# data[].attributes.body
Confederate victory. General Robert E. Lee’s audacious decision to take on Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker’s Army of the Potomac, though he had less than half the number of men, resulted in an improbable win for the South. Hooker’s timidity in battle led to poor choices and a huge disappointment for the North. Major General Ambrose E. Burnside lasted only a single campaign as the head of the Army of the Potomac. His abject failure at Fredericksburg in December 1862, followed by further fumbling on January's "Mud March," convinced President Abraham Lincoln to make another change in army commanders. He appointed 48-year-old Massachusetts native Joseph Hooker to take charge.

Hooker's energetic make-over polished the Union army into tip-top condition, and he declared them “the finest army on the planet.” With complete confidence, Hooker orchestrated a “perfect” plan to confront Lee and drive him from his camp at Fredericksburg. Though outmanned, Lee did not retreat. He met Hooker’s challenge head on, engaging him in one of the bloodiest battles of the Civil War. Brilliant tactics by Lee and “Stonewall” Jackson thwarted Hooker’s ambitions and resulted in a victory for the South. Buoyed by the outcome, Lee later launched an offensive into Pennsylvania, where the opposing armies met on the battlefield in Gettysburg in July 1863.

# data[].attributes.body
Slaves would escape from slavery and travel north while staying at " safe houses" along the way. These safe houses were known as the underground Railroad which led to freedom in the North. People risked their lives to help the escaped slaves get to freedom.

# data[].attributes.body
The Civil War lasted a lot longer than most people thought it was going to last. It lasted from 1861-1865. Soldiers had to commit to being a soldier for three years. There were many food rations for the soldiers and if they ran out, they traded with the other army . Underage boys signed up to fight for the Union and lied about their age. Infections led to amputations of body parts in the war. Black soldiers fought for the Union Army, but did not receive the same amount of money compared to the white soldiers.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Life as a Soldier During the Civil War
History >> Civil War

The life of a soldier during the civil war wasn't easy. Not only did soldiers face the possibility of getting killed in battle, their daily lives were full of hardships. They had to deal with hunger, bad weather, poor clothing, and even boredom between battles.

Engineers of the 8th New York
State Militia in front of a tent
from the National Archives

A Typical Day

Soldiers were woken at dawn to begin their day. They had drills in the morning and afternoon where they practiced for battle. Each soldier had to know his place in the unit so the army would fight as a group. Fighting together and quickly obeying the commands of the officers was a key to victory.

Between the drills, soldiers would do chores such as cooking their meals, fixing their uniforms, or cleaning equipment. If they had some free time they might play games such as poker or dominoes. They also enjoyed singing songs and writing letters to home. At night some soldiers would have guard duty. This could make for a long and tiring day.

Medical Conditions

The soldiers of the civil war had to deal with terrible medical conditions. Doctors didn't know about infections. They didn't even bother to wash their hands! Many soldiers died from infections and disease. Even a small wound could end up infected and cause a soldier to die.

The idea of medicine during this time was very primitive. They had little knowledge of pain killers or anesthetics. During major battles there were far more wounded soldiers than doctors. There was little doctors could do for wounds to the torso, but for wounds to the arms and legs, they would often amputate.

A Regimental Fife-and-drum Corps
from the National Archives

How old were they?

There were soldiers of all ages that fought during the war. The average age for the Union Army was around 25 years old. The minimum age to join the army was 18 years old, however, it's thought that many young boys lied about their age and, by the end of the war, there were thousands of soldiers as young as 15 years old.

What did they eat?

The soldiers of the Civil War were often hungry. They mostly ate hard crackers made from flour, water, and salt called hardtack. Sometimes they would get salt pork or corn meal to eat. To supplement their meals, soldiers would forage from the land around them. They would hunt game and collect fruits, berries, and nuts whenever they could. By the end of the war, many soldiers in the Confederate army were on the verge of starvation.

Winter quarters; soldiers in front
of their wooden hut, "Pine Cottage"
from the National Archives

Were they paid?

A private in the Union army made $13 a month, while a three star general made over $700 a month. Soldiers in the Confederate army made less with privates earning $11 a month. Payments were slow and irregular, however, with soldiers sometimes waiting over 6 months to get paid.

Facts about Life as a Soldier During the Civil War

During the fall, they would work on their winter camp where they would stay at one place for the long winter months.

Soldiers were drafted, but the rich could make a payment if they wanted to avoid fighting.

If life as a soldier was bad, life as a prisoner was worse. Conditions were so bad that thousands of soldiers died while being held as prisoner.

By the end of the war around 10% of the Union army consisted of African American soldiers.

Activities

Take a ten question quiz about this page.

Listen to a recorded reading of this page:

Your browser does not support the audio element.

Overview Major Events Civil War Life

People Battles

Works Cited

History >> Civil War

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Kids History: Life as a Soldier During the Civil War

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Life as a Soldier During the Civil War History >> Civil War The life of a soldier during the civil war wasn't easy. Not only did soldiers face the possibility of getting killed in battle, their daily lives were full of hardships. They had to deal with hunger, bad weather, poor clothing, and even boredom between battles.

# data[].attributes.body
One cool story that I learned about in this week’s CNN 10 was in toko the Olympics because they are going to do Olympics this year. I did /  did not enjoy the CNN 10 this week because i did in  enjoy  because we are losing gas. One important piece of history I learned about this week was about Harriet Tubman and the Civil War

# data[].attributes.headline
Fort Sumter: First Battle of the Civil War

# data[].attributes.subject
Fort Sumter: First Battle of the Civil War

# data[].attributes.body
This was the first battle of the Civil War. The Southern Confederate Army bombarded the Union troops but no one died in this battle. It signified the 4 year long war that was going to be fought between the North and South.

# data[].attributes.body
This was a time period in the United States when there was a large change in how things were made. There were many new inventions in order to make life easier. Things were made by hand were now made by machines.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
When Was the Industrial Revolution?

Though a few innovations were developed as early as the 1700s, the Industrial Revolution began in earnest by the 1830s and 1840s in Britain, and soon spread to the rest of the world, including the United States.

Modern historians often refer to this period as the First Industrial Revolution, to set it apart from a second period of industrialization that took place from the late 19th to early 20th centuries and saw rapid advances in the steel, electric and automobile industries.

Spinning Jenny

Thanks in part to its damp climate, ideal for raising sheep, Britain had a long history of producing textiles like wool, linen and cotton. But prior to the Industrial Revolution, the British textile business was a true "cottage industry," with the work performed in small workshops or even homes by individual spinners, weavers and dyers.

Starting in the mid-18th century, innovations like the spinning jenny (a wooden frame with multiple spindles), the flying shuttle, the water frame and the power loom made weaving cloth and spinning yarn and thread much easier. Producing cloth became faster and required less time and far less human labor.

More efficient, mechanized production meant Britain's new textile factories could meet the growing demand for cloth both at home and abroad, where the British Empire's many overseas colonies provided a captive market for its goods. In addition to textiles, the British iron industry also adopted new innovations.

Chief among the new techniques was the smelting of iron ore with coke (a material made by heating coal) instead of the traditional charcoal. This method was both cheaper and produced higher-quality material, enabling Britain's iron and steel production to expand in response to demand created by the Napoleonic Wars (1803-15) and the later growth of the railroad industry.

Impact of Steam Power

An icon of the Industrial Revolution broke onto the scene in the early 1700s, when Thomas Newcomen designed the prototype for the first modern steam engine. Called the "atmospheric steam engine," Newcomen's invention was originally applied to power the machines used to pump water out of mine shafts.

In the 1760s, Scottish engineer James Watt began tinkering with one of Newcomen's models, adding a separate water condenser that made it far more efficient. Watt later collaborated with Matthew Boulton to invent a steam engine with a rotary motion, a key innovation that would allow steam power to spread across British industries, including flour, paper, and cotton mills, iron works, distilleries, waterworks and canals.

Just as steam engines needed coal, steam power allowed miners to go deeper and extract more of this relatively cheap energy source. The demand for coal skyrocketed throughout the Industrial Revolution and beyond, as it would be needed to run not only the factories used to produce manufactured goods, but also the railroads and steamships used for transporting them.

Transportation During the Industrial Revolution

Britain's road network, which had been relatively primitive prior to industrialization, soon saw substantial improvements, and more than 2,000 miles of canals were in use across Britain by 1815.

In the early 1800s, Richard Trevithick debuted a steam-powered locomotive, and in 1830 similar locomotives started transporting freight (and passengers) between the industrial hubs of Manchester and Liverpool. By that time, steam-powered boats and ships were already in wide use, carrying goods along Britain's rivers and canals as well as across the Atlantic.

Banking and Communication in the Industrial Revolution

In 1776, Scottish social philosopher Adam Smith, who is regarded as the founder of modern economics, published The Wealth of Nations. In it, Smith promoted an economic system based on free enterprise, the private ownership of means of production, and lack of government interference.

Banks and industrial financiers soon rose to new prominence during this period, as well as a factory system dependent on owners and managers. A stock exchange was established in London in the 1770s; the New York Stock Exchange was founded in the early 1790s.

The latter part of the Industrial Revolution also saw key advances in communication methods, as people increasingly saw the need to communicate efficiently over long distances. In 1837, British inventors William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone patented the first commercial telegraphy system, even as Samuel Morse and other inventors worked on their own versions in the United States.

Cooke and Wheatstone's system would be used for railroad signaling, as the speed of the new steam-powered trains created a need for more sophisticated means of communication.

Labor Movement

Though many people in Britain had begun moving to the cities from rural areas before the Industrial Revolution, this process accelerated dramatically with industrialization, as the rise of large factories turned smaller towns into major cities over the span of decades. This rapid urbanization brought significant challenges, as overcrowded cities suffered from pollution, inadequate sanitation, miserable housing conditions and a lack of safe drinking water.

Meanwhile, even as industrialization increased economic output overall and improved the standard of living for the middle and upper classes, poor and working class people continued to struggle. The mechanization of labor created by technological innovation had made working in factories increasingly tedious (and sometimes dangerous), and many workers-including children-were forced to work long hours for pitifully low wages.

Such dramatic changes and abuses fueled opposition to industrialization worldwide, including the " Luddites," known for their violent resistance to changes in Britain's textile industry.

Did you know? The word "luddite" refers to a person who is opposed to technological change. The term is derived from a group of early 19th century English workers who attacked factories and destroyed machinery as a means of protest. They were supposedly led by a man named Ned Ludd, though he may have been an apocryphal figure.

In the decades to come, outrage over substandard working and living conditions would fuel the formation of labor unions, as well as the passage of new child labor laws and public health regulations in both Britain and the United States, all aimed at improving life for working class and poor citizens who had been negatively impacted by industrialization.

The Industrial Revolution in the United States

The beginning of industrialization in the United States is usually pegged to the opening of a textile mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island, in 1793 by the recent English immigrant Samuel Slater. Slater had worked at one of the mills opened by Richard Arkwright (inventor of the water frame) mills, and despite laws prohibiting the emigration of textile workers, he brought Arkwright's designs across the Atlantic. He later built several other cotton mills in New England, and became known as the "Father of the American Industrial Revolution."

The United States followed its own path to industrialization, spurred by innovations "borrowed" from Britain as well as by homegrown inventors like Eli Whitney. Whitney's 1793 invention of the cotton gin (short for "engine") revolutionized the nation's cotton industry (and strengthened the hold of slavery over the cotton-producing South).

By the end of the 19th century, with the so-called Second Industrial Revolution underway, the United States would also transition from a largely agrarian society to an increasingly urbanized one, with all the attendant problems.

By the mid-19th century, industrialization was well-established throughout the western part of Europe and America's northeastern region. By the early 20th century, the U.S. had become the world's leading industrial nation.

Effects of the Industrial Revolution

Historians continue to debate many aspects of industrialization, including its exact timeline, why it began in Britain as opposed to other parts of the world and the idea that it was actually more of a gradual evolution than a revolution. The positives and negatives of the Industrial Revolution are complex.

On one hand, unsafe working conditions were rife and environmental pollution from coal and gas are legacies we still struggle with today. On the other, the move to cities and ingenious inventions that made clothing, communication and transportation more affordable and accessible to the masses changed the course of world history.

Regardless of these questions, the Industrial Revolution had a transformative economic, social and cultural impact, and played an integral role in laying the foundations for modern society.

Photo Galleries

Sources

Robert C. Allen, The Industrial Revolution: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007
Claire Hopley, "A History of the British Cotton Industry." British Heritage Travel, July 29, 2006
William Rosen, The Most Powerful Idea in the World: A Story of Steam, Industry, and Invention. New York: Random House, 2010
Gavin Weightman, The Industrial Revolutionaries: The Making of the Modern World, 1776-1914. New York: Grove Press, 2007
Matthew White, "Georgian Britain: The Industrial Revolution." British Library, October 14, 2009

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Industrial Revolution: Definition, Inventions & Dates - HISTORY

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Industrial Revolution of the 1800s, a time of great growth in technologies and inventions, transformed rural societies into industrialized, urban ones.

# data[].attributes.body
President Lincoln was elected president in 1860 and it caused any states in the South to want to leave ( secede) from the USA. This led up to the Civil War.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Lincoln's Political History

Abraham Lincoln's political ambitions began in 1832 when he was just 23 years old and ran for the Illinois House of Representatives. While he lost that election, two years later, he was elected to the state legislature as a member of the Whig party, where he publicly announced his disdain for slavery.

In 1847, Lincoln was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives where, on January 10, 1849, he introduced a bill to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia. The bill didn't pass, but it opened the door for later anti-slavery legislation.

In 1858, Lincoln ran for the Senate, this time as a Republican against Illinois Democrat Stephen A. Douglas. He lost the election but gained prominence for himself and the newly established Republican Party.

1860 Republican National Convention

The Republican Party held its second national convention on May 16, 1860, in Chicago, Illinois. It adopted a moderate stance on slavery and was against its expansion, although some delegates wanted the institution abolished altogether.

The two frontrunners for the Republican presidential nomination were Lincoln and New York Senator William Seward. After three votes, Lincoln was nominated with Hannibal Hamlin as his running mate.

Democrats Split Over Slavery

The Democratic Party was in shambles in 1860. They should have been the party of unity, but instead were divided on the issue of slavery. Southern Democrats thought slavery should be expanded but Northern Democrats opposed the idea.

States' rights were also hotly debated. Southern Democrats felt states had the right to govern themselves while Northern Democrats supported the Union and a national government.

With such confusion among the ranks, it was unclear how the Democratic Party would ever nominate a candidate for the 1860 election. But on April 23, 1860, they met in Charleston, South Carolina to decide their platform and identify a nominee.

Stephen Douglas was the frontrunner, but Southern Democrats refused to support him because he wouldn't adopt a pro-slavery platform. Many walked out in protest, leaving the remaining delates without the majority needed to nominate Douglas; the convention ended without a nominee.

The Democrats met again two months later in Baltimore. Once again, many Southern delegates left in disgust, but enough remained to nominate Douglas as their presidential nominee and his running mate, former Georgia governor Herschel Johnson.

Southern Democrats nominated John Breckinridge, a supporter of slavery and states' rights, to represent them in the election. Oregon senator Joseph Lane was his running mate.

Constitutional Union Party

The Constitutional Union Party was mainly made up of disgruntled Democrats, Unionists and former Whigs. On May 9, 1860, they held their first convention and nominated Tennessee slaveholder John Bell as their presidential nominee and former Harvard University President Edward Everett as his running mate.

The Constitutional Union party claimed to be the party of law. They took no official position on slavery or states' rights, but promised to defend the Constitution and the Union.

Still, Bell wanted to offer a compromise on the topic of slavery by extending the Missouri Compromise line across the United States and make slavery legal in new states to the south of the line and illegal in new states north of the line. They hoped to sway voters who were upset with the divisiveness of the Democratic Party.

1860 Presidential Campaign

None of the 1860 presidential candidates did anywhere near the level of campaigning seen in modern-day elections. In fact, except for Douglas, they mostly kept to themselves and let well-known party members and citizens campaign for them at rallies and parades. Much of the campaigning, however, was devoted to getting voters to the ballot box on Election Day.

Lincoln's political experience and speeches spoke for themselves, but one of his main campaign goals was to keep the Republican party unified. He didn't want his party to reveal any of the discord of the Democrats and hoped to divide the Democratic votes.

Douglas campaigned in the North and South to hopefully make up for the divided voter base in the South, and gave a series of campaign speeches in favor of the Union.

1860 Election Results: The South Reacts

On November 6, 1860, voters went to the ballot box to cast their vote for President of the United States. Lincoln won the election in an electoral college landslide with 180 electoral votes, although he secured less than 40 percent of the popular vote.

The North had many more people than the South and therefore control of the Electoral College. Lincoln dominated the Northern states but didn't carry a single Southern state.

Douglas received some Northern support-12 electoral votes-but not nearly enough to offer a serious challenge to Lincoln. The Southern vote was split between Breckenridge who won 72 electoral votes and Bell who won 39 electoral votes. The split prevented either candidate from gaining enough votes to win the election.

The election of 1860 firmly established the Democratic and Republican parties as the majority parties in the United States. It also confirmed deep-seated views on slavery and states' rights between the North and South.

Before Lincoln's inauguration, seven Southern states had seceded from the Union. Weeks after his swearing-in, the Confederate Army fired on Fort Sumter and started the Civil War.

Sources

1860 Presidential General Election Results. David Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections.
Abraham Lincoln. Whitehouse.gov.
Constitutional Union Party. "No North, No South, No East, No West, Nothing but the Union." National Park Service. U.S. Department of the Interior.
Constitutional Union Party. Texas State Historical Association.
Pre-Presidential Career 1830-1860. National Park Service. U.S. Department of the Interior.
Southern Democratic Party. Ohio History Central.
United States Presidential Election of 1860. Encyclopedia Virginia.

Fact Check

We strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Election of 1860 - Summary, Lincoln & Significance | HISTORY

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The election of 1860 was a pivotal presidential election that brought Abraham Lincoln to the White House amid debates on issues of slavery and states' rights.

# data[].attributes.body
Back in the 1800's, teachers and administrators were allowed to use corporal/ physical punishment when kids acted inappropriately. There are still states that practiced this up until 2017. We have now focused our discipline issues to being more restorative in helping the kids that are not acting correctly.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Corporal Punishment in schools hot topic of conversation in Frankfort

# data[].attributes.body
Harriet was an escaped slave that helped to free slaves to the North. She put her life on the line hundreds of times. She used the Underground Railroad that hid people that were trying to escape. She was a hero to all people and lived her life to help others to be free.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
HARRIET | Official Trailer | Now Playing

# data[].attributes.headline
Child Labor in MillsChildren were used in the textile mills during the Industrial Revolution because they could paid very little and they could fit into smaller spaces to fix machines.  They also had very long work days.  The Great Depression helped to end child labor since they needed to make more job for the adults out of work.

# data[].attributes.subject
Child Labor in MillsChildren were used in the textile mills during the Industrial Revolution because they could paid very little and they could fit into smaller spaces to fix machines.  They also had very long work days.  The Great Depression helped to end child labor since they needed to make more job for the adults out of work.

# data[].attributes.headline
It was a way to communicate through a series of dots and dashes through a telegraph.  A person would receive the telegram and then translate the message to be read.  

# data[].attributes.subject
It was a way to communicate through a series of dots and dashes through a telegraph.  A person would receive the telegram and then translate the message to be read.  

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Text to Morse

Just type letters, numbers and punctuation into the top box and the Morse code will appear in the bottom box with a "#" if the character cannot be translated. This is not a great tool for learning Morse code as looking at the dots and dashes does not help. Instead, try one of the training tools.

Morse to Text

You can type Morse code into the top box using "." for a dot and "-" or "_" for a dash. Letters are separated by spaces and words by "/". The text translation will appear in the bottom box. If a letter cannot be translated a "#" will appear in the output.

Sound, Light & Vibration

The "Play", "Pause", "Stop" and "Repeat" buttons control the playback. You can choose between hearing the sound, seeing a flashing light, or having your phone vibrate using the "Sound", "Light" and "Vibrate" checkboxes. The "Configure" button reveals advanced options to control the frequency and speed and switch between telegraph and radio sound styles. The flashing light and download buttons do not currently work when in "Telegraph" mode.

Notes

This tool works in most browsers: please see the FAQ if you are having problems.

If you would like to see a list of all the Morse code characters please go to my Morse Code page. If you have any questions about Morse code or the translator, please read my FAQ first.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The translator can translate between Morse code and Latin, Hebrew, Arabic and Cyrillic alphabets. It can play, flash or vibrate the Morse code. You can also download the sound and share a link to use it to send messages to your friends. The speed, Farnsworth speed and frequency of the sound are all fully adjustable.

# data[].attributes.body
the Mexican American War resulted i American gaining :Texas New Mexico,California , utah, Nevada Arizona and Colorado. It was 66% of the land we have today

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What Was the Mexican-American War? | History

# data[].attributes.body
Santa Anna was the leader of the Mexican army during the Mexican very ruthless and the mean leader if people did do what he said he would kill them

# data[].attributes.body
the Donner family
attempted to travel
West through the sierra Nevada Mountains, but got stranded in a huge snow storm. they ended up relying on cannibalism to survive although many died on the excursion.

# data[].attributes.body
mountain men, chinese
immigrants, 49,ers were among the groups of people that traveled west for a better life