functioning or intelligence, which include the ability to learn, reason, problem solve, and other skills; and

Adaptive behavior, which includes everyday social and life skills.

The term "developmental disabilities" is a broader category of often lifelong challenges that can be intellectual, physical, or both.

"IDD" is the term often used to describe situations in which intellectual disability and other disabilities are present.

It might be helpful to think about IDDs in terms of the body parts or systems they affect or how they occur. For example:

Nervous system
These disorders affect how the brain, spinal cord, and nervous system function, which can affect intelligence and learning. These conditions can also cause other issues, such as behavioral disorders, speech or language difficulties, seizures, and trouble with movement. Cerebral palsy,Down syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, and autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are examples of IDDs related to problems with the nervous system.

Sensory system
These disorders affect the senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell) or how the brain processes or interprets information from the senses.Preterm infants and infants exposed to infections, such as cytomegalovirus, may have reduced function with their eyesight and/or hearing. In addition, being touched or held can be difficult for people with ASDs.

Metabolism
These disorders affect how the body uses food and other materials for energy and growth. For example, how the body breaks down food during digestion is a metabolic process. Problems with these processes can upset the balance of materials available for the body to function properly. Too much of one thing, or too little of another can disrupt overall body and brain functions.Phenylketonuria (PKU) and congenital hypothyroidism are examples of metabolic conditions that can lead to IDDs.

Degenerative
Individuals with degenerative disorders may seem or be typical at birth and may meet usual developmental milestones for a time, but then they experience disruptions in skills, abilities, and functions because of the condition. In some cases, the disorder may not be detected until the child is an adolescent or adult and starts to show symptoms or lose abilities. Some degenerative disorders result from other conditions, such as untreated problems of metabolism.

The exact definition of IDD, as well as the different types or categories of IDD, may vary depending on the source of the information.

For example, within the context of education and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), a law that aims to ensure educational services to children with disabilities throughout the nation, the definition of IDD and the types of conditions that are considered IDD might be different from the definitions and categories used by the Social Security Administration (SSA) to provide services and support for those with disabilities. These definitions and categories might also be different from those used by healthcare providers and researchers.

For more information about disabilities included in IDEA, visit https://www.parentcenterhub.org/disability-landing/ . For information about SSA and disabilities, visit https://www.ssa.gov/planners/disability/.

Citations

1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.). Intellectual disability fact sheet. Retrieved August 9, 2012, from https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/developmentaldisabilities/facts-about-intellectual-disability.html

2. American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (n.d.). Definition of intellectual disability. Retrieved September 14, 2012, from https://www.aaidd.org/intellectual-disability/definition

3. American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (n.d.). FAQs on intellectual disability. Retrieved September 14, 2012, from https://www.aaidd.org/intellectual-disability/definition/faqs-on-intellectual-disability

4. National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (NICHCY). (2011). NICHCY disability fact sheet #8: Intellectual disabilities. Retrieved August 9, 2012, from https://www.parentcenterhub.org/disability-landing/

5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (May 18, 2012). Cerebral palsy: Facts about cerebral palsy. Retrieved August 12, 2012, from http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/cp/facts.html

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About Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (IDDs)

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IDDs are differences that are usually present at birth and that uniquely affect the trajectory of the individual's physical, intellectual, and/or emotional development. Many of these conditions affect multiple body parts or systems. Intellectual disability starts any time before a child turns 18 and is characterized by differences with both: Intellectual functioning or intelligence, which include the ability to learn, reason, problem solve, and other skills; and Adaptive behavior, which includes everyday social and life skills.

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It is important to implement strategies that address the needs of the individual. We recommend that you apply these strategies across home, school, and community contexts.
Go to the Site Map for a full list of resources and activities!

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picture exchange communication system cards

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Do2Learn: Educational Resources for Special Needs

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picture communication cards, songs, games and learning activities for autism, aspergers, fetal alcohol syndrome and disabilities

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Effective Teaching Methods For People With Intellectual Disabilities

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Learn effective teaching methods for individuals with intellectual disabilities, including breaking tasks into smaller steps, using tactile and kinesthetic activities, providing visual supports, and offering prompt feedback. Tailor education to individual needs, simplify instructions, use visual aids, and encourage independence. Modify teaching approaches based on students’ needs and learning styles, incorporate visual aids for understanding, and provide immediate feedback for effective learning.

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Six Strategies for Challenging Gifted Learners

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Find practical ways to tend to the complex needs of your high-ability students—without taking the joy out of learning.

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What is oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) in children?

Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is a type of behavior disorder. It is mostly diagnosed in childhood. Children with ODD are uncooperative, defiant, and hostile toward peers, parents, teachers, and other authority figures. They are more troubling to others than they are to themselves.

What causes ODD in a child?

Researchers don't know what causes ODD. But there are 2 main theories for why it occurs:

Developmental theory. This theory suggests that the problems start when children are toddlers. Children and teens with ODD may have had trouble learning to become independent from a parent or other main person to whom they were emotionally attached. Their behavior may be normal developmental issues that are lasting beyond the toddler years.

Learning theory. This theory suggests that the negative symptoms of ODD are learned attitudes. They mirror the effects of negative reinforcement methods used by parents and others in power. The use of negative reinforcement increases the child's ODD behaviors. That's because these behaviors allow the child to get what he or she wants: attention and reaction from parents or others.

Which children are at risk for ODD?

ODD is more common in boys than in girls. Children with the following mental health problems are also more likely to have ODD:

Mood or anxiety disorders

Conduct disorder

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

What are the symptoms of ODD in a child?

Most symptoms seen in children and teens with ODD also happen at times in other children without it. This is especially true for children around ages 2 or 3, or during the teen years. Many children tend to disobey, argue with parents, or defy authority. They may often behave this way when they are tired, hungry, or upset. But in children and teens with ODD, these symptoms happen more often. They also interfere with learning and school adjustment. And in some cases, they disrupt the child's relationships with others.

Symptoms of ODD may include:

Having frequent temper tantrums

Arguing a lot with adults

Refusing to do what an adult asks

Always questioning rules and refusing to follow rules

Doing things to annoy or upset others, including adults

Blaming others for the child's own misbehaviors or mistakes

Being easily annoyed by others

Often having an angry attitude

Speaking harshly or unkindly

Seeking revenge or being vindictive

These symptoms may look like other mental health problems. Make sure your child sees his or her healthcare provider for a diagnosis.

How is ODD diagnosed in a child?

If you notice symptoms of ODD in your child or teen, you can help by seeking a diagnosis right away. Early treatment can often prevent future problems.

A child psychiatrist or qualified mental health expert can diagnose ODD. He or she will talk with the parents and teachers about the child's behavior and may observe the child. In some cases, your child may need mental health testing.

How is ODD treated in a child?

Early treatment can often prevent future problems. Treatment will depend on your child's symptoms, age, and health. It will also depend on how bad the ODD is.

Children with ODD may need to try different therapists and types of therapies before they find what works for them. Treatment may include:

Cognitive-behavioral therapy. A child learns to better solve problems and communicate. He or she also learns how to control impulses and anger.

Family therapy. This therapy helps make changes in the family. It improves communication skills and family interactions. Having a child with ODD can be very hard for parents. It can also cause problems for siblings. Parents and siblings need support and understanding.

Peer group therapy. A child develops better social and interpersonal skills.

Medicines. These are not often used to treat ODD. But a child may need them for other symptoms or disorders, such as ADHD.

How can I help prevent ODD in my child?

Researchers don't know what causes ODD. But certain approaches can help prevent the disorder. Young children be helped by early intervention programs that teach them social skills and how to deal with anger. For teens, talk therapy (psychotherapy), learning social skills, and getting help with schoolwork can all help reduce problem behaviors. School-based programs can also help to stop bullying and improve relationships among teens.

Parent-management training programs are also important. These programs teach parents how to manage their child's behavior. Parents learn positive reinforcement methods, and also how to discipline their child.

How can I help my child live with ODD?

Early treatment for your child can often prevent future problems. Here are things you can do to help:

Keep all appointments with your child's healthcare provider.

Take part in family therapy as needed.

Talk with your child's healthcare provider about other providers who will be involved in your child's care. Your child may get care from a team that may include counselors, therapists, social workers, psychologists, and psychiatrists. Your child's care team will depend on his or her needs and how serious the disorder is.

Tell others about your child's conduct disorder. Work with your child's healthcare provider and school to develop a treatment plan.

Reach out for support. Being in touch with other parents who have a child with ODD may be helpful. If you feel overwhelmed or stressed out, talk with your child's healthcare provider. He or she may direct you to a support group for caregivers of children with ODD.

When should I call my child's healthcare provider?

Call your child's healthcare provider right away if your child:

Feels extreme depression, fear, anxiety, or anger toward him or herself or others

Feels out of control

Hears voices that others don't hear

Sees things that others don't see

Can't sleep or eat for 3 days in a row

Shows behavior that concerns friends, family, or teachers, and others express concern about this behavior and ask you to seek help

Call 911 if your child has suicidal thoughts, a suicide plan, and the means to carry out the plan.

Key points about ODD in children

Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is a type of behavior disorder. Children with ODD are uncooperative, defiant, and hostile toward peers, parents, teachers, and other authority figures.

Developmental problems may cause ODD. Or the behaviors may be learned.

A child with ODD may argue a lot with adults or refuse to do what they ask. He or she may also be unkind to others.

A mental health expert often diagnoses ODD.

Therapy that helps the child interact better with others is the main treatment. Medicines may be needed for other problems, such as ADHD.

Next steps

Tips to help you get the most from a visit to your child's healthcare provider:

Know the reason for the visit and what you want to happen.

Before your visit, write down questions you want answered.

At the visit, write down the name of a new diagnosis, and any new medicines, treatments, or tests. Also write down any new instructions your provider gives you for your child.

Know why a new medicine or treatment is prescribed and how it will help your child. Also know what the side effects are.

Ask if your child's condition can be treated in other ways.

Know why a test or procedure is recommended and what the results could mean.

Know what to expect if your child does not take the medicine or have the test or procedure.

If your child has a follow-up appointment, write down the date, time, and purpose for that visit.

Know how you can contact your child's provider after office hours. This is important if your child becomes ill and you have questions or need advice.

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Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) in Children

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Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is a type of behavior disorder. It is mostly diagnosed in childhood. Children with ODD are uncooperative, defiant, and hostile toward peers, parents, teachers, and other authority figures.

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Outsmarting ODD: Tools and Techniques for Teachers and Parents

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Students with ODD require a bit more attention when it comes to classroom instruction. Here are some tools and techniques to try.

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Providing FAPE during staff shortages FINAL

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Principals and associate principals serve an important role in ensuring the continuation of a free appropriate public education (FAPE) for students with disabilities under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). But what is "FAPE" and how can administrators help ensure it is provided? Has the understanding of FAPE changed since the United States Supreme Court issued their ruling in the case of Endrew F. v. Douglas County School District? This article will help answer these questions and provide resources to support your school in ensuring FAPE for your students with disabilities.
Let's begin with the definition.
A free appropriate public education (FAPE) means special education and related services that are provided at public expense, under public supervision and direction, and in conformity with an individualized education program (IEP). FAPE must be available to all students with disabilities ages 3 through 21 enrolled in a public school district, including students with disabilities who have been suspended or expelled from school.
What does this mean?
From your educational leadership courses, you may recall the Rowley Supreme Court case that held FAPE is achieved when an IEP is reasonably calculated to enable the child to receive educational benefit. For children fully integrated in the regular classroom, this would typically require an IEP reasonably calculated to enable the child to achieve passing marks and advance from grade to grade. Hendrick Hudson Dist. Bd. Of Ed v Rowley see 458 U.S. at 204.

Seems simple enough; however, in applying the Rowley standard, courts disagreed over how to determine "educational benefit" and used differing standards ranging from "de minimus" to a "meaningful educational benefit." Consequently, in March 2017, the U.S. Supreme Court clarified what was meant by "educational benefit" in the case of Endrew F. v. Douglas County School District.

The Endrew Fcourt stated that FAPE requires an IEP to be reasonably calculated to enable a child to make progress appropriate in light of the child's circumstances. For most students this means an IEP designed to allow the student to progress from grade to grade, but if that is not possible, the IEP should be appropriately ambitious in light of the child's circumstances. Endrew F, 137 S.Ct. 988,999 (2017).
What does appropriately ambitious in light of the child's circumstances mean?
All students with disabilities should be held to high standards and make progress towards their IEP goals and the general education curriculum. The U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs has clarified IEP goals must be aligned with the grade-level content standards for the grade in which the student is enrolled, in order to ensure all students with disabilities are held to high expectations.

The IEP team considers the student's present levels of academic achievement and functional performance compared to grade-level standards, as well as the impact of the student's disability on their involvement and progress in the general education curriculum, when developing the IEP. (See the Department of Public Instruction's guidance on developing College and Career Ready IEPs for more information about a 5-Step process.)

While the court in Endrew F. did not specifically define "in light of the child's circumstances," the decision emphasized the individualized decision-making required in the IEP process and the need to ensure that every student should have the chance to meet challenging objectives. In doing so, the IEP team, which includes the child's parents, must consider the student's present levels of achievement, disability, and potential for growth. See US Department of Education's FAQ
How is FAPE accomplished?
Districts must provide FAPE to each student with a disability by developinga program based on the student's unique needs that is reasonably calculated to enable the student to make progress appropriate in light of the student's circumstances, documentingthe program in the IEP, and implementing the program articulated in the IEP. Although there is no guarantee of progress, the IEP must aim to enable the student to make progress toward the student's annual IEP goals and in the general education curriculum.

In Wisconsin, the Department of Public Instruction promotes using the 5-Step process of CCR IEP development. The IEP team identifies which grade-level standards the student is not meeting and why, and then develops ambitious yet achievable goals to specifically address what the student needs to improve or increase in order to meet grade-level standards. Progress towards the goals is monitored on a regular basis. If the data indicates a student is not making sufficient progress, the IEP team reconvenes to analyze the new data and consider why the student is struggling to make progress and then revise the IEP accordingly.
Is FAPE just about academic progress?
Failure to address the behavioral needs of a student through the IEP process is likely to result in a student not receiving FAPE. Under IDEA, when a student's behavior impedes the student's learning or that of others, the IEP team must consider the use of positive behavioral interventions and supports, and other strategies, to address that behavior. See 34 CFR § 300.324.When a student repeatedly misses instructional time due to disciplinary removals or for other behavioral related reasons, it is likely that the student's opportunity to be involved in and make progress in the general education curriculum and toward their IEP goals has been significantly impeded. Districts must ensure FAPE by providing effective behavioral supports that allow the student to have access to and benefit from instruction.
How long is FAPE provided?
Once a student graduates from high school with a regular high school diploma, the student is no longer eligible for special education services. Students with disabilities who have not graduated with a regular high school diploma have a right to FAPE until the age of 21.

If a student with a disability drops out of school and then re-enrolls, the district has an obligation to provide FAPE. If the student does not have a current IEP in effect, the district must provide FAPE consistent with the last IEP until an IEP team meeting is held to develop a current IEP. A reevaluation may also be necessary.

The provision of FAPE also ends when a student is determined, through an evaluation, to no longer be a child with a disability or the parent revokes consent for special education.
What are suggested next steps?
Become familiar with the 5-Step process of CCR IEP development.

Review At-a-Glance documents.

Train staff in the 5-Step process

Provide opportunities to attend Regional Special Education Network (RSN) CCR IEP trainings offered at each CESA.

View DPI Step Webinars.

Promote use of the 5-Step process during IEP development

Use 5-Step process chart as a visual during IEP team meetings.

Use CCR IEP Discussion Toolin preparation of IEP team meetings.

Ensure staff have the skills and supports to implement IEPs.

Ensure IEPs are implemented in regular and special education classrooms, including ensuring that positive behavior interventions are used consistently across staff members.

Promote data collection practices to continuously monitor progress towards the IEP goals and in the general curriculum.

Celebrate progress - the small steps and giant leaps, acknowledge the hard work.

Conduct timely IEP team meetings to address lack of progress.

Avoid strategies that have not worked for the student in the past.

If behavioral interventions are not effective in addressing the behavioral needs of the students, reconvene the IEP team to determine whether a functional behavioral assessment may be required, and determine whether additional or different behavioral supports are necessary.

Promote positive communication.

Include special education staff in general education training, and vice versa.

Include parents in training opportunities

Keep lines of communication open and positive.

Use resources and supports provided through ourWisconsin Special Education Mediation System (WSEMS), including IEP facilitation.

Lastly and most importantly, support the "I" in IEP.

Develop IEPs that address the student's unique disability-related needs.

Additional Resources
Read more at: Elementary Edition - Secondary Edition - District Level Edition

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Update Article: Practice What You Preach: FAPE Article

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by Anita Castro, Consultant, Special Education Team and Patricia Williams, Assistant Director, Special Education Team

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Websites

The Academy of Orton‐Gillingham Practitioners and Educators (Official OG site) ‐
Information about OG Approach, Directory of training programs, certified tutors and schools.
www.ortonacademy.org

Books
A Guide to Helping Your Child at Home
Diana Hanbury King, WVC Ed., 2015.
Basic Facts About Dyslexia & Other Reading Problems
Louisa Cook Moats, Karen Daken, The International Dyslexia Association, 2008.

Straight Talk About Reading: How parents can make a difference during the early years
Susan Hall & Louisa C. Moats, McGraw Hill, 2006.

Recipe for Reading Intervention Strategies for Struggling ReadersFrances Bloom & Nina Traub, EPS, 2005.

Overcoming Dyslexia
Sally Shaywitz, M.D., Vintage, 2003.
For Educators & Administrators:
Wrightsaw: From Emotions to Advocacy
Pam Wright & Pete Wright, 2006

Dyslexia in the Classroom - What Every Teacher Needs to Know International Dyslexia Association Handbook

Knowledge & Practice Standards for Teachers of Reading
International Dyslexia Association Professional Standards & Practices Committee

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Recommended Websites & Books - Dyslexia Resource Center

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The Academy of Orton‐Gillingham Practitioners and Educators (Official OG site) ‐Information about OG Approach, Directory of training programs, certified tutors and schools. www.ortonacademy.org A Guide to Helping Your Child at Home Diana Hanbury King, WVC Ed., 2015. Basic Facts About Dyslexia & Other Reading Problems Louisa Cook Moats, Karen Daken, The International Dyslexia Association, 2008.

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Resources to Support Students With Dyslexia

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Dyslexia is a hidden disability that can affect how children learn. The following resources can help offer support.

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National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)

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What is ADHD?

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is marked by an ongoing pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development. People with ADHD experience an ongoing pattern of the following types of symptoms:

Inattention means a person may have difficulty staying on task, sustaining focus, and staying organized, and these problems are not due to defiance or lack of comprehension.

Hyperactivity means a person may seem to move about constantly, including in situations when it is not appropriate, or excessively fidgets, taps, or talks. In adults, hyperactivity may mean extreme restlessness or talking too much.

Impulsivity means a person may act without thinking or have difficulty with self-control. Impulsivity could also include a desire for immediate rewards or the inability to delay gratification. An impulsive person may interrupt others or make important decisions without considering long-term consequences.

What are the signs and symptoms of ADHD?

What are the risk factors of ADHD?

How is ADHD treated?

How can I find a clinical trial for ADHD?

Where can I learn more about ADHD?

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Learn about attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, including signs and symptoms, risk factors, treatments, and tips for staying organized with ADHD.

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Find information on symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, data, research, and free resources.

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Children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) experience more obstacles in their path to success than the average student. The symptoms of ADHD, such as inability to pay attention, difficulty sitting still, and difficulty controlling impulses, can make it hard for children with this diagnosis to do well in school.

Classroom treatment strategies for ADHD students

There are some school-based management strategies shown to be effective for ADHD students:

Behavioral classroom management

The behavioral classroom management approach encourages a student's positive behaviors in the classroom, through a reward system or a daily report card, and discourages their negative behaviors. This teacher-led approach has been shown to influence student behavior in a constructive manner, increasing academic engagement. Although tested mostly in elementary schools, behavioral classroom management has been shown to work for students of all ages.

Organizational training

Organizational training teaches children time management, planning skills, and ways to keep school materials organized in order to optimize student learning and reduce distractions. This management strategy has been tested with children and adolescents.

Teaching and supporting positive behavior‎

These two management strategies require trained staff-including teachers, counselors, or school psychologists-to follow a specific plan to teach and support positive behavior.

Special education services and accommodations

Most children with ADHD receive some school services, such as special education services and accommodations. There are two laws that govern special services and accommodations for children with disabilities:

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973

Learn more about IDEA vs Section 504
The support a child with ADHD receives at school will depend on if they meet the eligibility requirements for one of two federal plans funded by IDEA and Section 504:

What are the main differences between an IEP and a 504 Plan?‎

* IEPs: Provide individualized special education services to meet the unique needs of the child and is governed under the Federal law known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).

* 504 Plan: Provides services and changes to the learning environment to meet the needs of the child as adequately as other students and is part of Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.

Accommodations

IEPs and 504 Plans can offer accommodations for students to help them manage their ADHD, including the following:

Extra time on tests

Instruction and assignments tailored to the child

Positive reinforcement and feedback

Using technology to assist with tasks

Allowing breaks or time to move around

Changes to the environment to limit distraction

Extra help with staying organized

Did you know?‎

Parents of children with ADHD report receiving more services through an IEP than through a 504 plan.

There is limited information about which types of accommodations are effective for children with ADHD. However, there is evidence that setting clear expectations, providing immediate positive feedback, and communicating daily with parents through a daily report card can help.

What teachers can do to help

For teachers, helping children manage their ADHD symptoms can present a challenge. Most children with ADHD are not enrolled in special education classes but do need extra assistance on a daily basis.

Helping students with ADHD‎

CHADD's National Resource Center on ADHD provides information for teachers from experts on how to help students with ADHD.

Close collaboration between the school, parents, and healthcare providers will help ensure the child gets the right support. Here are some tips for classroom success:

Communication

Give frequent feedback and attention to positive behavior.

Be sensitive to the influence of ADHD on emotions, such as self-esteem issues or difficulty regulating feelings.

Provide extra warnings before transitions and changes in routines.

Understand that children with ADHD may become deeply absorbed in activities that interest them (hyper-focus) and may need extra assistance shifting their attention.

Assignments and tasks

Make assignments clear-check with the student to see if they understand what they need to do.

Provide choices to show mastery (for example, let the student choose among written essay, oral report, online quiz, or hands-on project.

Make sure assignments are not long and repetitive. Shorter assignments that provide a little challenge without being too hard may work well.

Allow breaks-for children with ADHD, paying attention takes extra effort and can be very tiring.

Allow time to move and exercise.

Minimize distractions in the classroom.

Use organizational tools, such as a homework folder, to limit the number of things the child has to track.

Develop a plan that fits the child

Observe and talk with the student about what helps or distracts them (for example, fidget tools, limiting eye contact when listening, background music, or moving while learning can be beneficial or distracting, depending on the child).

Communicate with parents on a regular basis.

Involve the school counselor or psychologist.

Parent education and support

How to best advocate for your child‎

What every parent should know

School support and services are regulated by laws. The U.S. Department of Education has developed a "Know your rights" letter for parents and a resource guide for educators to help educators, families, students, and other interested groups better understand how these laws apply to students with ADHD so that they can get the services and education they need to be successful.

Healthcare providers also play an important part in collaborating with schools to help children get the special services they need.

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ADHD in the Classroom: Helping Children Succeed in School

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Resources for parents, teachers, and healthcare providers to help children with ADHD succeed in the school.

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Public schools are designed to provide instructional programs that foster the educational success of all students and shape citizens who can contribute in positive ways to society. Working to promote successful school experiences for students with emotional/behavioral disorders (EBD) can be a particularly challenging task because of the necessity for multi-faceted and cohesive programming to effectively meet multiple needs.

Identification of Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders

An emotional/behavioral disorder can be described in the following way:

Emotional or Behavioral Disorder (EBD) refers to a condition in which behavioral or emotional responses of an individual in school are so different from his/her generally accepted, age appropriate, ethnic or cultural norms that they adversely affect performance in such areas as self care, social relationships, personal adjustment, academic progress, classroom behavior, or work adjustment.

EBD is more than a transient, expected response to stressors in the child's or youth's environment and would persist even with individualized interventions, such as feedback to the individual, consultation with parents or families, and/or modification of the educational environment.

The eligibility decision [for special education services] must be based on multiple sources of data about the individual's behavioral or emotional functioning. EBD must be exhibited in at least two different settings, at least one of which is school related.

EBD can co-exist with other [disabling] conditions.

This category may include children or youth with schizophrenia, affective disorders, anxiety disorders, or who have other sustained disturbances of conduct, attention, or adjustment.(National Association of School Psychologists, 2004, p. 1)

Information from the Twenty-fourth Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (U.S. Department of Education, 2002) indicates that states served 5,775,722 students ages 6 through 21 under IDEA in 2000-2001. Nearly 474,000, or about 18%, of those students were identified as students with EBD. This is less than 1% of the entire student population in 2000-2001. The Report of the Surgeon General's Conference on Children's Mental Health (U.S. Public Health Service, 2000) proposes the actual number of students with EBD is much higher. This suggests that many of the children and youth who could qualify for service under IDEA may not be identified and may not receive adequate supports to assist them with emotional and behavioral challenges they face both in and out of school settings.

On the other hand, we find that children and youth who are African American are disproportionately over-identified as having EBD. Many concerns have been expressed about minority children being misplaced in special education, especially in certain disability categories. Researchers have determined the level of risk for various subgroups associated with being identified as having EBD. Using data from the U.S. Department of Education, analyses suggest that Black children are 2.88 times more likely than White children to be labeled as having mental retardation and 1.92 times more likely to be labeled as having an emotional/behavioral disorder (Losen & Orfield, 2002). Although students with disabilities are entitled to receive supports and services tied to their individual needs, the concern is that too often minority students are educated in separate settings, subject to lower expectations, and excluded from educational opportunities. While minority populations are often at greater risk of living in poverty, many individuals argue that the effect of poverty does not adequately explain the racial disparities in identification of EBD. Research suggests that unconscious racial bias, stereotypes, inequitable implementation of discipline policies, and practices that are not culturally responsive may contribute to the observed patterns of identification and placement for many minority students.

School and Post-School Outcomes

Much of what we know about students with EBD has been gathered through the National Longitudinal Transition Study (NLTS). This study collected data on the lives of youth with disabilities in their high school years and in their transition to adulthood during the early 1990s (Wagner et al., 1991). Overall, outcomes for youth with EBD were found to be "particularly troubling." These youth showed a pattern of disconnectedness from school, academic failure, poor social adjustment, and involvement with the criminal justice system. Data from the Office of Special Education Programs shows that youth with EBD are at greatest risk of dropping out of school as compared with students in other disability categories; in 1999-2000, 51% of students with EBD age 14 and older dropped out of school (U.S. Department of Education, 2002). Furthermore, we know that as a group, a higher percentage of these youth are incarcerated or are not employed as compared to other students with disabilities after high school.

Instructional Settings

Where are students with EBD served? In general, they experience general educational instruction to a lesser degree than youth with disabilities as a whole. On average, 16% of youth with EBD take all of their courses in special education settings (compared with 9% of youth with disabilities as a whole who take only special education courses). Many also attend alternative schools, which are generally designed to serve students placed at risk of school failure due to circumstance or ability (e.g., behind in credits, suspended, pregnant or parenting). In addition to these settings, a high proportion of youth who are incarcerated have disabilities. One conservative estimate suggests that about 32% of youth in juvenile corrections have disabilities (Quinn, Rutherford, & Leone, 2001). Nearly 46% of the incarcerated youth with a disability were identified as having EBD. Most often, the transition back into the traditional school setting for these students is unsuccessful, and they go elsewhere (e.g., alternative schools, back into juvenile corrections, or drop out altogether).

Risk Factors Contributing to Student Outcomes

Findings from the current National Longitudinal Transition Study - 2 (NLTS2) suggest that students with EBD differ from the general population of youth in ways other than their disability (Wagner & Cameto, 2004). For example, as compared with the general population of youth, youth with EBD are more likely to live in poverty, have a head of household with no formal education past high school, and live in a single parent household. Nearly 38% of the NLTS-2 sample had been held back a grade, 75% had been suspended or expelled at least once, and about two- thirds were reported to have co-occurring attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Students with EBD also experience greater school mobility than other youth with disabilities; 40% had attended five or more schools since kindergarten. Moving to multiple schools can be considerably disruptive and significantly decrease the chances of continuity across instructional programs. In addition, frequent moves increase the difficulties associated with establishing positive long-term relationships with adults and peers, and can heighten feelings of alienation and limit the sense of belonging.

Shifting From Deficits to Strengths

We know quite a bit about students with EBD (e.g., characteristics, numbers, factors placing them at increased risk of school failure, where they are served, outcomes). Fortunately, we also know much about effective strategies that we can use with these students to improve their success in school and after they leave school. Shifting from a deficit model that focuses on multiple risk factors and moving toward a focus on strengths is a difficult, yet necessary, step for those who hope to foster resilience, enhance competence, and facilitate successful school experiences for students with EBD.

Beginning with a Solid Foundation

With the move toward greater inclusion and providing instruction in the general education curriculum, there is an increased need for general education teachers to be well-informed about how to effectively educate students with EBD. It is essential for teacher education programs to train general educators to work with the increasingly diverse populations in their classrooms (including students with varying disabilities, abilities, socioeconomic standing, and cultural backgrounds). Necessary skills include the ability to actively engage students in coursework that is relevant to student backgrounds and interests, effectively organize a classroom environment, and manage student behavior using strategies that are evidence based (e.g., techniques to increase active student responding, small group or peer tutoring, applied principles of reinforcement, use of immediate feedback). In addition, opportunities for staff development must be provided on a regular basis to update and maintain skills.

Providing Supports at Varying Levels: The Three-Tiered Model

Students with or at risk for EBD can be provided with supports at a variety of levels. A three-tiered model that provides a framework for thinking about the provision of supports includes prevention at the primary, secondary, and tertiary levels (Sugai & Horner, 2002):

Primary prevention. Includes strategies and programs that are designed to prevent the development of problems, target all students, provide students and school staff with a strong foundation for teaching appropriate behaviors, and have a low cost per individual. Examples include school-wide positive behavioral supports, school climate improvement projects, and collaboration between family, school and community.

Secondary prevention. Includes programs that decrease the frequency or intensity of problems, are designed to address alterable factors that place students at risk (e.g., angry or violent behavior), and have a moderate cost per individual. About 10-15% of students may need more intensive supports at this level. Examples include conflict-resolution lessons, peer-tutoring programs, and social-skills instruction.

Tertiary prevention. Includes programs designed to remediate established problems, reduce the duration, and preclude negative outcomes. Programs are highly individualized and student centered, provide an effective and efficient response to students most in need, and have a higher cost per individual. About 1-5% of students will have chronic problems that require more intensive supports. Examples include wrap-around services, individual functional behavior analysis, and individualized behavior management plans.

Educators and administrators at elementary, middle, and high schools can use this model to guide prevention and intervention efforts.

Building Competence Across Domains

In addition to offering interventions across different levels, interventions must address relevant domains of competence for students with EBD. Effective interventions not only prevent problems, but also assist in building skills and competencies. Skill areas and examples of interventions especially relevant to students with EBD are listed below:

Academic. Using effective strategies to promote academic achievement, including explicit and systematic instruction in reading; using alternatives to out-of-school suspension to increase opportunities for learning.

Social/behavioral. Implementing school-wide social development programs; using functional behavior assessment to understand and change behavior.

Emotional. Implementing school-wide and individual strategies to promote mental health; providing instruction and opportunities for self-advocacy, counseling.

Vocational. Providing access to vocational assessments; providing relevant opportunities to learn outside of school (e.g., work programs, extracurricular opportunities).

Transition. Providing mentoring supports to facilitate transition and adjustment to school; using orientation and welcoming procedures to ease transition between schools; incorporating self-determination skills for transition from school to work.

Conclusion

Complex problems such as facilitating success for students with EBD are rarely solved with simple, uni-dimensional strategies. One issue critical to the selection and program planning process involves examining the resources available for program implementation. Sustained, cohesive programming is essential, in contrast to offering isolated programs that do not reach out to include collaborative efforts with others throughout the school, or with parents and community members. Students with EBD have many strengths, and their teachers are talented individuals. Nonetheless, effective, cohesive, programming is necessary and presents specific challenges that require understanding the issues faced by students with EBD, advanced skills in program implementation, and a comprehensive approach that is cohesive, multi-faceted, and multi-tiered.

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Impact | Volume 18, Number 2 | Students with Emotional/Behavioral Disorders: Promoting Positive Outcomes

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Public schools are designed to provide instructional programs that foster the educational success of all students and shape citizens who can contribute in positive ways to society. Working to promote successful school experiences for students with emotional/behavioral disorders (EBD) can be a particularly challenging task because of the necessity for multi-faceted and cohesive programming to effectively meet multiple needs.

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For students to meet criteria and receive special education services in Minnesota under the disability category of Emotional Behavior Disorders (EBD), students must demonstrate behavioral consistency by having an established pattern of one or more of the following emotional or behavioral responses:

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Emotional & Behaviorally Disturbed Students (EBD)

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IDEA Definition of Other Health Impairments

According to IDEA, an Other Health Impairment is defined as:
Other health impairment means having limited strength, vitality or alertness, including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the educational environment, that:

(i) is due to chronic or acute health problems such as asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, and sickle cell anemia; and
(ii) adversely affects a child's educational performance [34 C.F.R. 300.7(c)(9)].

Overview of Other Health Impairments

Many conditions and diseases can significantly affect a child's health and ability to function successfully in school. Most health impairments are chronic conditions; that is, they are always present, or they recur. By contrast, and acute condition develops quickly with intense symptoms that last for a relatively short period of time. To be served under the OHI category, the student's health condition must limit strength, vitality, or alertness to such a degree that the student's educational progress is adversely affected. More than 200 specific health impairments exist, and most are rare (Turnball et al., 2004). Within this category is Attention Deficit/Hyperactive Disorder. Only time will tell whether AD/HD finds its way to another special education category or whether it becomes a category of its own in the future. Presently, the inclusion of AD/HD has caused a significant increase in the size of the category (U.S. Department of Education, 2001).

Causes-Etiology of Other Health Impairments

The etiology of specific health impairments varies. Most result from infections, genetic factors, environmental influences, prenatal influences, perinatal influences, and postnatal influences. However, they can be grouped into some general areas (Smith, 2004):

Allergies e.g. Hepatitis

Heredity e.g. Hemophilia

Accidents e.g. seizure disorders

Multiple factors e.g. Epilepsy

Unknown

Prevalence of Other Health Impairments

According to the 26th Annual Report (U.S. Department of Education, 2004), 449,093 students between the ages of 6 to 21 years of age were identified as having other health impairments. This represents approximately 7.5 percent of all students having a classification in special education, or less than 1% of all school-age students.

Age of onset of Other Health Impairments

Due to the various types of health impairments that adversely affect children's performances in school, no specific age of onset can be generalized to the entire school-age population that receives special education services. Some health impairments are congenital (present at birth) and other conditions are acquired during the child's development as a result of accident, illness or unknown cause.

Gender Features of Other Health Impairments

Due to the number and specific types of health impairments covered in this section, no statement concerning gender patterns can be generalized.

Familial Patterns of Other Health Impairments

Due to the number and specific types of health impairments covered in this section, no statement concerning familial patterns can be generalized.

Cultural Features of Other Health Impairments

Although European Americans are proportionately underrepresented among students with disabilities, their highest representation is in the "Other Health Impairments" category.

Characteristics of Other Health Impairments

According to the Starbright Foundation (2002; cited in Turnball et al., 2004), there are numerous complex challenges facing children with health impairments. Common issues are: "loss of sense of control, lack of understanding about the condition, fear, worry, anxiety, stress, anger, and guilt, changes in family dynamics, isolation, isolation, medical noncompliance, boredom, depression, pain, decreased self-esteem, negative body image, and impact on identity and social interactions, including those at school" (p. 313).
Some general characteristics faced by individuals with other health impairments may include but not limited to:

Fatigue

Mobility issues

Issues involving attention

Coordination difficulties

Muscle weakness

Frequent absences or lateness's to school

Stamina

Inability to concentrate for long periods of time

Educational Implications of Other Health Impairments

When responsible educators encounter diseases and conditions they know little about, they seek out all the information they need to provide an appropriate education to students involved (Smith, 2004). One of the main considerations in the education of these students is the use of the team approach in developing and carrying out a child's educational program. The team generally includes the parents, teachers, medical professionals, and health-related professionals such as a physical therapist. Parents are critical members of the team and should be involved in all educational decisions. Sirvis (1988) noted that the team should design a program that meets the needs of the student in five basic goal areas: "(a) physical independence, including mastery of daily living skills; (b) self-awareness and social maturation; (c) communication; (d) academic growth; and (e) life skills training" (p. 400). Interdisciplinary services such as occupational and physical therapy and speech and language therapy are of prime importance for youngsters who have physical disabilities.

It is often necessary to modify and adapt the school environment to make it accessible, safe, and less restrictive since discriminating architecture doesn't have to discriminate (Leibrock & Terry, 1999, p.17). Accessibility guidelines are readily available, and when these guidelines are followed the environment becomes easier for the child to manage independently.

It is important that modifications be no more restrictive than absolutely necessary so that the student's school experiences can be as normal as possible. While it is necessary to stress the importance of avoiding overprotection of students with physical or health impairments, it is also important to permit students with disabilities to take risks just as their able-bodied cohorts do.
Recent advances in technology have helped to make life more nearly normal for students with physical disabilities. For example, students with cerebral palsy can use computer terminals to aid in communication. Through technology, even a person with the most severe handicaps can have greater control over communication and daily living skills.

Modifying the environment may mean providing special adaptive equipment such as specially designed desks, positioning devices, wedges, or standing tables. Adaptations also may include establishing procedures for dealing with medical emergencies when students have serious medical problems.

Finally, what role teachers should play in the medical management of children is an ongoing and contentious issue (Temple, 2000) since teachers are being called on to assume more responsibilities for the medical management of their students (Heller et al., 2000).

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curriculum for children with disabilities

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summer camps for children with disabilities

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family educational rights and privacy act

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Comprehensive Overview of Other Health Impairments

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Other Health Impairments special education, National Association of Special Education Teachers

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Does My Kid Qualify for an IEP Under “Other Health Impairment (OHI)”? — Variations

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Does My Kid Qualify for an IEP Under “Other Health Impairment (OHI)”? Unlike most of IDEA’s 13 categories, the “Other Health Impairment” category covers a broad range of conditions, from ADHD to depression. Check out this month’s blog to learn more about this important category and whether your ch

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How to Conduct a Functional Behavior Assessment | Behavior Analysis Basics & Writing a Behavior Plan

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When a child acts out in class, the behavior may relate to a deeper struggle with their learning. Determining the reason for that behavior not only reduces disruptions but helps the child learn more successfully. However, teachers and parents alone may not have the tools necessary to work on developing productive behaviors.

Teachers can't always stop behaviors with usual classroom management and disciplinary action. In these cases, a functional behavioral assessment (FBA) can help in understanding the cause of a child's behavior and creating a plan for potential solutions. When you know what causes a problem behavior, you can focus on modifying it in a way that benefits the child and helps them learn successfully. In special education, an FBA is part of an individualized education program (IEP), and it can help the student meet their educational and social goals.

In this guide, I explain what a functional behavioral assessment is, how it works, and how it helps children meet their academic objectives. I will review the FBA process in detail, as well as how to start the process for your child, so you can understand the next best step.

Inside the Functional Behavioral Assessment Process

What is a Functional Behavioral Assessment?

When Does a Child Get an FBA and How Can It Help?

What Does the FBA Process Look Like?

1. Define the Behavior

2. Observe the Child

3. Collect and Analyze Data

4. Develop a Behavior Intervention Plan

5. Gather Data on Plan Effectiveness

When Should You Request an FBA?

What Is a Functional Behavioral Assessment?

The functional behavioral assessment is a behavior-focused evaluation using a structured process to gather data for a special education IEP. With it, the FBA team collects information on a child's behavior when that behavior becomes disruptive and negatively impacts their learning. The FBA works to identify the behavior, its cause, and what reinforces it to become a pattern in the classroom. Once the FBA team has enough data on the behavior, they use it to develop interventions that lower the incidence of the behavior and instead encourage more positive and productive ones.

Although an FBA works to identify negative behaviors, it also serves to help the IEP team identify positive behavior interventions that they can use to modify the behavior. By highlighting the purpose of the child's behavior, the team can work toward reaching academic goals more productively. The FBA forms a foundation the IEP team can use to create a behavioral intervention plan (BIP).

When Does a Child Get an FBA and How Can It Help?

Not all students with an IEP receive or need an FBA. An FBA is typically only recommended if the child's behavior interferes with their learning. For example, if problem behaviors are observed when asked to solve a math problem and their behavior prevents them from understanding or completing the assignment, they may get an FBA to determine why they exhibit those behaviors and how they can work with their IEP team to learn more productive behaviors.

If the IEP team needs additional information to create an appropriate program for the child, the FBA team can help gather the necessary data to implement in an effective IEP that more fully benefits the student. An FBA should be conducted if you notice a child's behavior is repeatedly disruptive and impedes their learning.

Children who receive an FBA as part of their IEP benefit from a more targeted and organized approach to behavioral therapy. The FBA can show teachers, parents, and other professionals who work with the child how their disability affects their behavior. It can also help the IEP team alter the child's environment to reduce the likelihood of the behavior recurring if that environment contributes. It opens possibilities for new ways to work with the child that help them learn and give them the tools to meet their goals.

What Does the FBA Process Look Like?

The FBA process involves both direct and indirect assessments of the child's behavior. The direct assessment portion includes observing the child and tracking their behaviors as they occur. Documentation should include:

When the behavior happens

Potential triggers and antecedent behavior

The cycle of the behavior

Naming the behavior in specific, objective, measurable terms

Consequences of the behavior

Identifying the antecedent behavior, or actions preceding the disruptive behavior, enables the FBA team to find patterns and understand the underlying cause of the problem behavior. Likewise, pinpointing the consequences allows the team to determine how and why the cycle continues.

Indirect assessment happens outside of direct involvement with the student. It may include interviews with parents, teachers, and other professionals who regularly work with the student as well as gathering documentation. These interviews help the FBA team understand setting events that impact the child's behavior, such as performance- or skill-related struggles. At this stage, the FBA team may also informally interview the child.

Performing an FBA involves the following steps.

1. Define the Behavior

Defining the behavior must include an objective, specific measurable definition. For example, rather than saying the student is disruptive or aggressive in class, the FBA team should explain the student's specific actions. Maybe they talk excessively during lectures, leave the classroom without asking, or break class materials.

The FBA team should then record those behaviors to show how they impact the student's education and when and why they occur. Defining the behavior in this way gives the FBA team a starting point to begin addressing the behavior with more focused methods to create a behavioral intervention plan.

2. Observe the Child

To define the child's behavior accurately, the FBA team observes the child in class. At this point, the team should have a hypothesis about the behavior, including the antecedent and consequences. The observation helps explain the causes or triggers of the behavior and how it is handled in the classroom and test the hypothesis.

For example, if the student becomes disruptive when asked to complete a writing assignment in class, the FBA team may determine that trouble with motor skills required for writing causes the child distress and triggers their behavior. The team will then investigate that line of reasoning further. At the same time, the observation helps them determine when and where the behavior does not occur in order to narrow their focus and create a more effective plan.

3. Collect and Analyze Data

While some of the data the FBA team collects will come from observation, other elements provide additional support for the direct assessment. Some of this data may include:

As with observation, this data shows when and where the behavior does or doesn't happen and the circumstances surrounding it. The team then uses this data to test their hypothesis and design a behavior support plan.

4. Develop a Behavior Intervention Plan

If making simple modifications in the classroom does not stop the disruptive behavior, the student may need a behavior intervention plan (BIP). A BIP developed by a school psychologist or behavior specialist and the IEP team uses a targeted approach toward specific behaviors and their functions. It typically uses prevention strategies and replacement behaviors to modify the target behavior.

The BIP becomes part of the child's IE P, and it must be followed consistently to be effective. Additionally, the BIP cannot be adjusted without an IEP meeting that reviews the BIP and the student's progress.

5. Gather Data on Plan Effectiveness

Once the IEP team implements the BIP, the FBA team observes the student again to determine its effectiveness. If the student shows progress, the IEP team continues with the plan. If not, the team reviews the program to modify it or create a new plan. They then continue to observe the student to determine if the behavior continues with the changes.

The FBA team will learn what does and doesn't work through further observation and meet to adjust the BIP as they collect more information. The team will also review the BIP yearly to determine whether the child still needs it or if changes to the plan would further student success.

When Should You Request an FBA evaluation?

If you're a teacher and notice a child regularly exhibiting disruptive behavior that impedes their learning, talk with their parent or guardian about conducting an FBA. However, due to school staffing and class sizes, teachers may not immediately recognize a student's need for an FBA.

Often, the need for an assessment arises long before the assessment happens. Schools don't always offer FBAs without a request, so you will likely have to contact the school to start the process. Therefore, if you're a parent and you see that your child is having problems at school that may have contributing behavioral factors, talk to your child's IEP team about conducting an FBA.

Get the Support Your Child Needs

An FBA can support your child's team in learning more about your child's target behaviors and how to better support them. With a BIP created from the FBA, your child can develop new behavioral skills. If you believe your student would benefit from an FBA, request an IEP meeting to discuss how it may help them meet their academic goals.

I hope this guide gives you everything you need to understand how the FBA process works. Do you have experience getting an FBA for your child? What was it like? Let me know in the comments or send me an email! I'd love to hear your thoughts!

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The Functional Behavior Assessment FBA Process for an IEP

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When a child acts out in class, the behavior may relate to a deeper struggle with their learning. Determining the reason for that behavior not only reduces disruptions but helps the child learn more successfully. However, teachers and parents alone may not have the tools necessary to work on developing productive behaviors.

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What is traumatic brain injury?

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) happens when a sudden, external, physical assault damages the brain. It is one of the most common causes of disability and death in adults. TBI is a broad term that describes a vast array of injuries that happen to the brain. The damage can be focal (confined to one area of the brain) or diffuse (happens in more than one area of the brain). The severity of a brain injury can range from a mild concussion to a severe injury that results in coma or even death.

What are the different types of TBI?

Brain injury may happen in one of two ways:

Closed brain injury. Closed brain injuries happen when there is a nonpenetrating injury to the brain with no break in the skull. A closed brain injury is caused by a rapid forward or backward movement and shaking of the brain inside the bony skull that results in bruising and tearing of brain tissue and blood vessels. Closed brain injuries are usually caused by car accidents, falls, and increasingly, in sports. Shaking a baby can also result in this type of injury (called shaken baby syndrome).

Penetrating brain injury. Penetrating, or open head injuries happen when there is a break in the skull, such as when a bullet pierces the brain.

What is diffuse axonal injury (DAI)?

Diffuse axonal injury is the shearing (tearing) of the brain's long connecting nerve fibers (axons) that happens when the brain is injured as it shifts and rotates inside the bony skull. DAI usually causes coma and injury to many different parts of the brain. The changes in the brain are often microscopic and may not be evident on computed tomography (CT scan) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans.

What is primary and secondary brain injury?

Primary brain injury refers to the sudden and profound injury to the brain that is considered to be more or less complete at the time of impact. This happens at the time of the car accident, gunshot wound, or fall.

Secondary brain injury refers to the changes that evolve over a period of hours to days after the primary brain injury. It includes an entire series of steps or stages of cellular, chemical, tissue, or blood vessel changes in the brain that contribute to further destruction of brain tissue.

What causes a head injury?

There are many causes of head injury in children and adults. The most common injuries are from motor vehicle accidents (where the person is either riding in the car or is struck as a pedestrian), violence, falls, or as a result of shaking a child (as seen in cases of child abuse).

What causes bruising and internal damage to the brain?

When there is a direct blow to the head, the bruising of the brain and the damage to the internal tissue and blood vessels is due to a mechanism called coup-contrecoup. A bruise directly related to trauma at the site of impact is called a coup lesion (pronounced COO). As the brain jolts backward, it can hit the skull on the opposite side and cause a bruise called a contrecoup lesion. The jarring of the brain against the sides of the skull can cause shearing (tearing) of the internal lining, tissues, and blood vessels leading to internal bleeding, bruising, or swelling of the brain.

What are the possible results of brain injury?

Some brain injuries are mild, with symptoms disappearing over time with proper attention. Others are more severe and may result in permanent disability. The long-term or permanent results of brain injury may need post-injury and possibly lifelong rehabilitation. Effects of brain injury may include:

Can the brain heal after being injured?

Most studies suggest that once brain cells are destroyed or damaged, for the most part, they do not regenerate. However, recovery after brain injury can take place, especially in younger people, as, in some cases, other areas of the brain make up for the injured tissue. In other cases, the brain learns to reroute information and function around the damaged areas. The exact amount of recovery is not predictable at the time of injury and may be unknown for months or even years. Each brain injury and rate of recovery is unique. Recovery from a severe brain injury often involves a prolonged or lifelong process of treatment and rehabilitation.

What is coma?

Coma is an altered state of consciousness that may be very deep (unconsciousness) so that no amount of stimulation will cause the patient to respond. It can also be a state of reduced consciousness, so that the patient may move about or respond to pain. Not all patients with brain injury are comatose. The depth of coma, and the time a patient spends in a coma varies greatly depending on the location and severity of the brain injury. Some patients emerge from a coma and have a good recovery. Other patients have significant disabilities.

How is coma measured?

Depth of the coma is usually measured in the emergency and intensive care settings using a Glasgow coma scale. The scale (from 3 to 15) evaluates eye opening, verbal response, and motor response. A high score shows a greater amount of consciousness and awareness.

In rehabilitation settings, here are several scales and measures used to rate and record the progress of the patient. Some of the most common of these scales are described below.

Rancho Los Amigos 10 Level Scale of Cognitive Functioning. This is a revision of the original Rancho 8 Level Scale, which is based on how the patient reacts to external stimuli and the environment. The scales consist of 10 different levels and each patient will progress through the levels with starts and stops, progress and plateaus.

Disability Rating Scale (DRS). This scale measures functional change during the course of recovery rating the person's disability level from none to extreme. The DRS assesses cognitive and physical function, impairment, disability, and handicap and can track a person's progress from "coma to community."

Functional Independent Measure (FIM). The FIM scale measures a person's level of independence in activities of daily living. Scores can range from 1 (complete dependence) to 7 (complete independence).

Functional Assessment Measure (FAM). This measure is used along with FIM and was developed specifically for people with brain injury.

The Brain Injury Rehabilitation Program

Rehabilitation of the patient with a brain injury begins during the acute treatment phase. As the patient's condition improves, a more extensive rehabilitation program is often begun. The success of rehabilitation depends on many variables, including the following:

Nature and severity of the brain injury

Type and degree of any resulting impairments and disabilities

Overall health of the patient

Family support

It is important to focus on maximizing the patient's capabilities at home and in the community. Positive reinforcement helps recovery by improving self-esteem and promoting independence.

The goal of brain injury rehabilitation is to help the patient return to the highest level of function and independence possible, while improving the overall quality of life- physically, emotionally, and socially.

Areas covered in brain injury rehabilitation programs may include:

Self-care skills, including activities of daily living (ADLs): feeding, grooming, bathing, dressing, toileting, and sexual functioning

Physical care: nutritional needs, medicines, and skin care

Mobility skills: walking, transfers, and self-propelling a wheelchair

Communication skills: speech, writing, and alternative methods of communication

Cognitive skills: speech, writing, and alternative methods of communication

Socialization skills: interacting with others at home and within the community

Vocational training: work-related skills

Pain management: medicines and alternative methods of managing pain

Psychological testing and counseling: identifying problems and solutions with thinking, behavioral, and emotional issues

Family support: assistance with adapting to lifestyle changes, financial concerns, and discharge planning

Education: patient and family education and training about brain injury, safety issues, home care needs, and adaptive techniques

The Brain Injury Rehabilitation Team

The brain injury rehabilitation team revolves around the patient and family and helps set short- and long-term treatment goals for recovery. Many skilled professionals are part of the brain injury rehabilitation team, including any or all of the following:

Types of Brain Injury Rehabilitation Programs

There are a variety of brain injury treatment programs, including the following:

Acute rehabilitation programs

Subacute rehabilitation programs

Long-term rehabilitation programs

Transitional living programs

Behavior management programs

Day-treatment programs

Independent living programs

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Acquired brain injury hapens when a sudden, external, physical assault damages the brain. It is one of the most common causes of disability and death in adults.

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Classroom Interventions for Students with Traumatic Brain Injuries | BrainLine

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There is a lot to know about helping children with TBI successfully return to the classroom.

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Minnesota uses the federal definition of Specific Learning Disability (SLD). SLD is a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using spoken or written language. The disability may be exhibited as an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. SLD also includes conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia and developmental aphasia.

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The University of Texas Permian Basin | UTPB

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The Three Types of Specific Learning Disabilities: Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, and Dyscalculia | UT Permian Basin Online

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Knowing the differences between specific learning disabilities will better enable educators to provide students with special education services and accommodations.

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Are you a parent or teacher with students who have learning differences? Children with ADHD, reading disabilities, dyslexia and other disorders can experience more struggle than their peers. They may have difficulty performing tasks, focusing on lessons, remembering concepts and adapting to changing routines.

Fortunately, you can help students who are struggling. Here's how to support a child with learning difficulties in school.

1. Use Chunking Technique

According to Harvard psychologist George Miller, people can only handle between five and nine pieces of information at a time. Chunking, however, is a learning technique that allows you to take advantage of long-term memory and handle more concepts.

Teachers can aid students in the learning process by breaking down lessons into small chunks that build upon one another. Each block should reference material from previous ones to connect concepts and utilize repetition.

For example, if students must read a long chapter for the night's homework, you can divide it into manageable sections, and end each with a task where the student summarizes what they read. After reading the entire chapter, have them reread each summary.

VIDEO: A Teaching Technique for Teachers of Students with Learning Disabilities

2. Organize Information Visually

Many students with learning difficulties process information visually. Teachers and parents can use those skills with comprehending lessons. For instance, after reading a chapter in a book, ask the student to draw a picture representing what they read.

You can also take advantage of visual organizers to help students process their thoughts. When the class reads a novel, have them chart out a cause-and-effect organizer. The effect is the big event in the story, the climax where everything comes to resolution. The causes are what led to that event and made it happen. ( Cause and Effect Chart: https://prnt.sc/stutol).

3. Appeal to Multiple Senses

To improve comprehension and retention when studying, incorporate multiple senses.

For children who are visual learners, you can try:

Hanging up pictures and setting up models

Highlighting information in different colors

Asking students to create lesson-based art

For those who prefer audio-based lessons, you can:

Listen to books on tape or read aloud

Watch a video with accompanying audio

Utilize rhymes, chants and language games

Some kids are kinesthetic learners, those who learn through:

Lessons with finger paints, puzzles or sand

Modeling objects or designs in clay

Using small objects to represent numbers

Tactile teaching involves the sense of touch, such as:

Pairing counting with clapping or other movements

Using a highlighter to color-code passages while reading

Manipulating materials, like blocks, to visualize a scene

4. Personalize Online Tutoring

Outside of the classroom, online tutoring can mimic in-person sessions and help students solidify their understanding of certain concepts. Before the meeting occurs, students can upload materials, including previous quizzes, tests, and homework. The tutor can then review them and bring along any additional items that may prove helpful.

With personalized tutoring, students can ask questions and receive feedback that meets their specific needs. Online professionals are well-versed in adapting their strategies to students with learning disabilities. Despite sessions taking place on the computer, kids can still use text chat, write on a virtual whiteboard, share their screen and record lessons to review later.

5. Incorporate Mnemonics

Mnemonics are techniques that help students understand and organize the information they read through visual and audio cues. They typically rely on the use of keywords, rhymes and acronyms. For example, most of us learned about the Great Lakes in school with the mnemonic device HOMES - Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Eerie, Superior.

Don't use an acronym for all concepts. Instead, pick out keywords you can relate to visuals. For example, the scientific name for the common frog is Ranidae. The keyword you pick out might be "rain." To help students remember the name, you can show a picture of frogs hopping in the rain.

Cater to Every Student in the Classroom

If you want to learn how to help students with learning disabilities, follow the strategies above. By adjusting how you present topics and provide information you can ease their anxiety and encourage their quest for lifelong learning.

About the Author: Alyssa Abel is an experiential education writer who covers a variety of topics from learning styles to emerging methodologies. Read more of her work on her blog, Syllabusy.

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Strategies For Teaching Children With Learning Disabilities

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Learn the strategies and how to help a child with learning difficulties in school. Use these tips to encourage their quest for lifelong learning.

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Research continues to confirm that we can teach students with learning disabilities to "learn how to learn." We can put them into a position to compete and hold their own.
Some intervention practices that produce large outcomes are:

direct instruction;

learning strategy instruction; and

using a sequential, simultaneous structured multi-sensory approach.

Teachers who apply those kinds of intervention:

break learning into small steps;

administer probes;

supply regular, quality feedback;

use diagrams, graphics and pictures to augment what they say in words;

provide ample independent, well-designed intensive practice;

model instructional practices that they want students to follow;

provide prompts of strategies to use; and

engage students in process type questions like "How is the strategy working? Where else might you apply it?"

Scaffolding is also something that seems to make a real difference. Start out with the teacher using heavily mediated instruction, known as explicit instruction, then slowly begin to let the students acquire the skill, moving towards the goal of student mediated instruction.

Success for the student with learning disabilities requires a focus on individual achievement, individual progress, and individual learning. This requires specific, directed, individualized, intensive remedial instruction for students who are struggling.

Whether the student is in the general education classroom or learning in a special class setting, focus the activities on assessing individual students to monitor their progress through the curriculum. Concerns for the individual must take precedence over concerns for the group or the curriculum or for the organization and management of the general education classroom content.

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Successful Strategies for Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities

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Research continues to confirm that we can teach students with learning disabilities to "learn how to learn." We can put them into a position to compete and hold their own. direct instruction; learning strategy instruction; and using a sequential, simultaneous structured multi-sensory approach.

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A Q&A with Gregg French, special education teacher at Bullard Havens Technical High School and president of LDA Connecticut

Accommodations and Strategies
What are some accommodations and teaching strategies that can be used in a general education classroom to help students with learning disabilities?
I spent a lot of my teaching career focusing on differentiation of instruction, and how beneficial that is to not only students with IEPs and 504s, but students who are below grade level or at risk, and for students that are primarily non-English language speakers. So differentiating instruction is beneficial for many different types of students that we encounter in our classrooms.
What is differentiation of instruction? Differentiation of instruction is a teaching model that looks at explicitly teaching content in different ways. One of the strategies that I find very much used in my school is the gradual release of responsibility. I see a lot of teachers modeling new concepts and skills, and then teachers provide guided practice where students, once a teacher feels that they've modeled enough, have the students walk the teacher through how to complete a task, or do an assignment. And then based on the guided practice and working together, talking it out, the teacher can get a sense of, 'okay, I feel that this group of students can do it independently, go for it. Maybe this group of students need to be a little bit more supported with more guided practice or with modeling.'
I've seen teachers do rotating stations where there's a specific task at each station for an allotted time. And it might have a vocabulary visual station, a hands-on station, and a conference with the teacher, so you're kind of using a wide variety of different approaches to delivery of instruction, teaching and learning.

A lot of teachers I know use project-based learning, and giving students a choice on how they want to create a project is great.

Use students' strengths to demonstrate and apply a specific skill. I've seen teachers who use a lot of assistive technology, speech to text, and audio books. I've worked with students in looking at different software to create projects, virtually and digitally. I think COVID virtual learning allowed teachers to experiment with more digital programs and software that can be beneficial to students with LD or without a disability.

A lot of those accommodations that we look for in implementing the IEP can be beneficial for students who are not receiving special education services. Being a visual learner is something that I think each person enjoys, so using graphic organizers to break down large reading or writing assignments can be helpful for a student who's learning English for the first time, or students that just need that visual support.

Highlighting vocabulary terms and pre-teaching content specific vocabulary can be beneficial to many diverse learners, not just specifically students with learning disabilities.

I make the point to tell teachers that an accommodation you might see in an IEP can become a class-wide accommodation if you feel it benefits all of your students, because I think that's just part of good teaching.

Partnering with Special Education Teachers
How can general education teachers and special education teachers partner to benefit students with LD?
I really think that one of the most crucial pieces to supporting any student with a disability is the collaboration between the special education teacher and the general education teacher, because there may be a point where co-teaching needs to be embedded in the delivery of instruction, and so making sure that teachers have the opportunity to collaborate, and co-plan, co-teach and co-assess, and come up with a model that fits the classroom.

Working on building positive relationships between both teachers is very crucial, that line of communication needs to be consistent and clear. And both need to understand the roles in supporting the student.

It shouldn't be me versus them, it should be us working together to support the needs of the student. And so in the classroom, whenever I push in, I always let the teacher lead the classroom. With the delivery of instruction, I will float around and support all students. And I think that's really key.

Students who have IEPs and a learning disability don't want to be picked out in the crowd and have an adult hovering over them. I see my role in the classroom as supporting all the students, so I build relationships with all the students. I'll spend time working with students that aren't on my caseload, because I know that kids on my caseload are working independently and are perfectly fine.

So the classroom kind of sees me as a co-teacher that's there for everyone. I don't hover over a particular student, and that classroom climate and environment is positive. They see myself and the general education teacher as partners, as a resource to ask for help. I never would turn away a student asking for help.

I think it's also important that the co-teachers use common language and are on the same page of knowing that, 'Yes, I have five or six students in your classroom that have IEPs that are on my caseload that I'm supporting, but I'm also supporting the entire class'

Advocating for Students
If a teacher has a student with LD and they feel like their needs aren't being met, how can they advocate?
I think that goes back to the collaboration piece. When a special education teacher is not present in a classroom with a group of students who have a learning disability, and the general education teacher may be struggling with reaching those students or teaching a specific lesson, that's where collaboration and communication need to come into play.

Having that open line of communication, where the general education teacher is comfortable to say, 'Hey, I did this lesson today, it didn't work out for the students, what can I do differently next time?' Or, 'Can you come in and maybe I'll reteach those students and you work with the other group of students and then we'll kind of do a split classroom.'

No teacher should feel that their hands are tied. And again, I think that goes to building positive relationships, communication, collaboration, and making sure that the special education teacher is also there to support the teacher. Because ultimately, the general education teacher spends the most time with their students.

Advice for General Education Teachers
Do you have any other advice for general education teachers who have students with learning disabilities in their class?
For teachers that find they have a large group of students primarily with LD, the number one thing is to reflect on your teaching practices. Because oftentimes, a lot of students with LD need things taught in a specific way that's really broken down, through scaffolding or chunking, and usually need a lot of visual supports.

So if you really implement differentiation of instruction, you build strong relationships with those students, you refer to those IEPs, you're an active collaborative member of the IEP team, and have a partnership with the special education teacher, you're pretty much meeting all the needs and requirements of effectively teaching students with a learning disability.

And also understand that a learning disability should not be the focus. We want to focus more on the abilities and the strengths of the students. Oftentimes teachers will say, 'Well, they have a reading disability, I'm never going to catch them up to reading at grade level.' Well, maybe that's not the goal, maybe the goal is to focus on what their strengths are, and using those to teach those areas of difficulty. And so it's flipping the equation, in not so much focusing on the dyslexia, the LD, the ADHD, but focusing on what the student is capable of.

And that's something to speak to on a personal level. I was diagnosed with a reading comprehension disability as well as a math disability in the fourth grade. And I received special education services throughout elementary school, throughout middle school, and up until junior year of high school. And I remember what it was like, being a student who receives services and had a co-teacher in the classroom, and feeling the stigma of having an IEP, having someone follow you and try to help you. And so my other word of advice would be it's okay to let the students be independent, because in the end, special education shouldn't be a life sentence.

And that's something I always try to tell parents too. I don't think it is talked about enough, but special education is there to support the student as much as is needed and appropriately. But if a student does find strategies that are effective and is compensating for those areas of difficulty, and they're doing well academically and socially, students can be exited from special education.

A student with a learning disability will have it their whole life, but can find strategies to really address the difficulties that they're having academically in school, and we shouldn't look at them any differently than any other student. And so I think really understanding where the student is and where they're coming from and building that relationship is crucial.

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How Teachers Can Help Students with Learning Disabilities

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A Q&A with Gregg French, special education teacher at Bullard Havens Technical High School and president of LDA Connecticut What are some accommodations and teaching strategies that can be used in a general education classroom to help students with learning disabilities?

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Staff and student perspectives and effects of positive behaviour support: a literature review

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Positive behaviour support (PBS) has been receiving increased attention recently but has not been studied from the perspectives of staff and students in Sweden. This article presents an integrative…

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A specific learning disability (SpLD) is the result of a neurological disorder which causes the learner to receive and process some information inaccurately. SpLD can have a significant impact on learning.

Research indicates that at least five per cent of higher education students have a learning disability which can cause significant difficulties for perceiving or processing auditory, visual or spatial information. The most common learning disability found in the higher education environment is dyslexia. Other learning disabilities are dysgraphia, discalculia, aphasia and less commonly dysmusia.

Manifestations of the disability can vary over time. Often, a student who was diagnosed with SpLD as child will have established avoidance, protective or compensatory strategies, which may not be appropriate at university.

SpLD is a 'hidden' disability. Often, the first indication for staff will be a discrepancy between the knowledge or ability a student demonstrates in class, and results of written assignments or exams.

Although making generalisations about any disability is unhelpful and can perpetuate stereotypes, there are a number of characteristics common to students with SpLD. Difficulties resulting from errors in perceiving and processing information manifest particularly in written work in the form of:

unusual and inconsistent spellings

reversals or transpositions of letters in words, or numbers in figures, formulae, dates and symbols (such as in mathematics or music)

omission of parts of words or sentences, or omission of auxiliary verbs, pronouns and prepositions

lack of proper order or demonstrated sequence in writing, mathematical calculations or music notation.

Students may also mispronounce or misread words and have difficulty acquiring new vocabulary or a new language. Their reading rate is generally slower than average, though not necessarily in all areas.

Research indicates that making changes and adjusting to new situations is especially difficult for students with learning disabilities. Students may begin post-secondary study with an unclear understanding of their own disability, though some will be very clear about their particular strengths and weaknesses. It is important to recognise that a student with perceptual or processing impairment will have difficulty with some academic tasks but not with others. Performance may appear uneven.

Impact of Learning Disabilities

The learning processes of students with learning disabilities may be affected in a number of ways:

deficiencies in short-term memory and cognitive processing limitations are common. This means that students may have difficulty following sequences or complicated directions and with integrating material from a number of sources.

problems following or creating a sequence will interfere with many things in the learning environment: following and understanding the structure of a lecture; remembering facts presented chronologically; seeing the relationship between a main idea and subordinate ideas in a text.

students with a learning disability sometimes report information overload and confusion resulting from having more ideas (and having to hold on to them) than they can manage to translate into acceptable words or structures. They may have difficulty in moving from the role of writer to that of reader, and objectively viewing the ideas, organisation and style of their written assignments, and achieving coherence in writing.

students may have difficulty with the 'search and locate' strategies required in library work and in independent learning generally.

When reading rate and reading comprehension are slow, difficulties are compounded when large amounts of material must be dealt with in a short space of time, or when many new words or concepts must be learned and incorporated into understanding.

visual memory skills may be poor. By comparison, oral language and discussion skills are often exceptional, though students are likely to be extremely reluctant to read aloud.

manual dexterity or coordination problems may be evident, often as a result of difficulties in judging distance. Students may also have difficulty interpreting two- or three-dimensional models or diagrams and following maps or directions.

heightened anxiety levels are common in test or performance situations. Anxiety about performing in front of others may affect participation in tutorials. Students will deal with anxiety in any number of ways - from medication to meditation, or simply by avoidance.

Teaching Strategies

There is a range of inclusive teaching strategies that can assist all students to learn but there are some specific strategies that are useful in teaching a group which includes students with learning disability:

provide reading lists well before the start of a course so that reading can begin early. Consider tailoring reading lists and providing guidance to key texts. Allow work to be completed on an in-depth study of a few texts rather than a broad study of many.

whenever you are introducing procedures or processes or giving directions, for example in a laboratory or computing exercise, ensure that stages or sequences are made clear and are explained in verbal as well as written form.

students may benefit from using assistive technology.

use as many verbal descriptions as possible to supplement material presented on blackboard or overhead. Students with a learning disability often have a marked preference for an auditory mode of learning.

present information in a range of formats - handouts, worksheets, overheads, videos - to meet a diversity of learning styles.

use a variety of teaching methods so that students are not constrained by needing to acquire information by reading only. Where possible, present material diagrammatically - in lists, flow charts, concept maps etc.

keep diagrams uncluttered and use colour wherever appropriate to distinguish and highlight

ensure that lists of technical/professional jargon which students will need to learn are available early in the course

recording lectures will assist those students who have handwriting or coordination problems and those who write slowly as well as those who have a tendency to mishear or misquote

students will be more likely to follow correctly the sequence of material in a lecture if they are able to listen to the material more than once

repetition is important for students with a learning disability. Wherever possible, ensure that key statements and instructions are repeated or highlighted in some way

students with a learning disability will benefit from discussion on time management and organisation issues. Such discussions can be built into tutorial activities

extra tutoring in subjects where processes and sequences are important may be desirable

students with learning disability may benefit from having oral rather than written feedback on their written assignments

do not make students over-anxious about making mistakes, asking questions, getting through the work or meeting learning goals

it may be helpful for students with a learning disability to have an individual orientation to laboratory equipment or computers to minimise anxiety.

Assessment Strategies

Students with learning disabilities may need particular adjustments to assessment tasks. Once you have a clear picture of how the disability impacts on learning, you can consider alternative assessment strategies.

In considering alternative forms of assessment, equal opportunity is not a guaranteed outcome, it is the objective. You are not expected to lower standards to accommodate students with a disability but rather are required to give them a reasonable opportunity to demonstrate what they have learned.

Students with learning disability may need particular adjustments to assessment tasks. Once you have a clear picture of how the disability impacts on performance, you can consider alternative assessment strategies:

allow extensions to assignment deadlines if extensive reading has been set.

students with learning disability may take longer to organise thoughts and sequence material. In drafting an essay some students will write, read on to tape, listen and then correct. This all takes time. Students will benefit from discussing their outlines with particular attention being paid to appropriate relationships and connections between points.

encourage the student to submit an early draft of assignments to allow the opportunity for feedback to the student as a formative process.

students with learning disability will need extra time in an examination for reading and analysing questions, and for planning their answers. Some students will request that examination questions be read to them. Some students may prefer to dictate their answers to a scribe. They will need a venue which is quiet and distraction-free.

many students with a learning disability will prefer oral assessment to written. Allow students to read written examination responses aloud and correct as they read. Some students need to hear what they have written in order to determine whether they have written what they intended. An oral examination is not an easy option for students. Give the same time for an oral examination as for a written exam but allow extra time for the student to listen to and refine or edit taped responses. In your assessment, allowance should be made for the fact that spoken answers are likely to be less coherent than written answers.

keep short your written examination instructions and sentences within examination questions. Questions using bullet points, lists or distinct parts are more likely to be correctly interpreted.

because students with learning disability find it difficult to read multiple-choice questions in a way that allows them to appreciate subtle changes in the arrangement of words, short-answer questions will be a better test of their knowledge.

many students with learning disability are chronic misspellers and use dictionaries only with great difficulty. Allow students to use a word processor in examinations so that they have access to a spell-checker.

Opening All Options (OAO) is a comprehensive resource for disability practitioners, academic and teaching staff to support students with Specific Learning Disability (SpLD) in the post-secondary education sector.

OAO provides advice and tips for Disability Practitioners and Teachers and Academics on how best to support post-secondary education students with SpLD to achieve success in their studies. It includes information on pre-screening, reasonable adjustments you can make, teaching strategies, study skills, assistive technology, and universal design solutions to assist you address the learning barriers faced by students with an SpLD. https://www.adcet.edu.au/oao/

Related Resources

Pathways Conference Presentations

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Inclusive Teaching: Specific Learning Disability

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Inclusive teaching practices for students with Specific Learning Disability

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Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a lifelong condition that makes it hard to learn motor skills and coordination. It’s not a learning disorder, but it can impact learning. Kids with DCD struggle with physical tasks and activities they need to do both in and out of school.

Learning how to support your child with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a journey. Along the way, you’ll learn about symptoms, treatment options and what schools and professionals can do to help. But there’s so much else to know about DCD, which you may have heard referred to as dyspraxia.

This overview gives you the basics, so you can start helping your child. It also leads to more in-depth information on DCD.

Snapshot: What DCD is

DCD is a condition that makes it hard to learn coordination and motor skills (including motor planning). At least 5 percent of kids have it. DCD is more common in boys than in girls. Kids don’t outgrow it, but they can improve their motor skills.

DCD isn’t a like or . It’s considered a neurodevelopmental disorder, like ADHD. But it can make it hard for kids to do schoolwork and keep up with classroom lessons. It can also make it difficult for them to participate in gym class. DCD often co-occurs with other conditions, and the symptoms may overlap.

Kids with DCD struggle with many of the tasks needed for learning in school. These include writing, copying from the board and organizing their things.

DCD can create challenges outside of school, too. Motor planning problems can make it hard to figure out the steps of self-care routines, like brushing teeth and getting dressed. Kids may have trouble preparing a bowl of cereal with milk for themselves. Trouble with balance may make it hard for them to sit still and eat properly.

DCD is an impairment in movement skills, including:

Fine motor skills

Gross motor skills

Motor planning

Coordination

Weakness in these skills can impact other motor abilities that people use every day. These include:

Maintaining balance

Being able to quickly change their movement in new situations

Moving their body in the right way

Learning new movements

Predicting the outcome of their movements

Finding and using solutions to motor task problems

Kids with DCD may have trouble using feedback from earlier experiences to adjust their movements. For instance, if they position their fork the wrong way, they don’t automatically learn from that and do it right the next time.

They may also have trouble sequencing. So, planning the movements needed to do a task in the right order can be difficult. Trouble with balance can make kids with DCD appear clumsy. They often bump into other people by accident and drop things they’re holding.

Dive deeper

Try these fine motor skills activities for younger kids.

Explore ideas for improving gross motor skills in younger kids.

Discover fun ways to help older kids improve motor skills.

DCD signs and symptoms

Kids develop movement skills at different rates. So, when they’re young, it may be hard to know if their difficulties will pass on their own. But even in preschool (or before), there can be signs that a child has weaknesses and needs intervention to improve.

Below are some signs of DCD at specific ages.

Has trouble holding and using utensils

Has trouble throwing a ball

Plays too roughly or often bumps into other kids by accident

Has difficulty sitting upright or still

Has trouble holding and using a crayon, a pencil, or scissors

Doesn’t form or space letters correctly

Struggles with going up and down stairs

Frequently bumps into people by accident

Has trouble with self-care, like brushing teeth

Takes a long time to write

Has trouble cutting foods

Has difficulty with basic routines like getting dressed

Struggles to line up columns when doing math problems

Avoids or struggles with typing and texting

Struggles with visual-spatial aspects of math, like working with shapes in geometry

Struggles with opening the latch on a locker

Has difficulty learning to drive

Dive deeper

See a list of coordination and motor skills developmental milestones.

Read an expert’s explanation of whether clumsiness is a sign of motor skills issues.

Learn how motor skills and other issues can impact driving.

Other issues that can co-occur with DCD

Most kids with DCD have at least one learning or thinking difference, too. is one of the most common conditions that co-occur with DCD. In fact, half of all kids with DCD also have ADHD.

But DCD can just look like other issues. For example, because of balance problems, kids with DCD often have trouble sitting upright or sitting still. They may move around a lot to keep their bodies up.

Some people might see that behavior and assume it’s fidgeting due to ADHD, even if it’s not. Or they might wrongly attribute it to , which can also cause kids to fidget and squirm.

Here are some of the issues that often co-occur or share symptoms with DCD.

ADHD

Executive functioning issues

Dysgraphia

Mental health issues, like anxiety

Slow processing speed

Autism

Sensory processing issues

An assessment for DCD isn’t the same as an evaluation for learning and thinking differences. So if you or your child’s doctor suspect that other issues might also be at play, it’s important to seek a full evaluation to find out.

Dive deeper

Learn how sensory processing issues can affect motor skills.

Find out how various learning and thinking differences can cause trouble with writing.

Follow these steps to request a free school evaluation for your child.

Possible causes of DCD

Researchers don’t know the cause of DCD, but there are some risk factors. These include:

Being a male

Being small for gestational age

Being born prematurely or with a low birth weight

Genetics, or a history of DCD in the family

If you have questions about these risk factors, reach out to your child’s doctor for more information.

How DCD is diagnosed

There are a number of professionals who can either diagnose or identify DCD. Ideally, they’ll work as a group to evaluate a child.

Certain types of medical doctor can diagnose DCD. They include:

Pediatricians

Developmental-behavioral pediatricians

Pediatric neuropsychologists

Child psychiatrists

Before your child is evaluated for DCD, these doctors should rule out any other medical causes for your child’s coordination difficulties.

There are other professionals who may assess for and identify DCD. But they can’t make a diagnosis. These include:

Physical therapists and occupational therapists

Educational evaluators

Psychologists

Researchers

The most common ages to evaluate for DCD are 5 and 6. Evaluators will look at motor and cognitive skills. They’ll ask questions about other factors that could be having an impact, too, in school and home life. They’ll also want to know whether your child has hit certain milestones in development and when symptoms began.

Evaluators use certain tests to assess movement skills. These skills include:

Strength

Balance

Coordination

Range of motion

Motor planning

Fine motor control

Evaluators might look at dexterity by having kids do things like trace and string beads. They might assess visual-perception skills by looking at how well kids can draw a progression of shapes and stay in the lines when drawing.

Dive deeper

Read about types of tests for motor skills issues.

Find out what happens in an occupational therapy evaluation.

Hear from a mom whose daughter has motor skills issues but can play Bach.

How professionals can help with DCD

A child might get OT for free at school through an or a . There are also OTs you can hire privately. Some insurance plans may cover these services.

Kids with DCD may also work with physical therapists on balance and muscle tone.

There are other ways the school can help. It might provide like extra time on tests and written classwork. , such as dictation (speech-to-text), might also be an option.

Your child will need an IEP or a 504 plan to get formal accommodations. But the teacher might be willing to give your child informal supports to make classroom learning easier.

Dive deeper

Discover classroom accommodations for kids with movement issues.

Try this teacher tip to improve your child’s handwriting.

Explore multisensory teaching techniques to help with handwriting.

How you can help your child with DCD

One of the most important things you can do is be an advocate for your child with DCD. That starts with understanding the challenges and letting your child know you’re going to be there every step of the way.

Also, with intervention and practice, motor skills often improve. You can help your child build skills.

Download free tools to help with handwriting.

Learn about chores for kids who struggle with balance and coordination.

Read about fun sports for kids with motor skills issues.

Discover musical instruments and the motor skills they require.

As you help your child along the journey, it’s important for you to have support, too. Join the Understood Community for advice, insight and inspiration from other parents like you.

Key takeaways

DCD is a condition that makes it hard for kids to learn motor skills and coordination.

Occupational therapy is a key treatment for DCD.

Reach out to your child’s doctor if you’re concerned your child has DCD.

Related topics

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About the author

About the author

The Understood Team is made up of passionate writers and editors. Many of them have kids who learn and think differently.

Reviewed by

Reviewed by

Priscila Tamplain, PhD is an associate professor in the department of kinesiology and the director of the Developmental Motor Cognition Lab at the University of Texas at Arlington.

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Developmental Coordination Disorder in Children

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What is developmental coordination disorder (DCD), and how does it affect kids? Use this comprehensive guide to understand DCD in children.

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Overview of adverse childhood experiences, the latest data, and CDC’s approach to prevention.

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Adverse childhood experiences (typically referred to as ACEs) are potentially traumatic experiences and events, ranging from abuse and neglect to parental incarceration.* A growing body of research has made it increasingly apparent that ACEs are a critical public health issue that can have negative, lasting effects on health and well-being in childhood or later in life. ¹ However, more important than exposure to any specific event of this type is the accumulation of multiple adversities during childhood, which is associated with especially deleterious effects on development. ²

One mechanism responsible for the effects of ACEs-toxic levels of stress-can be substantially buffered by stable and supportive relationships with caregivers. Schools and educators can also play a critical role by promoting these kinds of caring relationships, as well as social and emotional skills, that support healthy youth development for all students; removing exclusionary and punitive disciplinary practices; and supporting the physical and mental health needs of students. 3

Prevalence of Adverse Childhood Experiences

There is growing interest in understanding the prevalence of these adverse experiences across different communities in the United States, as well as their implications for families, schools, and other child-serving institutions. A recent Child Trends research brief, The Prevalence of Adverse Childhood Experiences, Nationally, by State, and by Race/Ethnicity, from which this article is drawn, used data from the 2016 National Survey of Children's Health (NSCH) to estimate the prevalence of one or more selected adversities among children from birth through age 17, as reported by a parent or guardian. The study team estimated the national and state-level prevalence of eight specific adversities: parental divorce or separation, death of a parent, parental incarceration, witnessing violence in the home, experiencing or witnessing violence in the neighborhood, economic hardship, living with individuals with substance use problems, and living with someone who is mentally ill. Our findings include:

Among the adversities included in the survey, economic hardship and divorce or separation of parents or guardians are the most common adversities reported nationally and in all states.

Just under half (45 percent) of children in the United States have experienced at least one adversity, which is similar to the rate of exposure found in a 2011-2012 survey.⁴ At the national level, about 1 in 10 children have experienced three or more ACEs. In five states-Arizona, Arkansas, Montana, New Mexico, and Ohio-as many as 1 in 7 children have experienced three or more ACEs.

Children of different races and ethnicities do not experience adversities equally. Nationally, 61 percent of black children and 51 percent of Hispanic children have experienced at least one adversity, compared with 40 percent of white children and only 23 percent of Asian children. In every region of the United States, the prevalence of adversities is lowest among Asian children, and in most regions, the prevalence is highest among black children.

While these results show the prevalence of some adverse childhood experiences, they likely underestimate the problem, since other notable childhood adversities, such as homelessness, forced migration, and bullying or harassment, were not included in the survey. However, no single assessment tool can capture all potentially traumatic experiences.

Childhood Adversity, including ACEs, Can Have Profound Effects

Adversity can cause stress-laden reactions in children, including feelings of intense fear, terror, and helplessness. When activated repeatedly or over a prolonged period of time (especially in the absence of protective factors), toxic levels of stress hormones can interrupt normal physical and mental development and even change the brain's architecture. Childhood adversities have been linked to numerous negative outcomes in adulthood, and research has increasingly identified effects in childhood. ⁵ Negative outcomes include some of society's most intractable (and, in many cases, worsening) health issues: alcoholism, drug abuse, depression, suicide, poor physical health, and obesity. There is also some evidence that exposure to adversity is linked to lower educational attainment, unemployment, and poverty. ⁶ In childhood, children who have experienced multiple adversities are more likely to struggle in school and have emotional and behavioral challenges, including difficulties with paying attention and self-regulation. ⁷ Nevertheless, not all children who experience one of these adverse events (or even more than one) are negatively affected; much depends on the context in which they occur-particularly the context of positive relationships.

Research has found that the risk for negative outcomes increases with the number of adversities; in other words, children who have experienced multiple adversities are substantially more likely to be negatively affected than children who have experienced only one. ⁸ A 1998 ACEs study found that adults who have experienced four or more ACEs have a particularly high risk for negative physical and mental health outcomes, including some of the leading causes of death in the United States. ⁹ Subsequent studies have identified lower thresholds, ranging from one to three ACEs, as the tipping point at which risk increases greatly. ¹⁰ Multiple factors likely account for individual variation in response to adversity, including contextual factors such as supportive adult relationships.

One of the most sobering findings regarding childhood adversities is preliminary evidence that their negative effects can be transmitted from one generation to the next. ¹¹ Toxic stress experienced by women during pregnancy can negatively affect genetic "programming" during fetal development, which can contribute to a host of bad outcomes, sometimes much later in life. ¹² Infants born to women who have experienced four or more childhood adversities are two to five times more likely to have poor physical and emotional health outcomes by 18 months, according to one recently published study. ¹³

Responses to Trauma

The growing interest in understanding the effects of adversities has been accompanied by an increase in the development and application of trauma-informed care (TIC). TIC describes a variety of approaches that acknowledge the impact of trauma, recognize its symptoms, respond to its effects through appropriate practices and policies, and prevent further traumatization. ¹⁴ TIC is increasingly used in systems and settings that serve young people and their families, including the child welfare system, early child care and education settings, healthcare settings, and the juvenile justice system. ¹⁵ For schools, the essential challenge is to go beyond using a trauma-informed approach to child-level services, and to intentionally develop and foster a universal, schoolwide strategy to create a trauma-informed climate.

How Schools Can Help

As our Child Trends colleagues have recently urged, ¹⁶ schools should focus on promoting the kinds of caring, supportive relationships and social-emotional skills that underlie positive development for all children. And, for those children who have experienced trauma, schools should focus on fostering the kinds of positive relationships that can help these students recover and respond resiliently to future adversities. This approach is not about singling out students who have experienced adversity, but about shifting the culture, norms, and practices of an entire school to create a safe and supportive learning environment for all students. Three possible ways to start this shift are described below.

Strengthen interpersonal relationships and social and emotional skills.

Research indicates several protective factors that can prevent or ameliorate the negative effects of childhood adversities. ¹⁷ A positive, supportive relationship with one or more adults is of primary importance. ¹⁸ In addition to supportive relationships, a child's own intrapersonal skills can be a buffer to the effects of adverse experiences. Children who have experienced adversities but demonstrate adaptive behaviors, such as the ability to manage their emotions, are more likely to have positive outcomes. ¹⁹ Children and adults alike can cultivate resilience-for example, through practicing self-care routines and strengthening key social and emotional skills such as empathy, self-regulation, and self-efficacy. ²⁰

Support students' physical and mental health needs.

In addition, there is a critical need in schools for more support staff (for example, school social workers, nurses, and psychologists) with the training to serve the needs of students. In many communities, these services are lacking or inadequate, underscoring the importance of schools as a frontline setting for addressing trauma and other mental health concerns. ²¹

Reduce practices that may cause traumatic stress or retraumatize students.

A key principle of trauma-informed care is to avoid practices that have the potential to cause, or reactivate, trauma. Our Child Trends colleagues recently addressed this risk: "State policies that allow or encourage exclusionary or punitive practices may restrict students' access to services and cause further trauma. For student behaviors that may reflect underlying unmet needs-such as bullying and truancy-punitive practices may be especially counterproductive. Policymakers should examine current policies for such provisions and consider how to support school communities in transitioning away from such practices." ²²

Notably, we do not recommend that schools adopt universal or targeted screening for ACEs. A possible exception would be to include related items in anonymous schoolwide surveys to raise broad awareness of the prevalence of potentially traumatic experiences. At this point in our understanding of trauma, there are many more drawbacks to a screening-focused strategy than there are benefits. The limitations of current screening tools include a conception of adversity that is both overly narrow and imprecise, a neglect of children's strengths, and an inability to provide guidance on tailoring responses to a particular individual's symptoms and circumstances. In addition, many communities still lack the capacity to offer appropriate services to meet these needs. ²³

How Policymakers Can Help Educators Create Supportive Learning Environments

Our Child Trends colleagues Kristen Harper and Deborah Temkin recommended a three-part strategy for trauma-informed education policy in a recent report, excerpted here: ²⁴

Build a statewide initiative to create supportive learning environments. State policy should promote teaching and learning environments that integrate the goals of academic success, health, safety, and a positive school climate, and establish a process for school communities and state agencies to enact this vision.

Review and revise state policy. Existing state policies can either facilitate or run counter to efforts to create supportive learning environments. Policymakers should review initiatives regarding school safety and security to ensure they are consistent with trauma-informed principles.

Support locally based, school-driven initiatives to create supportive learning environments. School communities should have the resources required to engage in an inclusive process of exploring the community's needs, including schools' readiness to make changes in their culture and improve their capacity to meet the needs of all children.

Despite increasing attention and resources devoted to preventing adverse childhood experiences and building resilient individuals and communities, ACEs remain common in the United States: nearly half of all children nationally and in most states have experienced at least one ACE. Disturbingly, black and Hispanic children and youth in almost all regions of the country are more likely to experience ACEs than their white and Asian peers.

However, adverse experiences do not necessarily lead to toxic levels of stress; here, social support and other protective factors play critical buffering roles. The cultivation of supportive, protective conditions by parents and other adults, by children themselves, and by their broader communities provides an ambitious but essential public health agenda. Schools and educators play a critical role in that agenda, as well. All children should be able to learn in a supportive environment, within a school culture that promotes and supports the health and safety of students and adults.

David Murphey is a research fellow at Child Trends and the director of the Child Trends DataBank. Vanessa Sacks is a research scientist in youth development at Child Trends. This article is adapted with permission from their research brief The Prevalence of Adverse Childhood Experiences, Nationally, by State, and by Race/Ethnicity (Child Trends, February 20, 2018).

*Some researchers limit the term "adverse childhood experiences" to the 10 items included in the original 1998 study that defined the term, while others use screening tools that have included a larger or smaller number of ACEs. Our work is primarily with the items included in the 2016 National Survey of Children's Health, which are similar, but not identical, to those in the original ACEs study. In this article, we use "ACEs," "adverse childhood experiences," and "childhood adversities" interchangeably. ( back to article)

Endnotes

1. V. J. Felitti et al., "Relationship of Childhood Abuse and Household Dysfunction to Many of the Leading Causes of Death in Adults: The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study," American Journal of Preventive Medicine 14, no. 4 (1998): 245-258.

2. A. Sameroff, L. M. Gutman, and S. C. Peck, "Adaptation among Youth Facing Multiple Risks: Prospective Research Findings," in Resilience and Vulnerability: Adaptation in the Context of Childhood Adversities, ed. S. S. Luthar (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 364-391.

3. K. Harper and D. Temkin, Responding to Trauma through Policies That Create Supportive Learning Environments (Bethesda, MD: Child Trends, 2019).

4. V. Sacks, D. Murphey, and K. Moore, Adverse Childhood Experiences: National and State-Level Prevalence (Bethesda, MD: Child Trends, 2014).

5. K. A. Moore and A. N. Ramirez, "Adverse Childhood Experience and Adolescent Well-Being: Do Protective Factors Matter?," Child Indicators Research 9, no. 2 (2016): 299-316; and C. D. Bethell et al., A National and Across-State Profile on Adverse Childhood Experiences among U.S. Children and Possibilities to Heal and Thrive (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, October 2017).

6. M. Metzler et al., "Adverse Childhood Experiences and Life Opportunities: Shifting the Narrative," Children and Youth Services Review 72 (2017): 141-149.

7. Bethell et al., A National and Across-State Profile.

8. M. J. Chartier, J. R. Walker, and B. Naimark, "Separate and Cumulative Effects of Adverse Childhood Experiences in Predicting Adult Health and Health Care Utilization," Child Abuse & Neglect 34, no. 6 (2010): 454-464; and D. P. Chapman et al., "Adverse Childhood Experiences and the Risk of Depressive Disorders in Adulthood," Journal of Affective Disorders 82, no. 2 (2004): 217-225.

9. Felitti et al., "Relationship of Childhood Abuse."

10. M. Rutter, "Protective Factors in Children's Responses to Stress and Disadvantage," in Primary Prevention of Psychopathology III: Promoting Social Competence and Coping in Children, eds. M. Kent and J. Rolf (Hanover, New Hampshire: University Press of New England, 1979), 49-74; and J. P. Mersky, J. Topitzes, and A. J. Reynolds, "Impacts of Adverse Childhood Experiences on Health, Mental Health, and Substance Use in Early Adulthood: A Cohort Study of an Urban, Minority Sample in the U.S.," Child Abuse & Neglect 37, no. 11 (2013): 917-925.

11. C. Buss et al., "Intergenerational Transmission of Maternal Childhood Maltreatment Exposure: Implications for Fetal Brain Development," Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 56, no. 5 (2017): 373-382; and C. Monk et al.,"Distress during Pregnancy: Epigenetic Regulation of Placenta Glucocorticoid-Related Genes and Fetal Neurobehavior," American Journal of Psychiatry 173, no. 7 (2016): 705-713.

12. D. Almond and J. Currie, "Killing Me Softly: The Fetal Origins Hypothesis," Journal of Economic Perspectives 25, no. 3 (2011): 153-172.

13. S. Madigan et al., "Maternal Adverse Childhood Experience and Infant Health: Biomedical and Psychosocial Risks as Intermediary Mechanisms," Journal of Pediatrics 187 (2017): 282-289.

15. J. D. Bartlett et al., Helping Young Children Who Have Experienced Trauma: Policies and Strategies for Early Care and Education (Bethesda, MD: Child Trends, 2017); and K. Murphy et al., "Trauma-Informed Child Welfare Systems and Children's Well-Being: A Longitudinal Evaluation of KVC's Bridging the Way Home Initiative," Children and Youth Services Review 70 (2017): 23-34.

16. Harper and Temkin, Responding to Trauma.

17. Moore and Ramirez, "Adverse Childhood Experience."

18. R. Sege et al., Balancing Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) with HOPE*: New Insights into the Role of Positive Experience on Child and Family Development (Boston: Medical Foundation, 2017).

19. C. D. Bethell et al., "Adverse Childhood Experiences: Assessing the Impact on Health and School Engagement and the Mitigating Role of Resilience," Health Affairs 33, no. 12 (December 2014): 2106-2115.

21. U.S. Department of Education, "Mental Health Staff in Public Schools, by School Racial and Ethnic Composition," Data Point (Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, January 2019).

22. Harper and Temkin, Responding to Trauma.

23. D. Murphey and J. Bartlett, Policy Recommendations on Screening for Childhood Adversity (Bethesda, MD: Child Trends, forthcoming).

24. Harper and Temkin, Responding to Trauma.

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Supporting Students with Adverse Childhood Experiences

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Adverse childhood experiences (typically referred to as ACEs) are potentially traumatic experiences and events, ranging from abuse and neglect to parental incarceration.* A growing body of research has made it increasingly apparent that ACEs are a critical public health issue that can have negative, lasting effects on health and well-being in childhood or later in life.

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National Center for Pyramid Model Innovations

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PBS - National Center for Pyramid Model Innovations

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On this website, we use the term Positive Behavior Support (PBS) to describe the approach used to provide intensive individualized interventions to individual children with challenging behavior. We also refer to program-wide implementation of PBS (PW-PBS) or program-wide adoption of the Pyramid Mode…