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The primary text for this study. This is a play written by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written in 1610–1611, and thought to be one of his last plays.

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A comprehensive critical edition of The Tempest that provides detailed explanations and interpretations, historical context and critical insights.

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Virginia Mason Vaughan, Alden T. Vaughan

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I always found Prospero's masque at the end of The Tempest difficult. Back in the late sixties I was too inexperienced to sense how it was a mockery of itself; and studying for "A" level, it was just not an option, to see the play performed on any stage or in any film. So it was that the masque never lived for me on the page. The peerless Arden could have lightened up. Just over half way through the plot it is real fun to look "behind the scenes" where Cupid has been trying to get the lovers to indulge in pre-marital intercourse. Cupid has now run off "cutting the clouds towards Paphos". The light-hearted references to agriculture tie the borderlands of Scotland to Cinque Port marshes of the South. In the way that Penny Lane by The Beatles is wistful, the masque is also fun.
I must blame Arden 2 because that masque seemed to be the final straw or "stover". Stover is that female-tennis-player-of-a-word used by Ceres when she is summoning a rainbow to that "short-grassed green" that Miranda's father has prepared with Ariel for his masque to mark the covenants of his daughter and her beloved. "And flat meads thatch'd with stover" is footnoted in the Arden 3 as "meadows covered with growth of fodder for sheep. Stover is any kind of grass that is stored to make fodder". The Arden 2 says "winter food for sheep". This is not helpful comment. How can a field be "thatched"? There should be the clarification that only when cut and left to dry may the field be described as "thatched". Arden might have added perhaps a "long note" to the fact that even today, in some places, depending on geography, region, climate, and culture, hay is still gathered loose and stacked into stooks without being baled first. "Thatched" means arranged in such a manner that the hay itself "sheds" water when it falls as rain; much as a garden "shed" does.
When Iris the rainbow is summoning Ceres, she asks Ceres to leave her wheat and oat crops and the rye and barley. The "turfy mountains" bring to mind the hills of Scotland and The North "where live nibbling sheep". The Arden 3 struggles to shed real light onto the words "pioned and twilled brims". It admits that this is a "long-debated phrase". Anyone familiar today with the lowlands of Romney Marsh will have seen that the reeds all along the drainage dykes are pulled back these days with mechanical diggers. In Shakespeare's time the drainage channels also needed to be freed of reeds and obstruction from time to time. This is done in autumn after the reeds and sedges are done. The growth is uprooted and pulled back to clear the channel. In spring this provides good soil for plants to grow. The flowers that grow in spring to garnish that unsightly mud include arrowhead and starry flowers which could in the same way be woven into "chaste crowns" for nymphs (and lovers and children).
The Arden 3 is particularly obtuse when it deals with the words that describe a particularly Scottish plant, the broom. Iris beckons Ceres to leave "thy broomgroves Whose shadow the dismissed bachelor loves, Being lass-lorn." Here is Arden 3: "Broomgroves: areas of terrain covered with yellow-flowered shrubs. Although editors have debated whether broom, which Gerard defines as 'a bush or shrubbie plant"'(Gerard 1130) can be described as growing in a grove, which usually consists of trees (var,201.2) we agree with Orgel that the passage should be taken as Shakespeare's invention. Orgel also notes that "broom figures significantly in magic spells designed to ensure the success of love affairs", which explains why the dismissed bachelor loves it (Oxf, 174)".

Child's reference work "The Scottish and English Ballads" lists a song (#217) that is relevant to the study of The Tempest. You can read the original published pages on Archive.org. The song is called "Broom of the Cowdenknows". When Iris, the wife of Juno, materialises, as a rainbow, for Prospero, in the masque played out as the last hurrah of the Magus before he drowns his book, Iris, the messenger from "the queen o' th' sky" calls upon Ceres to leave her crops and cereals and the pastures she calls home. The call to leave in The Tempest is a little difficult to follow at first. The call, simplified reads "Ceres, leave your cereal fields, leave your sheep, your hay-stacked fields, leave your dykes whose banks of drawn up reeds and mud will soon, in rainy April, be laced with flowers that nymphs and shepherds will use in much the same way to make "chaste crowns" for themselves. Iris also asks Ceres to leave "thy broomgroves Whose shadow the dismissed bachelor loves".
The Daily Mail late in 2016 reported that "Cowdenknowes mansion in Earlston, Berwickshire, a medieval estate that once sheltered Mary Queen of Scots has had £450,000 slashed from its original £2million asking price".
When I studied this play for the London GCE back in 1969, using the Arden 2 the reference to "broomgroves" joined the fleet of sinking phrases I tried to keep afloat in my memory for the exam. It was only, years later, in Stratford's New Place Garden that I saw the words, as it were, "for the first time". The line was taken out of context, engraved on a plate with the words " BROOM Cytisus scoparius". Why was it, I asked myself, that the groves of broom were loved by the "dismissèd bachelor"? Was he moping under the arches of the yellow broom, as I have done myself, as a boy under the bracken or the gorse?
Child's reference work "The Scottish and English Ballads" offers an exhaustive collection of songs that refer to the broom of the Cowdenknows. You can hear Ewan MacColl singing one of them on YouTube.
However ... and I quote from Child:
There is an English " ditty " (not a traditional ballad) of a northern lass who got harm while milking her father's ewes, which was printed in the first half of the seventeenth century. It is here given in an appendix.
This ditty is "to a pleasant Scotch tune called The broom of Cowden Knowes," and the burden is :

With, O the broome, the bonny broome,
The broome of Cowden Knowes !
Fain would I be in the North Countrey,
To milk my dadyes ewes.

The tune was remarkably popular, and the burden is found, variously modified, in connection with several songs. Burton, in the fifth edition of his Anatomy of Melancholy, Oxford, 1638, p. 636, says : " The very rusticks and hog-rubbers . . . have their ballads, country tunes, the broome, the bonny, bonny broome," etc. (Chappell). This remark is not found in the fourth edition, Oxford, 1632, p. 544.
This song or "English ditty" was widely known. Burton's reference in 1638 seems to be the earliest. The Tempest, if we are to believe the dating "experts" was written in 1610, the last of Shakespeare's plays, written in the reign of the Scottish James 1. Ceres is asked to leave the broomgroves of the Scottish Border country to come down "here on this grass plot".
It is my contention that this song provides all the explanation necessary. It is a beautiful song, the version of it, sung by a "dismissed bachelor" can be heard by North Sea Gas (and others) on YouTube. He is longing for the Scotch broom that grew in abundance around the castle of Cowdenknowes where in 1566 Mary Queen of Scots famously stayed some years before being beheaded. If James 1 ever saw the play he would have been touched.

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The Tempest (The Arden Shakespeare Third Series)

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The Tempest is one of Shakespeare's most popular plays, both in the classroom and in the theatre, and this revision brings the Arden 3 edition right up-to-date. A completely new section of the introduction discusses new thinking about Shakespeare's sources for the play and examines his treatment ...

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A collection of critical essays examining various aspects of The Tempest, including its themes, characters, and staging.

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Shakespeare: The tempest: a casebook; : Palmer, D. J. (David John), 1935- compiler : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive

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This book offers a wide range of critical perspectives on The Tempest, including contemporary reprints of significant criticism, as well as new critical essays.

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Edited by Alden T. Vaughan, Virginia Mason Vaughan

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An analysis that places The Tempest in the context of Caribbean history and culture, rethinking the play's themes of magic, colonization, and retribution.

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Une Tempête ( English:"A Tempest") is a 1969 play by Aimé Césaire. It is an adaptation of Shakespeare's The Tempest from a postcolonial perspective, set on an island in the Caribbean. The play was first performed at the Festival d'Hammamet in Tunisia under the direction of Jean-Marie Serreau. It later played in Avignon and Paris. Césaire uses all of the characters from Shakespeare's version, with some additions and new renderings of the original cast.

In this version, Césaire specifies that Prospero is a white master, while Ariel is a mulatto and Caliban is a black slave. These characters are the focus of the play as Césaire emphasized issues of race, power, decolonization, and anti-imperialism.

Aimé Césaire, a writer from the Caribbean island of Martinique, was born in 1913 when the island was still a French colony. He became a prominent figure in the Negritude movement, which was dedicated to opposing colonial powers' political and cultural dominance and celebrating black identity. In his reinterpretation of Shakespeare's play, Césaire gives Caliban, often seen as a symbol of colonial oppression, a more prominent role and a powerful voice to challenge the authority of the play's colonial character, Prospero. Known for his vivid language, power, and political commentary, Césaire's works, including plays such as Une Tempête, reflect his deep involvement in the decolonization struggle and his active participation in the political challenges facing Martinique and the wider Caribbean.

Prospero - the rightful duke of Milan, powerful magician, and slave master

Ariel - a "mulatto slave" and fairy

Caliban - son of Sycorax and Black slave

Miranda - Prospero's daughter

Eshu - a Yoruba god

Ferdinand - the son of Alonso and Miranda's love interest

Alonso - the King of Naples

Antonio- the Duke of Naples and Prospero's brother

Gonzalo - Alonso's counselor

Trinculo - the King of Naples' jester

Stephano - the King of Naples' butler

Sebastian - Alonso's brother

The action in the play closely follows that of Shakespeare's play, though Césaire emphasizes the importance of the people who inhabited the island before the arrival of Prospero and his daughter Miranda: Caliban and Ariel. Both have been enslaved by Prospero, though Caliban was the ruler of the island before Prospero's arrival.

Caliban and Ariel react differently to their situations. Caliban favors revolution over Ariel's non-violence, and rejects his name as the imposition of Prospero's colonizing language, desiring to be called X. He complains stridently about his enslavement and regrets not being powerful enough to challenge the reign of Prospero. Ariel, meanwhile, contents himself with asking Prospero to consider giving him independence.

At the end of the play, Prospero grants Ariel his freedom, but retains control of the island and of Caliban. This conclusion presents a relative contrast with Shakespeare's version, which implies that Prospero will leave the island with his daughter and the men who were shipwrecked there at the beginning of the play.

Critical Response & Analyses

Along with much of Césaire's other work, Une Tempête is widely discussed. Some scholars, such as Ania Loomba, take issue with the idea of appropriating tales of imperialism and constructing them into anti-imperialist pieces. She comments that this style of response is potentially inhibitory to progress. Her main point is that changing the narrative not only reduces the relative legitimacy of the non-European world, but furthermore weakens the response by the sheer need to use such source material. Furthermore, she goes so far as to imply that the need to engage with the original text also implies that there is some aspect of truthfulness in that work, and almost affirms Eurocentric ideology.

Other scholars, like Russell West, approve the method of speaking directly back to the source material. West believes the play has a specific focus on assimilation and that the play grapples with the concept in a compelling way. He also sees the value in assessing the work critically, and agrees with Loomba's initial skepticism, but essentially comes to the aforementioned conclusion about assimilation.

There are nonetheless many who agree with Loomba, famously including Maryse Condé, who even go as far as to say the creation of a movement like Négritude, which this work would fall under, legitimizes many of the problematic ideas that colonialism itself created. She laments that the need to facilitate an explicitly Black cultural movement really just affirms Western ideologies and prevents larger scale progress.

Une Tempête is seen as an extension of the intellectual trend known as "Négritude" which originated in France during the 1930s. It came into existence at a time when numerous individuals of African lineage resided in French territories, enduring the ramifications of colonialism, which frequently led to the repression and obliteration of their cultural roots. The term "Négritude" was first introduced by Aimé Césaire in his work Cahier d'un retour au pays natal (Notebook of a Return to the Native Land, 1939),, where he defined it as the acknowledgment and embrace of one's blackness, along with a profound appreciation of black history and culture. From its very beginning, Négritude was a global initiative, seeking to glorify black culture and identity, while confronting Western ideologies that had been employed to rationalize colonialism and enslavement. It took cues from the cultural rebirth of African Americans during the Harlem Renaissance and carved its own niche in the French literary world. The movement, which sprouted in the 1930s, was not solely headed by Césaire. Other thought leaders like Léopold Sédar Senghor, and Léon-Gontran Damas played significant roles. Une Tempête, a work filled with themes of colonization, subjugation, and defiance against unfair power structures, is viewed as an extension of this movement. It dares to challenge the prevalent Western interpretation of Shakespeare's "The Tempest" and provides a fresh viewpoint on the aftermath of colonialism in the Caribbean. The narrative employs a blend of Creole and French, highlighting the intricacies of cultural identity in the Caribbean, all while reinforcing and honoring black culture.[citation needed ]

Death of a Salesman (1949) by Arthur Miller is directly referenced. The original French of Une Tempête reads, "l'orange pressée, on en rejette l'écorce," which Richard Miller translated to, "Once you've squeezed the juice from the orange, you toss the rind away!" These exclamations by Caliban to Prospero are a nod to the quote from Death of a Salesman where Willy exclaims, "You can't eat the orange and throw the peel away- a man is not a piece of fruit!"

Rich, Sara (October 2019). "A Tempest by Aimé Césaire: A Curriculum Guide for Postcolonial Educators". Course Materials.

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Une Tempête ( English:"A Tempest") is a 1969 play by Aimé Césaire. It is an adaptation of Shakespeare's The Tempest from a postcolonial perspective, set on an island in the Caribbean. The play was first performed at the Festival d'Hammamet in Tunisia under the direction of Jean-Marie Serreau.

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An important book that provides insights into the worldview during the Elizabethan era, which can be useful for understanding the context of Shakespeare's works.

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The Elizabethans took from the Middle Ages the modified view of the universe which, Platonic and biblical in origin, radically differed from our own. For them all creation was ranged in an unalterable order from the angels down to man - for whom the world existed - and thence to the beasts and plants. In this short study Dr Tillyard not only elucidates such fairly familiar - though often mystifying - concepts as the four elements, the celestial harmony of 'nine enfolded Sphears', or macrocosm and microcosm; he also shows how this world picture was variously regarded as a chain of being, a network of correspondences, and a cosmic dance. Such concepts were commonplace to the Elizabethans. By expounding them the author has rendered plain, and not merely picturesque, the literature and thinking of an age.

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The Elizabethans took from the Middle Ages the modified view of the universe which, Platonic and biblical in origin, radically differed from our own. For them all creation was ranged in an unalterable order from the angels down to man - for whom the world existed - and thence to the beasts and pl...

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Elizabethan England: An Introduction to the Literature of the Age

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Elizabethan England: An Introduction to the Literature of the Age

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This book provides a broad overview of the literary and cultural milieu in which Shakespeare wrote, offering essential background for understanding The Tempest.

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The Elizabethan era in the 16th century was one of adventure, intrigue, personalities, plots and power struggles. At the centre was Queen Elizabeth I, 'The Virgin Queen' and the latter part of her reign (from 1558-1603) has been referred to by some historians as a 'golden age.' However, is this an accurate interpretation and how did Elizabeth deal with the political, economic and religious tensions she encountered during this period?

Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII, the most notorious of all the Tudors, and his second wife Anne Boleyn. She became queen aged just 25 after the death of her brother Edward VI and sister Mary I.

The 16th century witnessed more religious change than ever before and Elizabeth's main priority when she came to the throne had been to settle the nation and ensure England's national security. From 1558 she took greater steps to enforce this settlement and this brought her into conflict with the Catholics both at home and abroad. She was a clever politician with a cautious approach, and was sometimes willing to compromise for the sake of her people. She never married, deciding to put the security of England before herself.

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The Elizabethan era, 1558-1603 - The Elizabethans overview - OCR B - GCSE History Revision - OCR B - BBC Bitesize

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The Elizabethan era in the 16th century was one of adventure, intrigue, personalities, plots and power struggles. At the centre was Queen Elizabeth I, 'The Virgin Queen' and the latter part of her reign (from 1558-1603) has been referred to by some historians as a 'golden age.'

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Masks and Masking in Medieval and Early Tudor England

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Masks and Masking in Medieval and Early Tudor England

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A comprehensive study of the traditions of mask and performance in England, which could help in appreciating the theatrical elements of The Tempest.

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Drawing on broad research, this study explores the different social and theatrical masking activities in England during the Middle Ages and the early 16th century. The authors present a coherent explanation of the many functions of masking, emphasizing the important links among festive practice, specialized ceremonial, and drama. They elucidate the intellectual, moral and social contexts for masking, and they examine the purposes and rewards for participants in the activity. The authors' insight into the masking games and performances of England's medieval and early Tudor periods illuminates many aspects of the thinking and culture of the times: issues of identity and community; performance and role-play; conceptions of the psyche and of the individual's position in social and spiritual structures. Masks and Masking in Medieval and Early Tudor England presents a broad overview of masking practices, demonstrating how active and prominent an element of medieval and pre-modern culture masking was. It has obvious interest for drama and literature critics of the medieval and early modern periods; but is also useful for historians of culture, theatre and anthropology. Through its analysis of masked play this study engages both with the history of theatre and performance, and with broader cultural and historical questions of social organization, identity and the self, the performance of power, and shifting spiritual understanding.

Contents: Preface; Introduction; Popular Masking: Early masking; Carnival; Mumming; Courtly Masking: Tournaments; Disguisings; Courtly mumming; Amorous masking; Theatrical masking: Mystery plays; Morality plays; Theory and Practice: Ideas and theories of masking; Materials and methods of mask-making; Terminology; Bibliography; Index.

Prize: Winner of the 2004 David Bevington Award for Best New Book in Early Drama Studies. The award was presented at the AGM of the Medieval and Renaissance Drama Society on 7 May 2004 at the International Medieval Congress, Kalamazoo. 'Twycross and Carpenter make an indispensable contribution to our understanding of the subsequent masque form, as well as this form's inflection in the plays of Shakespeare, Jonson, and other notable early modern dramatists....Fully supplied with apt illustrations, and cognizant of current revivals of pre-modern theatrical traditions, Twycross and Carpenter provide us with a theoretically astute and scholarly responsible study that should be consulted, not only by those interested in the history of medieval and Tudor masks and masking, but by every student of the subsequent Stuart masque.' Early Modern Literary Studies 'Evidently a labour of love and the product of over 20 years' research...fascinating, packed with information, illustrated with acute precision and written with true enthusiasm.' Plays International Magazine 'Meg Twycross and Sarah Carpenter have collaborated on a superb new study of medieval English masking practices that "seeks to historicize and contextualize the moments and patterns of mask-wearing in the Middle Ages." The detailed knowledge and use of source materials throughout is particularly impressive; the thirty-one-page bibliography, the numerous figures and illustrations, and the detailed index evince the scholarly completeness of this book and make it, at the same time, accessible and useful.' Sixteenth Century Journal 'Theater historians and practitioners will find the book to be a reliable index of masking evidence scattered about in medieval and Tudor historical chronicles, literature, theological and political commentaries, as well as in civic, guild, ecclesiastical, and state record... The index is exhaustive and accurate and the bibliography is a compendium of writing on the field. The breadth of the research is indeed staggering.' Renaissance Quarterly '... Masks and Masking in Medieval and Early Tudor England represents one of the most comprehensive and intelligently realized examinations of medieval and early modern masking practices in many years. The work's wealth of literary and historical evidence - brought together by two such astute and eminent specialists - will prove an invaluable reference for future studies in medieval and early modern English drama and theatre history.' Medium Aevum 'This research is the most comprehensive, detailed, and authoritative work to appear on the topic of masking in Medieval and Tudor England. It is stunning in its breadth and depth of detail that is brought to bear on extemely pertinent questions that are not only relevant to the period under investigation but also to masking traditions at other times and in other places.' European Medieval Drama 'Overall, this book is so well designed and clearly organized that it should become an often-consulted, classic reference work about its subject. The bibliography comprises nearly eight hundred items, while copious explanatory footnotes provide additional information not covered in the body of the argument... The many black-and-white figures and plates [...] are uniformly clear, effective, and relevant illustrations of masks and disguises treated in the book. The lucid prose style will delight readers and the author's wise decision to avoid grounding the argument in trendy contemporary discourses guarantees a long and much consulted shelf life for this work... This is one of the most thoughtfully argued and carefully documented books on any subject I have ever read.' Speculum

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Masks and Masking in Medieval and Early Tudor England

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Drawing on broad research, this study explores the different social and theatrical masking activities in England during the Middle Ages and the early 16th century. The authors present a coherent explanation of the many functions of masking, emphasizing the important links among festive practice, specialized ceremonial, and drama.

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A modern retelling of The Tempest set in a contemporary context that offers a unique perspective on the original play's themes and characters.

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This edition offers a variety of critical essays and modern interpretations of The Tempest, useful for advanced study.

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Edited by Peter Hulme, William H. Sherman

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Raising 'The Tempest' - The Tempest (2010) Making Of Documentary

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The Tempest and Post-Colonial Theory | Summary and Analysis of Shakespeare's Tempest

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Scene by scene content, analysis, points of argument, critical considerations, intertextual and contextual references. All content mapped across assessment objectives.

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Scene by scene content, analysis, points of argument, critical considerations, intertextual and contextual references. All content mapped across assessment objectives.

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The Tempest AO5 Different Critical Readings and Interpretations onstage

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The Tempest - Language and Dramatic Techniques

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Total Education presenter, Bruce Pattinson, answers student questions about the language and dramatic techniques used in The Tempest. The lecture focuses on symbols and motifs, specific language examples, the masque, the use of specific scenes and hints on how to discuss techniques in an essay.

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The Center for Critical & Cultural Theory

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General Introduction to Shakespeare's The Tempest and Colonialism

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Shakespeare's treatment of power and control in The Tempest

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How to answer the OCR A level Literature Tempest Close Analysis extract

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Past productions

Our productions of The Tempest over the years have included many famous actors playing Prospero: Michael Redgrave in 1951; John Gielgud in 1957; Ian Richardson in 1970; Michael Hordern in 1978; Derek Jacobi in 1982; John Wood in 1988; Alec McCowen in 1993; and Patrick Stewart in 2006.

Here you can find out more about some of our key past productions, giving you an insight into how they were staged and the directorial choices that were made.

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Past productions | The Tempest | Royal Shakespeare Company

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Our productions of The Tempest over the years have included many famous actors playing Prospero: Michael Redgrave in 1951; John Gielgud in 1957; Ian Richardson in 1970; Michael Hordern in 1978; Derek Jacobi in 1982; John Wood in 1988; Alec McCowen in 1993; and Patrick Stewart in 2006.

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Pre-twentieth Century Productions of The Tempest
Melissa Keiser

The stage history of The Tempest is "a tale of distortion and misuse." (Quiller-Couch). The first ever-recorded performance was on November 1, 1611 by The King's Men. (Absolute Astronomy, Kermode). It was performed for James 1 and the royal court at the Banqueting House in the Whitehall Palace. (Absolute Astronomy, Kermode). The Banqueting House was the royal theatre that included a large stage with a proscenium arch. Performances there included lavish sets and costumes. (Kermode). There are also rumors that The Tempest may have first been performed at the Blackfriars Playhouse but there is no evidence to support that claim (Quiller-Couch).

The Tempest was one of eight Shakespeare plays that were performed during the winter of 1612-1613. This was done in celebration for the marriage of Princess Elizabeth. (Absolute Astronomy). John Heminge, the foreman of the stage company, was paid for producing these plays during the festivities (Quiller-Couch). Masque elements were added to the play at this time and were kept in for many other productions of the play afterward. At this same time, The Tempest was probably performed either indoors at the Blackfriars Playhouse or outside at The Globe. (Absolute Astronomy). There is no record of the play being performed at the Globe although many of Shakespeare's plays were. This claim is especially unlikely because the Globe burned down in 1613. (Kermode).

Shakespeare's play included lavish stage directions. These may have been written at Stratford and if that were the case then the stage directions would have been unnecessary at the playhouse. Many think that much of the stage directions may not have been written by Shakespeare himself and may have been added by critics and other playwrights. (Kermode). It was considered fashionable to have the masque elements written in the stage directions because of the growing desire for novelty and spectacle from the Renaissance audience. (Kermode).

The Tempest was printed in Shakespeare's First Folio in 1623. (Bevington). The original text included written stops, brackets and random capital letters. This was a form of short hand stage direction communication to stage managers, directors and actors. These directions would tell an actor when to pause, change tone or empathize something according to Shakespeare. The written "stops" were for stage business or spectacle to occur such as a dance or song. No specific directions were written because these decisions would have been communicated in the rehearsal process and would vary from production to production (Quiller-Couch).

Sir William Davenant's The Duke's Men owned the rights to The Tempest during the early to mid 1600s. During the commonwealth all the London theatres were closed by the puritan government and during the restoration in 1660, the two companies, The King's Men and The Duke's Men split the repertoire with The Duke's Men getting the rights to The Tempest. In 1667, Sir William Davenant wrote a new version of the play with John Dryden. Their version was performed at the Blackfriar's Playhouse. The playhouse included lights since it was indoors but it was smaller than The Globe and gave the actors less playing room. (Absolute Astronomy, Kermode).

When Charles II reigned he allowed women to act on the stage. It was around this time that Davenant and Dryden added women actors to their productions and wrote two more female characters for the play. This new version of Shakespeare's play was titled The Tempest or, The Enchanted Island. The character of Miranda was given a sister, Dorinda and Caliban was given a sister named Sycorax. Prospero has a foster-son, Hippolito who has never before seen a woman. The character of Hipplito became a popular breeches role during the Renaissance because it was an opportunity to now show off a woman's legs. (Bevington). Davenant and Dryden also added more music and scenery but their version of The Tempest included less than one third of Shakespeare's original text. (Bevington, RSC). This version of the play was performed at The Duke's Men's theatre at Little Lincoln's Inn Fields from November 7, 1667 through January 21, 1669 (Quiller-Couch). It was adaptations like this that dominated the Restoration until the mid nineteenth century. (Absolute Astronomy).

In 1674, Thomas Shadwell re-adapted the Davenant/Dryden version of The Tempest as an opera. (Absolute Astronomy). Soon after in 1675, a parody was written called The Mock Tempest by Thomas Duffett. This version was written for The King's Men and instead of opening with a storm, the play opens with a riot in a brothel. (Absolute Astronomy). The early eighteenth century was dominated by the Davenant/Dryden and Shadwell version of the play. During this time the character of Ariel was often played by a woman who was a graceful dancer and singer and the character, Caliban became a comedian's role. (Absolute Astronomy).

On December 1, 1703 a version of the play was scheduled to be performed at a new playhouse in Little Lincoln's Inn Fields except a storm hit the town a week earlier and created so much damage that the play seemed inappropriate to be performed at the time and was replaced by another play. (Avery). On January 6, 1716 a performance of The Tempest spent three shillings on materials for lighting effects and a few bottles of wine for Trincalo and Stephano to drink on stage in order to make a more realistic drunken scene. (Avery). October 3, 1729 a song titled "Dear, Dear Pretty Youth" was composed by Henry Purcell and was sung by the added female character, Dorinda. This performance also included two dances, "Dance of the Four Winds" and "Grand Dance of Infernal Spirits." (Lennep).

In 1756, David Garrick staged another operatic version of The Tempest with music by John Christopher Smith. (Absolute Astronomy). Around this same time, John Phillip Kemble produced an acting version of Garrick's opera that ended up being closer to Shakespeare's original text but still included the added characters. (Absolute Astronomy). In 1757, Garrick produced a heavily cut version of his opera at Drury Lane. (Absolute Astronomy). Starting January 4, 1777 through March 7, 1786, Sheridan's version of the play was performed with music by Thomas Linley (Quiller-Couch). On October 13, 1789 Kemble produced the Davenant/Dryden version at Drury Lane with more of Shakespeare's text restored (Quiller-Couch).

The Victorian Era aided by the "pictorial movement" added lavish sets and spectacle to many plays, including The Tempest. Text was often heavily cut to make room for all the lengthy set changes. (Absolute Astronomy). The Kemble version was performed in 1806 at Covent Garden with more of Shakespeare's text restored (Quiller-Couch). In 1821, the Davenant/Dryden version was done at the Covent Garden with added songs, dialogue and pantomime (Quiller-Couch). In 1838, William Charles Macready did a version of the play that used most of Shakespeare's text. Another opera version was created in 1850 by Fromental Halevy called La Tempesta. (Absolute Astronomy). Charles Kean's version in 1857 included 140 stagehands at its performance at the Princess's Theatre. (Absolute Astronomy).

Two songs, "Full Fathom Five" and "Where the Bees Suck" by Aruthur Sullivan were often performed in the play. (Absolute Astronomy). 1894 saw another opera version by Zdenek Fibich called Boure. (Absolute Astronomy). In 1897, The Elizabethan Stage Society under William Poel produced a version that was closer to Shakespeare's with a return of the authentic Elizabethan thrust stage. Arnold Dolmetsch, a founder of the early music movement in Britian, arranged the music from earlier sources and played them on Renaissance instruments. (RSC).

In the late 19th century, Caliban was perceived as the star of The Tempest. It was a role that actor-managers would choose for themselves. Frank Benson, an actor-manager, researched and observed monkeys in order to portray Caliban as more of a savage beast, hanging upside down and swinging from poles. (Absolute Astronomy). It seems as though Shakespeare's original version of the play did not suite very long for the Renassiance audience. They wanted larger and grander sets, costumes, music and dances added to the play. This made the play grow into many operatic versions. However once time reached the mid 18th century into the 19th century, more producers were interested in restoring Shakespeare's text and created productions of the play closer to what was originally performed during the Renaissance.
Works Cited
Avery, Emmett L., ed. The London Stage 1600-1800 Part 2: 1700-1729. Carbondale:
Southern Illinois UP, 1965. Print.

Bevington, David, ed. The Necessary Shakespeare. Third ed. New York: Pearson Education, Inc., 2009. Print.

"Exploring Shakespeare | RSC." Royal Shakespeare Company: RSC: Stratford-upon- Avon, UK. Web. 21 Oct. 2009. <http://www.rsc.org.uk/explore/tempest/2339_2346.htm>.

Kermode, Frank, ed. The Tempest. Fifth ed. Cambridge: Methuen & Co. LTD Harvard UP, 1962. Print.

Lennep, William, ed. The London Stage 1600-1800 Part 1: 1600-1700. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1965. Print.

Quiller-Couch, Sir Arthur, and John Wilson, eds. The Tempest. London: Cambridge UP, 1969. Print.

"The Tempest: Facts, Discussion Forum, and Encyclopedia Article." AbsoluteAstronomy.com. Web. 21 Oct. 2009. <http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/The_Tempest>.

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Pre-twentieth Century Productions of The Tempest

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Pre-twentieth Century Productions of The Tempest Melissa Keiser The stage history of The Tempest is "a tale of distortion and misuse." (Quiller-Couch). The first ever-recorded performance was on November 1, 1611 by The King's Men. (Absolute Astronomy, Kermode). It was performed for James 1 and the royal court at the Banqueting House in the Whitehall Palace.

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Revision Note

Expertise

English Content Creator

Themes

Having a thorough grasp of the following themes, and crucially, how and why Shakespeare explores these themes will enable you to produce a "conceptualised response" in your exam. Linking carefully to the structure of the plot and what we know about the attitudes of the time period will give you access to the very highest marks on the mark scheme.

Exam Tip

Examiners want to see students connecting themes to the plot structure: how the theme is presented in the beginning, how it develops and how it is shown at the end. This will ensure you are analysing structural conventions, as well as thematic ideas. By considering the plot as a story arc driving home the messages within the themes, your analysis should explore how the characters and themes develop, and why Shakespeare chose to convey these themes through the genre of comedy.

Power and control

In The Tempest, characters are presented as powerful based on their ability to control their environment and make others submit to their authority. For many of the characters, knowledge is a driving factor in gaining autonomy. Those without knowledge are presented as powerless and oppressed. Shakespeare, through the protagonist, Prospero, manipulates the characters' sense of control. In this way, Shakespeare explores the misuse of power gained through fear.
Knowledge and evidence:

In the exposition, audiences see noblemen hindering their own survival as they refuse to take orders from the ship's boatswain:

This leads to the shipwreck, during which they almost lose their lives and Alonso loses his son

However, all the sailors are under the control of Prospero, who has used his spirit slave to create a storm

In the rising action, Shakespeare highlights the theme of tyrannical and authoritarian settlers:

Sycorax, upon arrival on the island with her son Caliban, imprisons Ariel

Prospero's desire to control the characters on the ship and on the island is vengeful

Prosero's enslavement of Ariel (while she pays him back for releasing her) shows Prospero as a self-absorbed and controlling character:

Shakespeare highlights the effects of Prospero's treachery and thirst for power through Caliban's character:

Shakespeare depicts the way Prospero, as Miranda's father, uses his magical powers to control her, limiting her agency on the island:

However, Shakespeare illustrates the limits of human power:

Shakespeare illustrates how Prospero's mercy and humility is rewarded:

Ironically, many events, such as Miranda's marriage and his decision to leave the island, remain under his control

What is Shakespeare's intention?

Shakespeare challenges social constructs regarding power and authority:

Shakespeare presents vengeful characters who seek to take back control with violence

Shakespeare raises questions about colonisation by depicting strangers who exploit and control the inhabitants of the island

Patriarchal structures in Renaissance England Knowledge and evidence:

The patriarchal system in Renaissance families advocated that women were not equal to men:

The patriarchal structure at the time advocated that men should supervise women economically, sexually, legally and politically:

The Tempest's only other female character is the absent mother of Caliban, Sycorax, who is presented as evil, although she behaves similarly to Prospero:

Ariel, the spirit under Prospero's command, has an ambiguous gender:

What is Shakespeare's intention?

Shakespeare shows Jacobean females isolated under their father's control

Shakespeare raises questions about female autonomy within patriarchal societies

Shakespeare illustrates gender as a fluid concept

Magic and illusion

In The Tempest, Prospero uses illusion and magic for good and bad. Often, his magic exposes the true nature of duplicitous characters. At other times, he uses it to wreak revenge or control characters' lives. Critics have suggested that the play's protagonistis based on the playwright himself, as he weaves tangled webs and resolves conflicts as he chooses. In the resolution , Prospero asks audiences for applause to set him free. As The Tempest is his last play, it has been suggested this is Shakespeare's voice.
Knowledge and evidence:

Duality between illusion and reality is presented via the natural environment, the island's strange-looking inhabitants and the "unnatural" strangers who arrive:

Prospero considers himself more knowledgeable and civilised than Caliban, however Caliban's knowledge of the land is said to help Prospero survive

Prospero teaches Caliban language which allows the strange-looking "monster" to communicate on the same level as Prospero

When Stephano and Trinculo arrive on the island with wine, Caliban is naive to the effects of alcohol: this presents the men as powerful, despite their obvious drunken state

In the exposition, the theme of illusion is presented as Shakespeare depicts a reversal of power:

The powerful duke and his noblemen lack the skill or knowledge of the captain and boatswain during the storm

Their powerful status in their homeland is depicted as useless at sea and on the island, on "neutral territory"

The theme of magic is presented as a powerful tool to expose truth and manipulate others, particularly through the omniscient power Prospero appears to have on the island

However, in the epilogue, Prospero's soliloquy presents the idea that reality does not exist:

Illusions created by Ariel create much of the humour in the play through dramatic irony:

What is Shakespeare's intention?

Shakespeare comments on the danger of the illusion of power and control

Shakespeare raises questions about the abuse of power related to cultural knowledge

Shakespeare illustrates the limited power of humanity

The Tempest as a tragi-comedy Knowledge and evidence:

The play is in the form of a comedy, however it touches on themes which are more in line with a tragedy, such as the psychological torment experienced by Ariel and Caliban:

Typical of a comedy, Shakespeare ends The Tempest with a restoration of order via a wedding:

A convention of comedy is to resolve earlier complications and clarify misunderstandings:

Prospero returns to Italy as Duke of Milan and peace is achieved

Ariel and Caliban are released

Alonso finds out his son is alive

Loss and betrayal

The Tempest explores the lack of freedom brought about as a result of loss of power or identity. The play explores characters' reactions to loss and, in particular, the way this leads to further loss and betrayal. The protagonist, Prospero, learns by the end of the play that regaining one's own power is often at the expense of others losing their autonomy.
Knowledge and evidence:

In the exposition, Shakespeare suggests, through the storm, that a sense of loss can set in motion an array of chaotic events

Shakespeare presents characters who react strongly to loss in their lives:

The noblemen on the ship almost lose their lives trying to hold on to their sense of control, despite being on unfamiliar territory

Alonso believes he has lost his son, Ferdinand, and begins a search across the island

Prospero's loss of power and position as Duke of Milan represents his loss of identity and is presented as the reason for the conflict

The island setting represents isolation and loss of freedom for those on it:

Prospero and Miranda are exiled on the island

As soon as Ferdinand arrives, Prospero imprisons him and limits his autonomy

Ariel loses their freedom to two settlers arriving on the island: Sycorax, and then, Prospero:

Caliban is an explicit representation of loss as he is humiliated and insulted throughout the play:

His violent reaction to his loss of freedom on the island (which he believes was once his) creates conflict with the protagonist, building much of the tension

His attack on Miranda and conspiracy with Stephano create further mistrust amongst the characters on the isolated island

Both Prospero and Caliban represent powerful individuals who clash over an intense desire to regain what they have lost:

Prospero's oppressive control of the other characters is motivated by a desire to regain his self-respect and identity as powerful leader

Caliban is dehumanised, called a "monster" and treated like an animal, which he sees as a betrayal of the former alliance he and Prospero shared:

What is Shakespeare's intention?

Shakespeare challenges ideas about colonisation by illustrating loss of freedom as a result of powerful invaders

Shakespeare comments on violent reactions to loss of dignity and autonomy

Shakespeare explores suffering as a result of loss of identity

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The Tempest: Themes | OCR A Level English Literature Revision Notes 2015

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Revision notes on The Tempest: Themes for the OCR A Level English Literature syllabus, written by the English Literature experts at Save My Exams.

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English & Media Centre - The English and Media Centre is an independent educational charity with a national and international reputation as a Centre of Excellence. It is a development centre, serving the needs of secondary and FE teachers and students of English and Media Studies in the UK and beyond.

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For The Tempest you will be given an extract and you will need to explore language, structure, form and dramatic techniques.

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Language techniques in Shakespeare's plays - Education Resource

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Discover some of the many language techniques employed by Shakespeare.

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This might be helpful but remember part a is not about technique spotting- it is about how you explore techniques within the extract.

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A

Action

Also called " action-adventure," action is a genre of film, TV, literature, etc., in which the primary feature is the constant slam-bang of fights, chases, explosions, and clever one-liners. Action stories typically do not explore complex relationships between human beings or the subtleties of psychology and philosophy.

Ad Hominen

Ad hominem is Latin for "against the man," and refers to the logical fallacy (error) of arguing that someone is incorrect because they are unattractive, immoral, weird, or any other bad thing you could say about them as a person.

Adage

An adage is a brief piece of wisdom in the form of short, philosophical, and memorable sayings. The adage expresses a well-known and simple truth in a few words.

Adventure

Adventure (pronounced ad-ven-cher) was originally a Middle English word derived from the Old French aventure meaning "destiny," "fate," or "chance event." Today, we define adventure as a remarkable or unexpected journey, experience, or event that a person participates in as a result of chance. This last detail, a result of chance, is a key element of adventure; the stories usually involve a character who is brought to the adventure by chance, and chance usually plays a large role in the episodes of the story. Also, adventures usually includes dangerous situations, narrow escapes, problems to be solved through intelligence and skill, exotic people and places, and brave deeds.

Allegory

An allegory is a story within a story. It has a "surface story" and another story hidden underneath. For example, the surface story might be about two neighbors throwing rocks at each other's homes, but the hidden story would be about war between countries.

Alliteration

In alliteration, words that begin with the same sound are placed close together. Although alliteration often involves repetition of letters, most importantly, it is a repetition of sounds.

Allusion

Allusion is basically a reference to something else. It's when a writer mentions some other work, or refers to an earlier part of the current work. In literature, it's frequently used to reference cultural works (e.g. by alluding to a Bible story or Greek myth).

Ambiguity

Ambiguity is an idea or situation that can be understood in more than one way. This extends from ambiguous sentences (which could mean one thing or another) up to ambiguous storylines and ambiguous arguments.

Amplification

Amplification involves extending a sentence or phrase in order to further explain, emphasize, or exaggerate certain points of a definition, description, or argument.

Anagram

An anagram is a type of word play in which the letters of a word or phrase are rearranged to create new words and phrases.

Analogy

An analogy is a literary technique in which two unrelated objects are compared for their shared qualities. Unlike a simile or a metaphor, an analogy is not a figure of speech, though the three are often quite similar. Instead, analogies are strong rhetorical devices used to make rational arguments and support ideas by showing connections and comparisons between dissimilar things.

Anaphora

Anaphora is when a certain word or phrase is repeated at the beginning of clauses or sentences that follow each other. This repetition emphasizes the phrase while adding rhythm to the passage, making it more memorable and enjoyable to read.

Anecdote

An anecdoteis a very short story that is significant to the topic at hand; usually adding personal knowledge or experience to the topic.

Antagonist

In a story, the antagonist is the opposite of the protagonist, or main character. Typically, this is a villain of some kind, but not always! It's just the opponent of the main character, or someone who gets in their way.

Anthimeria

Anthimeria (also known as antimeria) is the usage of a word in a new grammatical form, most often the usage of a noun as a verb.

Anthropomorphism

Anthropomorphism is giving human traits or attributes to animals, inanimate objects, or other non-human things. It comes from the Greek words anthropo (human) and morph (form).

Antithesis

Antithesis literally means "opposite" - it is usually the opposite of a statement, concept, or idea. In literary analysis, an antithesis is a pair of statements or images in which the one reverses the other. The pair is written with similar grammatical structures to show more contrast.

Antonomasia

Antonomasia is a literary term in which a descriptive phrase replaces a person's name. Antonomasia can range from lighthearted nicknames to epic names.

Aphorism

An aphorism is a short, concise statement of a general truth, insight, or good advice. It's roughly synonymous with "a saying." Aphorisms often use or creative imagery to get their point across.

Aphorismus

Aphorismus is a term in which the speaker questions whether a word is being used correctly to show disagreement. Aphorismus is often written as a rhetorical question such as "How can you call this music?"to show the difference between the usual meaning of a word and how it is being used. So, the point is to call attention to the qualities of the word, suggesting that how it is being used is not a good example of the word.

Apologia

An apologia is a defense of one's conduct or opinions. It's related to our concept of "apology," but in many cases it's the precise opposite of an apology! When you apologize, you're saying "I did the wrong thing, and I regret it." But in an apologia, you're defending yourself, either by saying that what you did wasn't wrong or denying that you were responsible for what happened.

Apologue

An apologue is a short story or fable which provides a simple moral lesson. Apologues are often told through the use of animal characters with symbolical elements.

Aporia

In literature, aporia is an expression of insincere doubt. It's when the writer or speaker pretends, briefly, not to know a key piece of information or not to understand a key connection. After raising this doubt, the author will either respond to the doubt, or leave it open in a suggestive or "hinting" manner.

Aposiopesis

Aposiopesis is when a sentence is purposefully left incomplete or cut off. It's caused by an inability or unwillingness to continue speaking. This allows the ending to be filled in by the listener's imagination.

Appositive

Appositives are noun phrases that follow or precede another noun, and give more information about it.

Archaism

An archaism is an old word or expression that is no longer used with its original meaning or is only used in specific studies or areas.

An archetype (ARK-uh-type) is an idea, symbol, pattern, or character-type, in a story. It's any story element that appears again and again in stories from cultures around the world and symbolizes something universal in the human experience.

Argument

An argument is a work of persuasion. You use it to convince others to agree with your claim or viewpoint when they have doubts or disagree.

Assonance

Assonance is the repetition of the same or similar vowel sounds within words, phrases, or sentences.

Asyndeton

Asyndeton is skipping one or more conjunctions (and, or, but, for, nor, so, yet) which are usually used in a series of phrases. Asyndeton is also known as asyndetism.

Autobiography

An autobiography is a self-written life story.

Auto = self

Bio = Life

Graph = print or written

It is different from a biography, which is the life story of a person written by someone else. Some people may have their life story written by another person because they don't believe they can write well, but they are still considered an author because they are providing the information.

B

Bathos

Bathos is text that abruptly turns from serious and poetic, to regular and silly.

Buzzword

A buzzword is a word or phrase that has little meaning but becomes popular during a specific time.

C

Cacophony

Cacophony is the use of a combination of words with loud, harsh sounds-in reality as well as literature. In literary studies, this combination of words with rough or unharmonious sounds are used for a noisy or jarring poetic effect. Cacophony is considered the opposite of euphony which is the use of beautiful, melodious-sounding words.

Caesura

Caesura refers to a break or pause in the middle of a line of verse. It can be marked as || in the middle of the line, although generally it is not marked at all - it's simply part of the way the reader or singer pronounces the line.

Catharsis

Catharsis, meaning "cleansing" in Greek, refers to a literary theory first developed by the philosopher Aristotle, who believed that cleansing our emotions was the purpose of a good story, especially a tragedy. Catharsis applies to any form of art or media that makes us feel strong negative emotions, but that we are nonetheless drawn to - we may seek out art that creates these emotions because the experience purges the emotions from our system.

Character

A character is a person, animal, being, creature, or thing in a story. Writers use characters to perform the actions and speak dialogue, moving the story along a plot line. A story can have only one character (protagonist) and still be a complete story.

Chiasmus

Chiasmus comes from a Greek word meaning "crossed," and it refers to a grammatical structure that inverts a previous phrase. That is, you say one thing, and then you say something very similar, but flipped around.

Circumlocution

Circumlocution means "talking around" or "talking in circles." It's when you want to discuss something, but don't want to make any direct reference to it, so you create a way to get around the subject. The key to circumlocution is that the statement has to be unnecessarily long and complicated.

Cliché

A cliché is a saying, image, or idea which has been used so much that it sounds terribly uncreative. The word "cliche" was originally French for the sound of a printing plate, which prints the same thing over and over.

Climax

Climax is the highest point of tension or drama in a narrative's plot. Often, climax is also when the main problem of the story is faced and solved by the main character or protagonist.

Coherence

Coherence describes the way anything, such as an argument (or part of an argument) "hangs together." If something has coherence, its parts are well-connected and all heading in the same direction. Without coherence, a discussion may not make sense or may be difficult for the audience to follow. It's an extremely important quality of formal writing.

Connotation

A connotation is a common feeling or association that a word has, in addition to its literal meaning (the denotation). Often, a series of words can have the same basic definitions, but completely different connotations-these are the emotions or meanings implied by a word, phrase, or thing.

Consonance

Consonance is when the same consonant sound appears repeatedly in a line or sentence, creating a rhythmic effect.

Conundrum

A conundrum is a difficult problem, one that is impossible or almost impossible to solve. It's an extremely broad term that covers any number of different types of situations, from moral dilemmas to riddles.

Comedy

Comedy is a broad genre of film, television, and literature in which the goal is to make an audience laugh. It exists in every culture on earth (though the specifics of comedy can be very different from one culture to another), and has always been an extremely popular genre of storytelling.

D

Denotation

Denotation is a word' or thing's "dictionary defintion", i.e. its literal meaning.

Denouement

The denouement is the very end of a story, the part where all the different plotlines are finally tied up and all remaining questions answered.

Deus ex machina

Deus ex machina is Latin for "a god from the machine." It's when some new character, force, or event suddenly shows up to solve a seemingly hopeless situation. The effect is usually much too abrupt, and it's often disappointing for audiences.

Diacope

Diacope is when a writer repeats a word or phrase with one or more words in between. A common and persistent example of diacope is Hamlet's "To be, or not to be!"

Dialogue

Dialogue means "conversation." In the broadest sense, this includes any case of two or more characters speaking to each other directly. But it also has a narrower definition, called the dialogue form. The dialogue form is the use of a sustained dialogue to express an argument or idea.

Diction

Diction refers to word choice and phrasing in any written or spoken text. Many authors can be said to have their own "diction," because they tend to use certain words more than others or phrase things in a unique way.

Doppelganger

Doppelganger is a twin or double of some character, usually in the form of an evil twin. They sometimes impersonate a main character or cause confusion among the love interests.

Drama

Drama has two very different meanings. In modern pop culture, it means a genre of film or television that deals with serious, often negative, emotions. It's the opposite of comedy, which is just for laughs. Drama refers only to film and television, not novels or other purely written art forms.

Dystopia

A dystopia is a horrible place where everything has gone wrong. Whereas utopia means a perfect paradise, dystopia means exactly the opposite.

E

Enjambment

Enjambment is continuing a line after the line breaks. Whereas many poems end lines with the natural pause at the end of a phrase or with punctuation as end-stopped lines, enjambment ends a line in the middle of a phrase, allowing it to continue onto the next line as an enjambed line.

Enthymeme

An enthymeme is a kind of syllogism, or logical deduction, in which one of the is unstated.

Epigram

An epigram is a short but insightful statement, often in verse form, which communicates a thought in a witty, paradoxical, or funny way.

Epiphany

An epiphany is an "Aha!" moment. As a literary device, epiphany is the moment when a character is suddenly struck with a life-changing, enlightening revelation or realization which changes his or her perspective for the rest of the story.

Epistrophe

Epistrophe is when a certain phrase or word is repeated at the end of sentences or clauses that follow each other. This repetition creates a rhythm while emphasizing the repeated phrase. Epistrophe is also known as epiphora and antistrophe.

Epitaph

An epitaph is a short statement about a deceased person, often carved on his/her tombstone. Epitaphs can be poetic, sometimes written by poets or authors themselves before dying.

Epithet

An Epithet is a glorified nickname. Traditionally, it replaces the name of a person and often describes them in some way.

Eponym

An eponym refers to a person or thing after which something else is named. A person or thing's name can come to be associated with the name of another character, person, product, object, activity, or even a discovery.

Equivocation

Commonly known as "doublespeak," equivocation is the use of vague language to hide one's meaning or to avoid committing to a point of view.

Essay

An essay is a form of writing in paragraph form that uses informal language, although it can be written formally. Essays may be written in first-person point of view (I, ours, mine), but third-person (people, he, she) is preferable in most academic essays.

Etymology

Etymology is the investigation of word histories. Every word in every language has a unique origin and history; words can be born in many ways, and often their histories are quite adventurous and informative. Etymology investigates and documents the lives (mainly the origins) of words.

Euphemism

A euphemism is a polite, mild phrase that we substitute for a harsher, blunter way of saying something uncomfortable.

Excursus

An excursus is a moment where a text moves away from its main topic - it's roughly similar to "digression."

Exemplum

Exemplum is just Latin for "example." And that's all it is. It's an example, story, or anecdote used to demonstrate a point.

Exposition

The exposition of a story is the first paragraph or paragraphs in which the characters, setting (time and place), and basic information is introduced.

Extended Metaphor

An extended metaphor is a metaphor that is developed in some detail by being used in more than one phrase, from a sentence or a paragraph, to encompassing an entire work.

F

Fairy Tale

A fairy tale is a story, often intended for children, that features fanciful and wondrous characters such as elves, goblins, wizards, and even, but not necessarily, fairies. The term "fairy" tale seems to refer more to the fantastic and magical setting or magical influences within a story, rather than the presence of the character of a fairy within that story.

In literature, a fable (pronounced fey-buh l) is a short fictional story that has a moral or teaches a lesson. Fables use humanized animals, objects, or parts of nature as main characters, and are therefore considered to be a sub-genre of fantasy.

Fantasy

Fantasy, from the Greek ϕαντασία meaning 'making visible,' is a genre of fiction that concentrates on imaginary elements (the fantastic). This can mean magic, the supernatural, alternate worlds, superheroes, monsters, fairies, magical creatures, mythological heroes-essentially, anything that an author can imagine outside of reality.

Farce

A farce is a comedy in which everything is absolutely absurd. This usually involves some kind of deception or miscommunication.

Figures of Speech

A figure of speech is a word or phrase using figurative language-language that has other meaning than its normal definition. In other words, figures of speeches rely on implied or suggested meaning, rather than a dictionary definition.

Flashback

Flashback is a device that moves an audience from the present moment in a chronological narrative to a scene in the past.

Folklore

Folklore refers to the tales people tell - folk stories, fairy tales, "tall tales," and even urban legends. Folklore is typically passed down by word of mouth, rather than being written in books. The key here is that folklore has no author - it just emerges from the culture and is carried forward by constant retelling.

Foreshadowing

Foreshadowing gives the audience hints or signs about the future. It suggests what is to come through imagery, language, and/or symbolism.

G

Genre

A genre is a category of literature identified by form, content, and style. Genres allow literary critics and students to classify compositions within the larger canon of literature.

H

Haiku

A haiku is a specific type of Japanese poem which has 17 syllables divided into three lines of 5, 7, and 5 syllables. Haikus or haiku are typically written on the subject of nature.

Hamartia

Hamartia is the tragic flaw or error that reverses a protagonist's fortune from good to bad.

Homophone

Homophone is when two or more words have the same sound, but different meanings. They may be spelled the same or differently.

Horror

In literature, horror is a genre of fiction whose purpose is to create feelings of fear, dread, repulsion, and terror in the audience-in other words, it develops an atmosphere of horror.

Hyperbaton

Hyperbaton is a figure of speech in which the typical, natural order of words is changed as certain words are moved out of order.

Hyperbole

Hyperbole is a figure of speech in which an author or speaker purposely and obviously exaggerates to an extreme. It is used for emphasis or as a way of making a description more creative and humorous.

I

Idiom

An idiom is a phrase that conveys a figurative meaning different from the words used. In this sense, idiom is pretty much synonymous with "figure of speech," though with a slightly narrower definition: an idiom is part of the language.

Imagery

Imagery is language used to create images in the mind of the reader. Imagery includes figurative and metaphorical language to improve the reader's experience through their senses.

Innuendo

An innuendo is when you say something which is polite and innocent on the surface, but indirectly hints at an insult or rude comment, a dirty joke, or even social or political criticism.

Intertextuality

Intertextuality is a fact about literary texts - the fact that they are all intimately interconnected. Every text is affected by all the texts that came before it, since those texts influenced the author's thinking and aesthetic choices.

Invective

Invective is the literary device in which one attacks or insults a person or thing through the use of abusive language and tone.

Irony

Irony is when there are two contradicting meanings of the same situation, event, image, sentence, phrase, or story. In many cases, this refers to the difference between expectations and reality.

J

Jargon

Jargon is the specific type of language used by a particular group or profession.

Juxtaposition

Juxtaposition is the placement of two or more things side by side, often in order to bring out their differences.

K

Kairos

Kairos in Ancient Greek meant "time" - but it wasn't just any time. It was exactly the right time to say or do a particular thing. In modern rhetoric, it refers to making exactly the right statement at exactly the right moment.

L

Limerick

A limerick is a five-line poem with a strict rhyme scheme (AABBA, lines 1,2, and 5 rhyme together, while lines 3 and 4 rhymes togther) and a reasonably strict meter (anapestic triameter for lines 1, 2, and 5; anapestic diameter for lines 3 and 4). Limericks are almost always used for comedy, and it's usually pretty rude comedy at that - they deal with bodily functions, etc., and could be considered "toilet humor."

Lingo

Lingo is language or vocabulary that is specific to a certain subject, group of people, or region; including slang and jargon. The term lingo is relatively vague-it can mean any type of nonstandard language, and varies between professions, age groups, sexes, nationalities, ethnicities, location, and so on.

Literary Device

In literature, any technique used to help the author achieve his or her purpose is called a literary device.

Litotes

Litotes is an understatement in which a positive statement is expressed by negating its opposite. The classic example of litotes is the phrase "not bad." By negating the word "bad," you're saying that something is good, or at least OK.

M

Malapropism

Malapropisms are incorrect words used in place of correct words; these can be unintentional or intentional, but both cases have a comedic effect.

Maxim

A maxim is a brief statement that contains a little piece of wisdom or a general rule of behavior.

Metanoia

Metanoia is a self-correction. It's when a writer or speaker deliberately goes back and modifies a statement that they just made, usually either to strengthen it or soften it in some way.

Metaphor

A metaphor is a common figure of speech that makes a comparison by directly relating one thing to another unrelated thing (though these things may share some similarities).

Unlike similes, metaphors do not use words such as "like" or "as" to make comparisons.

Metonymy

Metonymy is a figure of speech that replaces words with related or associated words. A metonym is typically a part of a larger whole, for example, when we say "wheels," we are figuratively referring to a "car" and not literally only the wheels.

Mnemonic

A mnemonic, also known as a memory aid, is a tool that helps you remember an idea or phrase with a pattern of letters, numbers, or relatable associations. Mnemonic devices include special rhymes and poems, acronyms, images, songs, outlines, and other tools.

Monologue

A monologue is a speech given by a single character in a story.

Motif

A motif is a symbolic image or idea that appears frequently in a story. Motifs can be symbols, sounds, actions, ideas, or words.

Mystery

Mystery is a genre of literature whose stories focus on a mysterious crime, situation or circumstance that needs to be solved.

N

Narrative

A narrative is a story. The term can be used as a noun or an adjective. As a noun, narrative refers to the story being told. As an adjective, it describes the form or style of the story being told.

Nemesis

A nemesis is an enemy, often a villain. A character's nemesis isn't just any ordinary enemy, though - the nemesis is the ultimate enemy, the arch-foe that overshadows all the others in power or importance.

Neologism

Neologism is new word or phrase that is not yet used regularly by most speakers and writers.

O

Ode

In the strict definition, an ode is a classical poem that has a specific structure and is aimed at an object or person. In the loose definition, an ode is any work of art or literature that expresses high praise.

Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia refers to words whose pronunciations imitate the sounds they describe. A dog's bark sounds like "woof," so "woof" is an example of onomatopoeia.

Oxymoron

An oxymoron is a figure of speech that puts together opposite elements. The combination of these contradicting elements serves to reveal a paradox, confuse, or give the reader a laugh.

P

Palindrome

A palindrome is a type of word play in which a word or phrase spelled forward is the same word or phrase spelled backward.

Parable

A parable is a short story used to illustrate a moral or spiritual lesson.

Paradox

A paradox is a statement that contradicts itself, or that must be both true and untrue at the same time.

Parallelism

Parallelism, also known as parallel structure, is when phrases in a sentence have similar or the same grammatical structure.

Paraphrase

A paraphrase is a restatement or rewording of text in order to borrow, clarify, or expand on information without plagiarizing.

Parody

A parody is a work that's created by imitating an existing original work in order to make fun of or comment on an aspect of the original.

Pastiche

Pastiche is a creative work that imitates another author or genre. It's a way of paying homage, or honor, to great works of the past.

Pathetic Fallacy

The pathetic fallacy is a figure of speech in which the natural world (or some part of it) is treated as though it had human emotions.

Peripeteia

Peripeteia is a sudden change in a story which results in a negative reversal of circumstances. Peripeteia is also known as the turning point, the place in which the tragic protagonist's fortune changes from good to bad.

Persona

Persona can refer to the characters in any dramatic or literary work. But it has another special meaning in literary studies, where it refers to the voice of a particular kind of character-the character who is also the narrator within a literary work written from the first-person point of view.

Personification

Personification is a kind of metaphor in which you describe an inanimate object, abstract thing, or non-human animal in human terms.

Plagiarism

Plagiarism is the act of using someone else's ideas, words, or thoughts as your own, without giving credit to the other person. When you give credit to the original author (by giving the person's name, name of the article, and where it was posted or printed), you are citing the source.

Platitude

A platitude repeats obvious, simple, and easily understood statements that have little meaning or emotional weight.

Pleonasm

A pleonasm is when one uses too many words to express a message. A pleonasm can either be a mistake or a tool for emphasis.

Plot

In a narrative or creative writing, a plot is the sequence of events that make up a story, whether it"s told, written, filmed, or sung. The plot is the story, and more specifically, how the story develops, unfolds, and moves in time.

Poetry

Poetry is a type of literature based on the interplay of words and rhythm. It often employs rhyme and meter (a set of rules governing the number and arrangement of syllables in each line). In poetry, words are strung together to form sounds, images, and ideas that might be too complex or abstract to describe directly.

Polyptoton

Polyptoton is the repetition of a root word in a variety of ways, such as the words "enjoy" and "enjoyable." Polyptoton is a unique form of wordplay that provides the sentence with repetition in sound and rhythm.

Prologue

A prologue is a short introductory section that gives background information or sets the stage for the story to come.

Prose

Prose is just non-verse writing. Pretty much anything other than poetry counts as prose.

Protagonist

Protagonist is just another word for "main character." The story circles around this character's experiences, and the audience is invited to see the world from his or her perspective.

Proverb

A proverb is a short saying or piece of folk wisdom that emerges from the general culture rather than being written by a single, individual author.

Pun

A pun is a joke based on the interplay of homophones - words with the same pronunciation but different meanings.

Q

Quest

A quest is a journey that someone takes in order to achieve a goal or complete an important task. Accordingly, the term comes from the Medieval Latin questa, meaning "search" or "inquiry."

R

Rebus

A rebus is a code or reference where pictures, letters, or symbols represent certain words or phrases. Perhaps the simplest and most common rebus in use today is "IOU" for "I owe you."

Red Herring

A red herring is a misleading clue. It's a trick used by storytellers to keep the reader guessing about what's really going on.

Repetition

Quite simply, repetition is the repeating of a word or phrase. It is a common rhetorical device used to add emphasis and stress in writing and speech.

Resolution

The resolution, also known as the denouement, is the conclusion of the story's plot structure where any unanswered questions are answered, or "loose ends are tied."

Rhetoric

Rhetoric is the ancient art of persuasion, in the broadest sense. It is the way you present and make your views convincing or attractive to your audience.

Rhetorical Device

A rhetorical device is any way of using language that helps an author or speaker achieve a particular purpose. Usually, the purpose is persuasion, since rhetoric is typically defined as the art of persuasion.

Rhetorical Question

A rhetorical question is a question that is not asked in order to receive an answer, but rather just to make a point.

Romance

In the strictest academic terms, a romance is a narrative genre in literature that involves a mysterious, adventurous, or spiritual a story line where the focus is on a quest that involves bravery and strong values, not a love interest. However, modern definitions of romance also include stories that have a relationship issue as the main focus.

S

Sarcasm

Sarcasm is a form of verbal irony that mocks, ridicules, or expresses contempt. You're saying the opposite of what you mean (verbal irony) and doing it in a particularly hostile tone.

Satire

The formal definition of satire is "the use of humor, irony, exaggeration, or ridicule to expose and criticize people's stupidity or vices." It's an extremely broad category.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

A self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that somehow causes itself to come true. The characters may try to prevent their fate, but in the end their actions simply cause that fate to come about.

Setting

Setting is the time and place (or when and where) of the story. It may also include the environment of the story, which can be made up of the physical location, climate, weather, or social and cultural surroundings.

Simile

A simile is a literary term where you use "like" or "as" to compare two different things, implying that they have some quality in common.

Soliloquy

A soliloquy is a kind of monologue, or an extended speech by one character. In a soliloquy, though, the speech is not given to another character, and there is no one around to hear it.

Sonnet

A sonnet is a fourteen line poem with a fixed rhyme scheme. Often, sonnets use iambic pentameter: five sets of unstressed syllables followed by stressed syllables for a ten-syllable line.

Stanza

In poetry, a stanza is a dividing and organizing technique which places a group of lines in a poem together, separated from other groups of lines by line spacing or indentation. There are many important pieces that together make up a writer's style; like tone, word choice, grammar, language, descriptive technique, and so on.

Style

Style is the way in which an author writes and/or tells a story. It's what sets one author apart from another and creates the "voice" that audiences hear when they read.

Subtext

The subtext is the unspoken or less obvious meaning or message in a literary composition, drama, speech, or conversation.

Surrealism

Surrealism is a literary and artistic movement in which the goal is to create something bizarre and disjointed, but still somehow understandable.

Symbol

A symbol is any image or thing that stands for something else. It could be as simple as a letter, which is a symbol for a given sound (or set of sounds).

Synecdoche

A synecdoche is figure of speech which allows a part of something to stand for a whole, or the whole to stand for a part.

Synonym

A synonym is a word that has the same or nearly the same meaning as another word. When words or phrases have the same meaning, we say that they are synonymous of each other.

Synopsis

A synopsis is a brief summary that gives audiences an idea of what a composition is about. It provides an overview of the storyline or main points and other defining factors of the work, which may include style, genre, persons or characters of note, setting, and so on.

T

Tautology

Tautology is defining or explaining something by saying exactly the same thing again in different words.

Theme

Theme is the central idea, topic, or point of a story, essay, or narrative.

Thriller

A thriller is a genre of literature, film, and television whose primary feature is that it induces strong feelings of excitement, anxiety, tension, suspense, fear, and other similar emotions in its readers or viewers-in other words, media that thrills the audience.

Thesis

A thesis is the main argument or point of view of an essay, nonfiction piece or narrative-not just the topic of the writing, but the main claim that the author is making about that topic.

Tone

Tone refers to the "feel" of a piece of writing. It's any or all of the stylistic qualities of the writing, such as formality, dialect, and atmosphere.

Trope

The word trope can refer to any type of figure of speech, theme, image, character, or plot element that is used many times. Any kind of literary device or any specific example can be a trope.

U

Understatement

Understatement is when a writer presents a situation or thing as if it is less important or serious than it is in reality.

Utopia

Utopia is a paradise. A perfect society in which everything works and everyone is happy - or at least is supposed to be.

V

Verisimilitude

Verisimilitude simply means 'the quality of resembling reality' and a work of art, or any part of a work of art, has verisimilitude if it seems believably realistic. A verisimilitudinous story has details, subjects, and characters that seem similar or true to real life.

Villain

A villain is the bad guy, the one who comes up with diabolical plots to somehow cause harm or ruin. It is one of the archetype characters in many stories.

W

Wit

Wit is a biting or insightful kind of humor. It includes sharp comebacks, clever banter, and dry, one-line jokes. It is often cynical or insulting, which is what provides it with its characteristic sharpness.

Z

Zeugma

Zeugma is when you use a word in a sentence once, while conveying two different meanings at the same time.

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Glossary of Literary Terms | Literary Terms

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A glossary of literary terms with a definition. You can click on the term for a full explanation and quiz.