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Gutenberg printing press, invented in the 15th century by Johannes Gutenberg in Mainz, Germany, is credited as one of the earliest forms of mass communication that revolutionized the spread of information through movable type technology. (Wikipedia, "Printing press", accessed April 17, 2024)

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Printing Press

The printing press was served and thought to be a pivotal shift in society as the appearance of printing has been celebrated as a major step in technology and development, as the process was efficient, making and distributing information into the hands of more people in less time and cost, in turn helped raise literacy rates, which was later debunked (Cook, 1995, Pg. 69). The printing press is the first major technology that emphasises how advancements in technology are often seen as driving societal change irrespective of other factors.

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The Computing Floor of the Mathematical Tables Department Photograph (CMNS 353w, Lecture 4, Slide 13)

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Factory Floors

“Human computers being referred to a human being” (Schaffer, 1994, Pg. 203). The industrial revolution, calculation was demoted from ‘intelligent' work to ‘merely mechanical’ labour becoming the job of “human computers”. Babbage's insights on the division of mental labour showcased how individuals were organized into specialized sections for efficient computation. As humans were transformed into "human computers," this emphasized the shift from intelligent work to mechanical labour, raising the questions about the role of technology in shaping human identity and labour practices.

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Photograph of a student protest taken during the height of the Berkeley Free Speech Movement in the 1960s. Students advocating for their right for free-speech on campus. (CMNS 353W, Lecture 10, Slide 33)

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Berkeley Free Speech Movement

The Berkeley Free Speech Movement was a significant event that showcased the role of technology, particularly mass communication channels like newspapers and television, in mobilizing and amplifying social movements. The movement was fueled students who saw the university’s restrictions from speaking out against the Vietnam war and by a desire to challenge the existing power structures and expand the boundaries of freedom of speech.

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Caption: Chinese blocks refer to movable type printing blocks, an invention attributed to Bi Sheng during the Song Dynasty in China. These blocks revolutionized printing by allowing for the efficient reproduction of text. (Wikipedia, "Movable type," accessed April 17, 2024)

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Chinese Block (Movable type)

Chinese blocks (Movable type) serve as a tangible representation of the evolution of information gathering, dating back to ancient China. Revolutionizing the dissemination of knowledge by allowing for the mass production of written materials. Contrary to popular belief, the Chinese block predates the invention of the printing press, representing an early form of technology facilitating widespread communication.

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Logarithms, invented by Gaspard de Prony, a French mathematician. This method was devised in the late 18th century and is used for approximating mathematical functions by a sum of simpler functions. (Wikipedia, "Logarithms", accessed April 17, 2024)

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Logarithms

Logarithms, particularly human computers, exemplifies the historical reliance on manual computational methods before the advent of modern computing technology. This tool underscores the evolution of information gathering and processing, highlighting the transition from manual, labour intensive methods to automated processes.

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Victory Index is a statistical measure used to assess the relative success or failure of a nation's policies and strategies in achieving its goals, particularly in times of conflict or war. (CMNS 353W, Week 10, Slide 15)

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Victory Index

The “Victory Index” reflects a period of great optimism about the future, characterized by centralized technologies (eniac plugboards) used to justify the Vietnam war, convincing the US citizens that they were winning the war through broadcast televisions, government propaganda and inaccurate data.

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Predictive policing refers to the use of mathematical, predictive analytics, and other analytical techniques in law enforcement to identify potential criminal activity and deploy resources more effectively. This approach aims to anticipate where crimes are likely to occur or who is likely to commit them, allowing law enforcement to prevent crime rather than reacting to it. (Wikipedia, "Predictive policing", accessed April 18, 2024)

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Predictive Policing

Predictive policing utilizes computer algorithms and data analysis to forecast potential criminal activity and allocate law enforcement resources. It exemplifies the reliance on computing data in modern day, optimism about technology's potential and centralized decision-making.

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The precursor to the modern internet, was developed by the United States Department of Defense's Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the late 1960s and early 1970s. (CMNS 353W, Week 10, Slide 5)

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ARPANET

Initially developed for military communication, it paved the way for the interconnected digital world by pioneering packet switching technology, laying the foundations for the modern internet. ARPANET’s evolution underscores the shift in how people gather and utilize information, marking a fundamental change in the way we connect and work from home.

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The Apple II, released in 1977, was one of the earliest mass-produced personal computers (CMNS 353w, Lecture 12, Slide 71)

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The Apple II

The personal computer (Apple II) represents a shift towards individual empowerment and reliance on technology for various aspects of daily life, including work, communication, and entertainment. The rise of personal computing reflects society's inherent trust in new technology, as people eagerly embraced these devices for their convenience and capabilities whether that's working from home or a way to creative art.

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Throughout history, there has always been this notion that technology will “serve to improve the quality of life” (Street, 1992, p.20). From the advent of the Gutenberg printing press to the development of the internet to the computer, comes this eager narrative of optimism and anticipation. Fascination with a mix of hope towards a ‘better’ future, this trust that new technologies will allow people to dominate and manage nature, making lives easier, which in turn will increase efficiency (Quan-Hasse, 2020, Pg. 50). However, alongside this optimism lies a much deeper exploration into the concept of technological determinism. Amidst the undeniable conveniences afforded by technology there are concerns regarding overreliance, raising pertinent questions about the inherent trust placed in technology and its implications. As societies continue to progress and evolve, the allure of blind faith in technology risks overshadows the need for skepticism. While advancements in technology have undeniably reshaped how people live, work, and communicate, these idealistic visions have blind the consequences or limitations. This over-reliance on technology leads to a deterministic view that technological advancements alone drive historical change, disregarding the agency of people and societal structures in shaping their impact. My exhibit delves into the complex relationship between society and technology throughout history exploring the nuanced interplay between the over-reliance and idealism and how damaging it can be – encapsulated by the concept of technological determinism.

So what is technological determinism? Technological determinism “proposes that technology is the driving force in developing a structure of society and culture” (Quan-Hasse, 2020, Pg. 55). A great example which happens to also be the first artifact in my exhibit is the Gutenberg printing press, as it was thought to be the first technological invention that revolutionized mass communication and distribution. Stated by Cook “the modern world commences with the printing press” (Cook, 1994, Pg. 95), this implies that the invention of the printing press marked a significant turning point in human history, signaling the beginning of the modern era. While it was celebrated for its role in “revolutionizing” mass communication and distribution, the advent of the machine itself did not lead to a widespread surge in literacy or the democratization of information as anticipated (Cook, 1995). The Gutenberg printing press stands as a prime example in the narrative of technological determinism, and serves as a reminder of the complexities inherent in technological innovation. Rather highlighting the nuanced relationship between technology and society, underscoring that innovation alone does not guarantee progress. The Gutenberg press exemplifies how the promise of technological solutions can sometimes fall short of expectations. As the basic conceit is always the same, new technology without a doubt seems promising, offering the hope of better lives for everyone, more independence, improved government, stronger communities, and personal fulfilment (Winner, 1997, p. 1001). It's important to recognize and acknowledge that the envisioned outcomes for technology are not assured and depend also on other factors. Despite the excitement about technological progress, it's essential to remember that emotions can influence decisions just as much as logic. This is often ignored by the idea that technology alone determines outcomes, overlooking the complex relationships between politics, economics, and technology (Mosco, 2002, p. 40). The relationship between people and technology is intricate and multifaceted, characterized by a dynamic interplay between human agency and societal influence. “”Tools” stand ready to serve the purpose of their users” (Feenberg, 1991 , Pg. 6), the ‘tool’ that is being referred to in this instance is technology. The idea that tools are designed and available to fulfil specific tasks or objectives for those who use them – “what humans being are and will become is decided in the shape of our tools” (Feenberg, 1991, Pg. 5). Technology, in its pure form, is neither good nor bad (Feenberg, 1991 , Pg. 6); its impact and implications depend on how it is used and the context in which it operates – it is determined by the intentions and actions of the people who create, deploy and use it. This underscores the notion that technological advancements build upon existing frameworks and are socially constructed, reflect and shape societal values and norms (Bijker et al., 1999; Callon & Law, 1997; Latour, 1993). Consequently, societal change must be contextualized within the framework of technological development. While technology does afford agency to its users, once integrated into society, it can normalize certain roles and behaviours, potentially limiting human agency (Quan-Hasse, 2020). Technology and society mutually shape each other, so people do have agency when it comes to technology. Throughout history and even into the present day, people have demonstrated a tendency to excessively rely on technology. Divided into four sections, the artifacts showcased in my exhibition serve as examples from the past and present that amplify why it is important to avoid becoming overly dependent and reliant on technology.

Section 1, starts off with the Gutenberg Myth, examining the transformative power of information technology through the inventions like the printing press and Chinese blocks. Its advent has been thought to have made a shift in how knowledge was produced, consumed, and distributed, engendering a belief in the promise of radical change driven by technology.

Section 2, delves into the theme of Surveillance, shedding light on historical and contemporary explanations of control and monitoring. From the laborious manual of early human computers (de Prony - logarithms) to Factory floors, these artifacts highlight the tension between efficiency and privacy, underscoring the ethical complexities inherent in the age of data surveillance. The exploration of surveillance reflects technological determinism by illustrating how technology shapes societal structures and power dynamics. Suggesting that technological progress drives societal norms and practices, often leading to ethical questions regarding surveillance and control.

Section 3, explores control, the approach of centralized technologies in shaping societal narratives and political agendas. From the Victory Index used in the Vietnam war to a Berkeley Free Speech Movement photo to predictive policing, highlighting the need of skepticism when examining the narratives disseminated by technology.

Finally, section 4 reflects on the democratizing potential of technology, exemplified by the evolution of ARPANET to the proliferation of personal computing devices and the Whole Earth Catalogue.

References

Cook, S.D.N. (1995). The Structure of Technological Revolutions and the Gutenberg Myth. In: Pitt, J.C. (eds) New Directions in the Philosophy of Technology. Philosophy and Technology, vol 11. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-8418-0_4

Feenberg, A. (1991). Critical theory of technology. Oxford University Press.

Fuchs, C., & Mosco, V. (2016). Marx in the age of digital capitalism. Brill.

Lubar, S. (1992) “Do Not Fold, Spindle or Mutilate”: A Cultural History of the Punch Card

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1542-734X.1992.1504_43.x

Turner, Fred. "Chapter 22 How Digital Technology Found Utopian Ideology: Lessons from the First Hackers’ Conference". Critical Cyberculture Studies, edited by David Silver and Adrienne Massanari, New York, USA: New York University Press, 2006, pp. 255-269. https://doi.org/10.18574/nyu/9780814708903.003.0026

Quan-Haase, A. (2020). Technology & society : social networks, power, and inequality (Third edition). Oxford University Press.

Schaffer, S. (1994). Babbage’s Intelligence: Calculating Engines and the Factory System. Critical Inquiry, 21(1), 203–227. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1343892

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Cover of The Whole Earth Catalog, featuring a photograph of the Earth taken by the Apollo 17 crew in 1972. Written by Stewart Brand, a prominent American writer, editor, and environmentalist. (Wikipedia, "Whole Earth Catalog", accessed April 18, 2024)

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Whole Earth Catalogue

The Whole Earth Catalog emerged during a time when many were questioning the consequences of rapid technological advancement and seeking alternative lifestyles. It promoted a back-to-the-land lifestyle, encouraging individuals to rely less on technology and more on self-sufficiency and community. The catalogue highlights the debate around the balance between technological progress and its potential drawbacks like societal dependence.

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The first section for my exhibition is Gutenberg Myth, colour-coded red, featuring two artifacts: the Gutenberg printing press and ancient Chinese blocks, both pivotal in the history of mass communication, for different reasons. The Gutenberg printing press being the first artifact in the exhibit due to its status as one of the earliest and “most frequently referenced technological revolutions” (Cook, 1995, p. 67). Similarly, the second artifact in this exhibition is the Chinese block, invented centuries before Gutenberg's press, which revolutionized communication. These blocks were highly impactful as the first of their kind, believed to have catalyzed a shift in how knowledge was produced, consumed, and distributed.

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The second section of my exhibition focuses on surveillance, colour-coded yellow, this section features three artifacts: factory floors, The American University: W.E.B DuBois Club Newsletter Flyer, and de Prony's logarithms. The relationship between these artifacts underscores the evolution of technology and its impact on surveillance practices. As factory floors symbolize the beginning of systematic surveillance, where workers were subjected as ‘human computers’ and machines monitored for efficiency and productivity. This surveillance extends to the flyers, where students were treated as human punch cards, reflecting a dehumanizing aspect of surveillance and restrictions by universities.

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The third section of my exhibition explores control, colour-coded green, showcases the early and developing stages of technology and its effects. This section features the Victory Index used during the Vietnam War, highlighting the initial stages of technological integration in warfare, a photograph during a Berkeley Free Speech Movement and predictive policing. The photograph from the Berkeley Free Speech Movement highlights the discourse of the Vietnam war's which restricted students and professors civil liberties (which also connects with the flyers). Predictive policing exemplifies modern technology's role in law enforcement, using data analysis to anticipate criminal activity. The artifacts in this section highlight the potential for technology to either enhance or undermine civil liberties and social justice.

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Sub-Section 4: Personal Computing and Computers

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Sub-Section 4: Personal Computing and Computers

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The fourth and final section of my exhibition introduces the beginning of technology in people's everyday lives. Color-coded in blue, this section features ARPANET, the personal computer, and the Whole Earth Catalog. ARPANET, as the precursor to the internet, symbolizes the dawn of global connectivity and communication. The personal computer signifies the democratization of computing power, empowering individuals to harness technology for various purposes. Lastly, the Whole Earth Catalog, embodying the ethos of access to information and tools, fostering a DIY culture and facilitating the exchange of knowledge. The evolution from ARPANET to personal computers to the Whole Earth Catalog highlights how the development and adoption of technology shape societal norms and behaviours, showcasing the profound impact of technological advancements on human experience and perception through increasing integration and reliance on technology in daily life.

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Flyer from UC WEB DuBois club from mid-60s: the university is a punch card machine (CMNS 353W, Lecture 11/12, Slide 35/12)

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The American University

The flyer metaphorically portrays the university as a punch card machine within the larger framework of IBM’s technical and capitalist operations – insinuating that students were treated as punch cards, in the machinery of the education system (Lubar, 1992. Pg. 48). The flyer implies a loss of individual agency and autonomy, showcasing the perceived dehumanizing effects of mass education within a heavily technologically driven society.