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De jure segregation, enforced through legal statutes, institutionalized racial discrimination.

Legal challenges and civil rights activism led to landmark decisions and legislation, such as Brown v. Board of Education and the Civil Rights Act of 1964, dismantling de jure segregation and affirming the Constitution's commitment to equality.

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Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857) denied African Americans citizenship and the right to sue in federal courts, intensifying tensions over slavery.

This contributed to the eventual need for constitutional amendments like the 13th and 14th to address citizenship rights and rectify injustices.

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The 13th Amendment, ratified in 1865, abolished slavery and involuntary servitude in the United States, profoundly altering the Constitution's stance on human rights and labor.

This pivotal change aligned the nation's legal framework with principles of freedom and equality, paving the way for subsequent civil rights advancements.

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Jim Crow Laws enforced racial segregation and discrimination in the Southern US, restricting African Americans' rights in public life.

Challenges and Supreme Court decisions like Brown v. Board of Education led to the overturning of these laws, reshaping interpretations of the Constitution's Equal Protection Clause.

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The 14th Amendment, ratified in 1868, granted citizenship and equal protection under the law to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, including former slaves.

It profoundly shaped the Constitution by establishing crucial principles of equality and due process, paving the way for civil rights advancements and legal protections for marginalized groups.

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The 15th Amendment, barred voting rights discrimination based on race, color, or previous servitude, broadening suffrage and combating discrimination.

This constitutional change advanced principles of equal citizenship and representation, particularly benefiting African Americans, and set the stage for further civil rights progress.

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Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) established "separate but equal," legitimizing racial segregation.

It condoned discrimination and inequality until its reversal by Brown v. Board of Education in 1954, which reinterpreted the Equal Protection Clause.

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The 19th Amendment, ratified in 1920, granted women the constitutional right to vote, marking a pivotal moment in American suffrage history.

This amendment expanded the democratic principles of the Constitution by prohibiting voting discrimination based on gender, thus advancing equality and representation in the electoral process.

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De facto segregation, stemming from societal norms, used to show racial disparities despite legal desegregation efforts.

Legal battles and civil rights activism prompted legislation like the Civil Rights Act of 1964, aiming to address systemic discrimination and promote equality.

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Brown v. Board of Education (1954) declared racial segregation in schools unconstitutional, overturning "separate but equal."

This pivotal ruling reshaped interpretations of the Constitution's Equal Protection Clause, catalyzing desegregation efforts and advancing civil rights in America.

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The integration of Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, in 1957, marked a significant turning point in the fight against racial segregation in education, challenging the constitutionality of state laws enforcing segregation.

The integration of Central High School in 1957 challenged racial segregation laws, prompting federal intervention and affirming the Constitution's Equal Protection Clause in ensuring equal educational opportunities for all.

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The Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed discrimination based on race, religion, sex, or national origin in public accommodations and employment.

Enforcing the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause, it marked a pivotal moment in the ongoing struggle for civil rights in America.

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The Voting Rights Act of 1965 aimed to overcome state and local barriers to voting, particularly targeting discriminatory practices that disenfranchised African Americans.

Reinforced the principles of the 15th Amendment and expanded federal oversight to ensure equal access to voting, significantly advancing civil rights.

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Affirmative Action aimed to counter historical discrimination by promoting opportunities for marginalized groups.

It sparked debates over constitutional principles like equal protection, shaping interpretations of government's role in addressing systemic inequalities.

Established by President Lyndon B. Johnson's Executive Order 11246

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This case established the requirement for law enforcement to inform individuals of their rights, including the right to remain silent and the right to an attorney, now known as "Miranda rights," upon arrest.

This landmark Supreme Court decision reshaped interpretations of the Constitution, particularly regarding due process and the rights of criminal suspects, ensuring that individuals are aware of their rights and can make informed decisions during police interrogations.

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In this case, the Supreme Court struck down laws banning interracial marriage, affirming the right to marry regardless of race and challenging discriminatory practices.

This landmark Supreme Court decision reshaped interpretations of the Constitution, particularly in terms of marriage equality and individual liberties, laying the foundation for further advancements in civil rights and social justice.

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Roe v. Wade (1973) established a woman's constitutional right to access abortion under the privacy protections of the Fourteenth Amendment.

This landmark Supreme Court decision reshaped interpretations of the Constitution, particularly regarding reproductive rights, and became a cornerstone of women's rights advocacy in the United States.

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In Bakke v. Regents of the University of California (1978), the Supreme Court ruled that while racial quotas in university admissions were unconstitutional, race could be considered as one of several factors in admissions decisions to promote diversity.

This decision introduced the concept of "affirmative action" within constitutional bounds, setting a precedent for how institutions could consider race in their admissions processes to achieve diversity without resorting to strict quotas.

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Shelby County v. Holder (2013) struck down a key provision of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, weakening federal oversight of state voting laws.

This decision raised concerns about potential increases in voter discrimination and disenfranchisement, sparking debates over the balance between state autonomy and federal intervention in safeguarding voting rights.

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In this case, the Supreme Court legalized same-sex marriage nationwide, affirming the rights of LGBTQ+ individuals to marry and enjoy equal protection under the law.

This landmark Supreme Court decision reshaped interpretations of the Constitution, particularly regarding marriage equality and individual liberties, solidifying the principle that all individuals have the right to marry the person they love, regardless of sexual orientation.