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Drake knew de wey when he was still on degrassi

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Drake knew de wey when he was still on degrassi

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The long June twilight faded into night. Dublin lay enveloped in darkness but for the dim light of the moon that shone through fleecy clouds, casting a pale light as of approaching dawn over the streets and the dark waters of the Liffey. Around the beleaguered Four Courts the heavy guns roared. Here and there through the city, machine guns and rifles broke the silence of the night, spasmodically, like dogs barking on lone farms. Republicans and Free Staters were waging civil war.

On a rooftop near O'Connell Bridge, a Republican sniper lay watching. Beside him lay his rifle and over his shoulders was slung a pair of field glasses. His face was the face of a student, thin and ascetic, but his eyes had the cold gleam of the fanatic. They were deep and thoughtful, the eyes of a man who is used to looking at death.

He was eating a sandwich hungrily. He had eaten nothing since morning. He had been too excited to eat. He finished the sandwich, and, taking a flask of whiskey from his pocket, he took a short drought. Then he returned the flask to his pocket. He paused for a moment, considering whether he should risk a smoke. It was dangerous. The flash might be seen in the darkness, and there were enemies watching. He decided to take the risk.

Placing a cigarette between his lips, he struck a match, inhaled the smoke hurriedly and put out the light. Almost immediately, a bullet flattened itself against the parapet of the roof. The sniper took another whiff and put out the cigarette. Then he swore softly and crawled away to the left.

Cautiously he raised himself and peered over the parapet. There was a flash and a bullet whizzed over his head. He dropped immediately. He had seen the flash. It came from the opposite side of the street.

He rolled over the roof to a chimney stack in the rear, and slowly drew himself up behind it, until his eyes were level with the top of the parapet. There was nothing to be seen--just the dim outline of the opposite housetop against the blue sky. His enemy was under cover.

Just then an armored car came across the bridge and advanced slowly up the street. It stopped on the opposite side of the street, fifty yards ahead. The sniper could hear the dull panting of the motor. His heart beat faster. It was an enemy car. He wanted to fire, but he knew it was useless. His bullets would never pierce the steel that covered the gray monster.

Then round the corner of a side street came an old woman, her head covered by a tattered shawl. She began to talk to the man in the turret of the car. She was pointing to the roof where the sniper lay. An informer.

The turret opened. A man's head and shoulders appeared, looking toward the sniper. The sniper raised his rifle and fired. The head fell heavily on the turret wall. The woman darted toward the side street. The sniper fired again. The woman whirled round and fell with a shriek into the gutter.

Suddenly from the opposite roof a shot rang out and the sniper dropped his rifle with a curse. The rifle clattered to the roof. The sniper thought the noise would wake the dead. He stooped to pick the rifle up. He couldn't lift it. His forearm was dead. "I'm hit," he muttered.

Dropping flat onto the roof, he crawled back to the parapet. With his left hand he felt the injured right forearm. The blood was oozing through the sleeve of his coat. There was no pain--just a deadened sensation, as if the arm had been cut off.

Quickly he drew his knife from his pocket, opened it on the breastwork of the parapet, and ripped open the sleeve. There was a small hole where the bullet had entered. On the other side there was no hole. The bullet had lodged in the bone. It must have fractured it. He bent the arm below the wound. the arm bent back easily. He ground his teeth to overcome the pain.

Then taking out his field dressing, he ripped open the packet with his knife. He broke the neck of the iodine bottle and let the bitter fluid drip into the wound. A paroxysm of pain swept through him. He placed the cotton wadding over the wound and wrapped the dressing over it. He tied the ends with his teeth.

Then he lay still against the parapet, and, closing his eyes, he made an effort of will to overcome the pain.

In the street beneath all was still. The armored car had retired speedily over the bridge, with the machine gunner's head hanging lifeless over the turret. The woman's corpse lay still in the gutter.

The sniper lay still for a long time nursing his wounded arm and planning escape. Morning must not find him wounded on the roof. The enemy on the opposite roof coverd his escape. He must kill that enemy and he could not use his rifle. He had only a revolver to do it. Then he thought of a plan.

Taking off his cap, he placed it over the muzzle of his rifle. Then he pushed the rifle slowly upward over the parapet, until the cap was visible from the opposite side of the street. Almost immediately there was a report, and a bullet pierced the center of the cap. The sniper slanted the rifle forward. The cap clipped down into the street. Then catching the rifle in the middle, the sniper dropped his left hand over the roof and let it hang, lifelessly. After a few moments he let the rifle drop to the street. Then he sank to the roof, dragging his hand with him.

Crawling quickly to his feet, he peered up at the corner of the roof. His ruse had succeeded. The other sniper, seeing the cap and rifle fall, thought that he had killed his man. He was now standing before a row of chimney pots, looking across, with his head clearly silhouetted against the western sky.

The Republican sniper smiled and lifted his revolver above the edge of the parapet. The distance was about fifty yards--a hard shot in the dim light, and his right arm was paining him like a thousand devils. He took a steady aim. His hand trembled with eagerness. Pressing his lips together, he took a deep breath through his nostrils and fired. He was almost deafened with the report and his arm shook with the recoil.

Then when the smoke cleared, he peered across and uttered a cry of joy. His enemy had been hit. He was reeling over the parapet in his death agony. He struggled to keep his feet, but he was slowly falling forward as if in a dream. The rifle fell from his grasp, hit the parapet, fell over, bounded off the pole of a barber's shop beneath and then clattered on the pavement.

Then the dying man on the roof crumpled up and fell forward. The body turned over and over in space and hit the ground with a dull thud. Then it lay still.

The sniper looked at his enemy falling and he shuddered. The lust of battle died in him. He became bitten by remorse. The sweat stood out in beads on his forehead. Weakened by his wound and the long summer day of fasting and watching on the roof, he revolted from the sight of the shattered mass of his dead enemy. His teeth chattered, he began to gibber to himself, cursing the war, cursing himself, cursing everybody.

He looked at the smoking revolver in his hand, and with an oath he hurled it to the roof at his feet. The revolver went off with a concussion and the bullet whizzed past the sniper's head. He was frightened back to his senses by the shock. His nerves steadied. The cloud of fear scattered from his mind and he laughed.

Taking the whiskey flask from his pocket, he emptied it a drought. He felt reckless under the influence of the spirit. He decided to leave the roof now and look for his company commander, to report. Everywhere around was quiet. There was not much danger in going through the streets. He picked up his revolver and put it in his pocket. Then he crawled down through the skylight to the house underneath.

When the sniper reached the laneway on the street level, he felt a sudden curiosity as to the identity of the enemy sniper whom he had killed. He decided that he was a good shot, whoever he was. He wondered did he know him. Perhaps he had been in his own company before the split in the army. He decided to risk going over to have a look at him. He peered around the corner into O'Connell Street. In the upper part of the street there was heavy firing, but around here all was quiet.

The sniper darted across the street. A machine gun tore up the ground around him with a hail of bullets, but he escaped. He threw himself face downward beside the corpse. The machine gun stopped.

Then the sniper turned over the dead body and looked into his brother's face.

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IN CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776

The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America

hen in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. — That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, — That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. — Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.

He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.

He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.

He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.

He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.

He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.

He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.

He has obstructed the Administration of Justice by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers.

He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.

He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people and eat out their substance.

He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.

He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil Power.

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:

For protecting them, by a mock Trial from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:

For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:

For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:

For depriving us in many cases, of the benefit of Trial by Jury:

For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:

For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies

For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:

For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.

He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.

He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & Perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.

He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.

In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.

Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.

We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these united Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States, that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. — And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes, and our sacred Honor.

New Hampshire:
Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew Thornton

Massachusetts:
John Hancock, Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry

Rhode Island:
Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery

Connecticut:
Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott

New York:
William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris

New Jersey:
Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark

Pennsylvania:
Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross

Delaware:
Caesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas McKean

Maryland:
Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll of Carrollton

Virginia:
George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton

North Carolina:
William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn

South Carolina:
Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton

Georgia:
Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton

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Law of CanadaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaPart of a series on theConstitutionof CanadaConstitutional historyBill of Rights (1689)Act of Settlement (1701)Treaty of Paris (1763)Royal Proclamation (1763)Quebec Act (1774)Constitutional Act (1791)Act of Union (1840)Constitution Act (1867)Supreme Court Act (1875)Constitution Act, 1886British North America Acts (1867–1975)Statute of Westminster (1931)Succession to the Throne Act (1937)Letters Patent (1947)Canada Act (1982)Constitution Act (1982)Document listAmendmentsUnsuccessful amendmentsConstitutional lawConstitutional debatePatriationCharter of Rights and FreedomsCanadian federalismLaw of CanadaCanadian Bill of RightsImplied Bill of RightsCanadian Human Rights ActPolitics of Canada portalv t eThe Canadian legal system has its foundation in the English common law system, inherited from being a former colony of the United Kingdom and later a Commonwealth Realm member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The legal system is bi-jurisdictional, as the responsibilities of public (includes criminal) and private law are separated and exercised exclusively by Parliament and the provinces respectively. Quebec, however, still retains a civil system for issues of private law (as this domain falls within the exclusive jurisdiction of the provinces).Both legal systems are subject to the Constitution of Canada. The federal government has jurisdiction over certain exclusive domains which are regulated exclusively by Parliament, as well as all matters and disputes between provinces. These generally include interprovincial transport (rail, air and marine transport) as well as interprovincial trade and commerce (which generally concerns energy, the environment, agriculture). Criminal prosecutions are conducted in the style of the British common law, as this jurisdiction falls exclusively to the federal government.Contents  [hide] 1	Constitution of Canada2	Legislation3	Legal traditions3.1	Common law3.2	Civil law4	Areas of law4.1	Aboriginal law4.2	Administrative law4.3	Contract law4.4	Constitutional law4.5	Copyright law4.6	Criminal law4.7	Evidence law4.8	Family law4.9	Human Rights Law4.10	Immigration and refugee law4.11	Indigenous Legal Traditions4.12	Inheritance law4.13	Insolvency law of Canada4.14	Labour and employment law4.15	Patent law4.16	Procedural law4.17	Property law4.18	Tort law4.19	Trademark law5	Judicial system6	See also7	References7.1	Bibliography8	Further reading9	External linksConstitution of Canada[edit]See also: Constitution of CanadaCover of the Constitution Act, 1867Canada's constitution is its supreme law, and any law passed by any federal, provincial, or territorial government that is inconsistent with the constitution is invalid.[1]The Constitution Act, 1982 stipulates that Canada's constitution includes that act, a series of thirty acts and orders referred to in a schedule to that act (the most notable of which is the Constitution Act, 1867), and any amendment to any of those acts.[2] However, the Supreme Court of Canada has found that this list is not intended to be exhaustive, and in 1998's Reference re Secession of Quebec identified four "supporting principles and rules" that are included as unwritten elements of the constitution: federalism, democracy, constitutionalism and the rule of law, and respect for minorities.[3] While these principles are an enforceable part of Canada's constitution, Canadian courts have not used them to override the written text of the constitution, instead confining their role to "filling gaps".[4]Because the Constitution Act, 1867 provides that Canada's constitution is "similar in Principle to that of the United Kingdom",[5] which is considered to be an uncodified constitution, the Supreme Court has also recognized the existence of constitutional conventions. In 1981's Reference re a Resolution to amend the Constitution, the Court provided three factors necessary for the existence of a constitutional convention: a practice or agreement developed by political actors, a recognition that they are bound to follow that practice or agreement, and a purpose for that practice or agreement. It also found that, while these conventions are not law and are therefore unenforceable by the courts, courts may recognize conventions in their rulings.[6]Copies of the Canadian Charter of Rights and FreedomsThe Constitution Act, 1867 assigns powers to the provincial and federal governments. Matters under federal jurisdiction include criminal law, trade and commerce, banking, and immigration.[7] The federal government also has the residual power to make laws necessary for Canada's "peace, order and good government".[8] Matters under provincial jurisdiction include hospitals, municipalities, education (except education on First Nation reserves), and property and civil rights.[7][9]The Constitution Act, 1867 also provides that, while provinces establish their own superior courts, the federal government appoints their judges.[10] It also gives the federal Parliament the right to establish a court system responsible for federal law and a general court of appeal to hear appeals of decisions of both federal and provincial courts.[11] This last power resulted in the federal Parliament's creation of the Supreme Court of Canada, which is, despite its role as supreme arbiter of all Canadian law, a creation of simple, rather than constitutional, statute.[12]The Constitution Act, 1982 created a mechanism by which Canada's constitution could be amended by joint action of federal and provincial governments; prior to 1982, it could be amended only by the Parliament of the United Kingdom.[13] It also created the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which grants individual rights which may not be contravened by any provincial or federal law.[14]Legislation[edit]Acts passed by the Parliament of Canada and by provincial legislatures are the primary sources of law in Canada. Sections 91 and 92 of the Constitution Act, 1867 enumerate the subject matters upon which either level of government (federal and provincial) may legitimately enact legislation.Laws passed by the federal government are initially announced in the Canada Gazette, a regularly published newspaper for new statutes and regulations.[15][16] Federal bills that receive Royal Assent are subsequently published in the Annual Statutes of Canada. From time to time, the federal government will consolidate its current laws into a single consolidation of law known as the Revised Statutes of Canada.[17] The most recent federal consolidation was in 1985.Laws passed by the provinces follow a similar practice. The Acts are announced in a provincial gazette, published annually and consolidated from time to time.Legal traditions[edit]Common law[edit]All provinces and territories within Canada, excluding Quebec, follow the common law legal tradition.[18] Equally, courts have power under the provincial Judicature Acts to apply equity.As with all common law countries, Canadian law adheres to the doctrine of stare decisis.[19] Lower courts must follow the decisions of higher courts by which they are bound. For instance, all Ontario lower courts are bound by the decisions of the Ontario Court of Appeal and, all British Columbia lower courts are bound by the decisions of the British Columbia Court of Appeal. However, no Ontario court is bound by decisions of any British Columbia court and no British Columbia court is bound by decisions of any Ontario court. Nonetheless, decisions made by a province's highest court (provincial Courts of Appeal) are often considered as "persuasive" even though they are not binding on other provinces.[20]Only the Supreme Court of Canada has authority to bind all courts in the country with a single ruling.[21] The busier courts, such as the Court of Appeal for Ontario, for example, are often looked to for guidance on many local matters of law outside the province, especially in matters such as evidence and criminal law.When there is little or no existing Canadian decision on a particular legal issue and it becomes necessary to look to a non-Canadian legal authority for reference, decisions of English courts and American courts are often utilized.[22] In light of the long-standing history between English law and Canadian law, the English Court of Appeal and the House of Lords are often cited as and considered persuasive authority, and are often followed.[22] If the legal question at issue relates to matters of constitutional or privacy law, however, decisions of United States courts are more likely to be utilized by Canadian lawyers because there is a much greater body of jurisprudence in U.S. law than English law in these areas.Decisions from Commonwealth nations, aside from England, are also often treated as persuasive sources of law in Canada.A major difference between U.S. and Canadian common law is that Canada does not follow the doctrine of Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins (1938), and this is so taken for granted that the Supreme Court of Canada has never needed to actually rule upon the question.[23] In other words, there is no distinction in Canada between federal and provincial common law, and the Supreme Court can and does dictate common law directly to the provinces on all matters traditionally encompassed by common law (to the extent not superseded by legislation).[23] From the American perspective, Canadian federalism is thus relatively incomplete, since Canada continues to operate as a unitary state with respect to common law (and is truly federal only as to statutory law).[23]Due to Canada’s historical connection with the United Kingdom, decisions of the House of Lords before 1867 are technically still binding on Canada unless they have been overturned by the Supreme Court of Canada, and Canada is still bound by the decisions of the Privy Council before the abolishment of appeals to that entity in 1949.[24] In practice, however, no court in Canada has declared itself bound by any English court decision for decades, and it is highly unlikely that any Canadian court will do so in the future.[24]Criminal offences are found only within the Criminal Code and other federal statutes; an exception is that contempt of court is the only remaining common law offence in Canada.[25]Civil law[edit]Main article: Law in QuebecFor historical reasons, Quebec has a hybrid legal system. Private law follows the civil law tradition, originally expressed in the Coutume de Paris as it applied in what was then New France.[26] Today, the jus commune of Quebec is codified in the Civil Code of Quebec. As for public law, it was made that of the conquering British nation after the fall of New France in 1760, that is the common law. It is important to note that the distinction between civil law and common law is not based on the division of powers set out in the Constitution Act, 1867. Therefore, legislation enacted by the provincial legislature in matters of public law, such as the Code of Penal Procedure, should be interpreted following the common law tradition. Likewise, legislation enacted by the federal Parliament in matters of private law, such as the Divorce Act, is to be interpreted following the civil law tradition and in harmony with the Civil Code of Quebec.Areas of law[edit]Aboriginal law[edit]Main article: Canadian aboriginal lawAboriginal law is the area of law related to the Canadian Government's relationship with its Indigenous peoples (First Nations, Métis and Inuit). Section 91(24) of the Constitution Act, 1867 gives the federal parliament exclusive power to legislate in matters related to Aboriginals, which includes groups governed by the Indian Act, different Numbered Treaties and outside of those Acts.[27]Administrative law[edit]Main article: Canadian administrative lawCanadian administrative law is the body of law that addresses the actions and operations of governments and governmental agencies.[28]Contract law[edit]Main article: Canadian contract lawIndividual provinces have codified some principles of contract law in a Sale of Goods Act, which was modeled on early English versions. Outside of Quebec, most contract law is still common law, based on the rulings of judges in contract litigation over the years. Quebec, being a civil law jurisdiction, does not have contract law, but rather has its own law of obligations.[29]Constitutional law[edit]Main article: Canadian constitutional lawConstitutional law is the area of Canadian law relating to the interpretation and application of the Constitution of Canada by the Courts.[30] This is represented in the Constitution Act, 1867, Constitution Act, 1982 and Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.Copyright law[edit]Main article: Canadian copyright lawCopyright law of Canada governs the legally enforceable rights to creative and artistic works under the laws of Canada.[31]Criminal law[edit]Main article: Criminal law of CanadaCanadian Criminal Cases collectionCriminal law in Canada falls under the exclusive legislative jurisdiction of the federal government. The power to enact criminal law is derived from section 91(27) of the Constitution Act, 1867.[32] Most criminal laws have been codified in the Criminal Code, as well as the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, Youth Criminal Justice Act, and several other peripheral Acts.The provinces are responsible for the administration of justice, including criminal trials within their respective provinces, despite their inability to enact criminal laws.[33] Provinces do have the power to promulgate quasi-criminal or regulatory offences in a variety of administrative and other areas, and every province has done so with myriad rules and regulations across a broad spectrum.[34]Evidence law[edit]Further information: Canada Evidence ActThe Canada Evidence Act is an Act of the Parliament of Canada, first passed in 1893, that regulates the rules of evidence in court proceedings under federal law.[35] Each province also has its own evidence statute, governing the law of evidence in civil proceedings in the province.Family law[edit]Main article: Canadian family lawFamily law in Canada concerns the body of Canadian law dealing with family relationship, marriage, and divorce.[36] The federal government has exclusive jurisdiction over the substance of marriage and divorce. Provinces have exclusive jurisdiction over the procedures surrounding marriage. Provinces also have laws dealing with marital property and with family maintenance (including spousal support).Human Rights Law[edit]Main article: Human rights in CanadaThere are currently four key mechanisms in Canada to protect human rights: the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, the Canadian Human Rights Act, the Canadian Human Rights Commission, and provincial human rights laws and legislation.[37]Immigration and refugee law[edit]Main article: Canadian immigration and refugee lawCanadian immigration and refugee law concerns the area of law related to the admission of foreign nationals into Canada, their rights and responsibilities once admitted, and the conditions of their removal.[38] The primary law on these matters is in the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act.Indigenous Legal Traditions[edit]Main article: Indigenous peoples in CanadaCanada was founded on the original territory of over 900 different Indigenous groups, each using different Indigenous legal traditions. Cree, Inuit, Mohawk, Mi'kmaq and numerous other First Nations will apply their own legal traditions in daily life, creating contracts, working with governmental and corporate entities, ecological management and criminal proceedings and family law.Inheritance law[edit]Main article: Inheritance law in CanadaInheritance law in Canada is constitutionally a provincial matter. Therefore, the laws governing inheritance in Canada are legislated by each individual province.Insolvency law of Canada[edit]Main article: Insolvency law of CanadaThe Parliament of Canada has exclusive jurisdiction to regulate matters relating to bankruptcy and insolvency, by virtue of s.91 of the Constitution Act, 1867. It has passed some statutes as a result, i.e., The Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act ("BIA") and the Winding-Up and Restructuring Act (which essentially applies only to financial institutions under federal jurisdiction). In applying these statutes, provincial law has important consequences. Section 67(1)(b) of the BIA provides that "any property that as against the bankrupt is exempt from execution or seizure under any laws applicable in the province within which the property is situated and within which the bankrupt resides" is not divisible among their creditors.[39] Provincial legislation under the property and civil rights power of the Constitution Act, 1867 regulates the resolution of financial difficulties that occur before the onset of insolvency.Labour and employment law[edit]Main article: Canadian labour and employment lawCanadian labour law is that body of law which regulates the rights, restrictions obligations of trade unions, workers and employers in Canada. Canadian employment law is that body of law which regulates the rights, restrictions obligations of non-unioned workers and employers in Canada.[40] Most labour regulation in Canada is conducted at the provincial level by government agencies and boards. However, certain industries under federal regulation are subject solely to federal labour legislation and standards.Patent law[edit]Main article: Canadian patent lawCanadian patent law is the legal system regulating the granting of patents for inventions within Canada, and the enforcement of these rights in Canada.[41]Procedural law[edit]The functioning of the Courts is regulated by the laws of civil procedure which are codified in each province's civil procedures rules.Property law[edit]Main article: Canadian property lawProperty law in Canada is the body of law concerning the rights of individuals over land, objects, and expression within Canada. It encompasses personal property, real property, and intellectual property.[42]Tort law[edit]Main article: Tort law in CanadaTort law in Canada concerns the treatment of the law of torts within the Canadian jurisdiction excluding Quebec, which is covered by the law of obligations. [43]Trademark law[edit]Main article: Canadian trademark lawCanada's trademark law provides protection for distinctive marks, certification marks, distinguishing guises, and proposed marks against those who appropriate the goodwill of the mark or create confusion between different vendors' goods or services.[44]Judicial system[edit]See also: Court system of CanadaCanadian court system (Source Canadian Department of Justice)Under the Constitution Act, 1867, the federal Parliament and the provincial legislatures both have the constitutional authority to create courts: Parliament under s. 101, and the Provinces under s. 92(14).[45] However, the federal power to create courts is much more limited than the provincial power. The provincial courts have a much more extensive jurisdiction, including the constitutionally entrenched power to determine constitutional issues.The Supreme Court of Canada (French: Cour suprême du Canada) is the highest court of Canada and is the final court of appeal in the Canadian justice system. Parliament created it by Act of Parliament in 1875, as a "general court of appeal for Canada".[46] Prior to 1949, cases could be appealed to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in the United Kingdom, and some cases bypassed the Supreme Court of Canada entirely.[46]Other than the Supreme Court, the Canadian court system is divided into two classes of courts:[47] superior courts of general jurisdiction, and courts of limited jurisdiction, sometimes referred to as inferior courts. The superior courts, created and maintained by the provinces, are divided into superior courts of original jurisdiction and superior courts of appeal. These courts are sometimes also referred to as "Section 96" courts, in reference to s. 96 of the Constitution Act, 1867, which grants the federal government the power to appoint the judges of these courts.[10] As courts of general jurisdiction, the provincial superior courts of original jurisdiction have jurisdiction over all matters, under both federal and provincial law, unless the matter has been assigned to some other court or administrative agency by a statute passed by the appropriate legislative body. The superior courts of original jurisdiction have an extensive civil jurisdiction, under both federal and provincial laws. Under the Criminal Code, a federal statute, they have jurisdiction over the most serious criminal offences, such as murder.[48] They also hear appeals from the Provincial Courts in criminal matters and some civil matters. A further appeal normally lies to superior court of appeal, the highest court in each province.[49]The provinces also can establish courts of limited jurisdiction, whose jurisdiction is limited solely to what is included in the statutory grant of jurisdiction. These courts are often called "Provincial Courts", even though the superior courts established by the provinces are also provincial courts. The Provincial Courts have an extensive criminal jurisdiction under the Criminal Code, a federal statute, and also typically have a limited civil jurisdiction in matters under provincial jurisdiction, such as small claims and some family matters. The judges of the Provincial Courts are appointed by the provincial governments.[50]There are also additional federal courts established by Parliament, which have a specialised jurisdiction in certain areas of federal law. These courts are the Federal Court of Appeal, the Federal Court, the Tax Court of Canada, and the Court Martial Appeal Court of Canada.See also[edit]	Law portalflag	Canada portalBook icon	Book: CanadaAt Her Majesty's pleasureCanadian Legal Information Institute (CanLI)Human rights in CanadaLegal systems of the worldList of Acts of Parliament of CanadaStatutes of CanadaThe Canadian Crown and Aboriginal peoplesList of Vancouver court casesReferences[edit]Jump up ^ Richard W. Bauman; Tsvi Kahana (2006). The Least Examined Branch: The Role of Legislatures in the Constitutional State. Cambridge University Press. p. 159. ISBN 978-1-139-46040-8.Jump up ^ Craik 94Jump up ^ Craik 96Jump up ^ Craik 98Jump up ^ Frederick Lee Morton (2002). Law, Politics and the Judicial Process in Canada. University of Calgary Press. p. 216. ISBN 978-1-55238-046-8.Jump up ^ Craik 105^ Jump up to: a b OECD (2007). Linking Regions and Central Governments Contracts for Regional Development: Contracts for Regional Development. OECD Publishing. p. 173. ISBN 978-92-64-00875-5.Jump up ^ Munroe Eagles; Larry Johnston (2008). Politics: An Introduction to Modern Democratic Government. University of Toronto Press. p. 262. ISBN 978-1-55111-858-1.Jump up ^ Craik 125^ Jump up to: a b Patrick N. Malcolmson; Richard Myers (2009). The Canadian Regime: An Introduction to Parliamentary Government in Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 149. ISBN 978-1-4426-0047-8.Jump up ^ Craik 127Jump up ^ Craik 127–128Jump up ^ Craik 131Jump up ^ Craik 119Jump up ^ Statutory Instrument ActJump up ^ "Canada Gazette - About Us". Gazette.gc.ca. 2010-06-09. Retrieved 2011-02-28.Jump up ^ Legislation Revision and Consolidation ActJump up ^ Dennis Campbell; Susan Cotter (1998). Comparative Law Yearbook. Kluwer Law International. p. 234. ISBN 978-90-411-0740-4.Jump up ^ Richard A. Mann (2013). Business Law and the Regulation of Business. Cengage Learning. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-133-58757-6.Jump up ^ Robert A. Battram (2010). Canada In Crisis...: An Agenda to Unify the Nation. Trafford Publishing. p. 26. ISBN 978-1-4269-8062-6.Jump up ^ Graeme R. Newman (30 October 2010). Crime and Punishment around the World: [Four Volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-313-35134-1.^ Jump up to: a b Ian Bushnell (1992). Captive Court: A Study of the Supreme Court of Canada. McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-7735-6301-8.^ Jump up to: a b c Hogg, Peter W. (2007). Constitutional Law of Canada (5th ed.). Toronto: Carswell. pp. 8–9 — 8–11. ISBN 9780779813377.^ Jump up to: a b Frederick Lee Morton (2002). Law, Politics and the Judicial Process in Canada. University of Calgary Press. p. 389. ISBN 978-1-55238-046-8.Jump up ^ A Compendium of Law and Judges[dead link]Jump up ^ J. M. Smits (2012). Elgar Encyclopedia of Comparative Law. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 132. ISBN 978-1-78100-610-8.Jump up ^ Christian Leuprecht; Peter H. Russell (2011). Essential Readings in Canadian Constitutional Politics. University of Toronto Press. p. 477. ISBN 978-1-4426-0368-4.Jump up ^ Robert Leckey (2008). Contextual Subjects: Family, State and Relational Theory. University of Toronto Press. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-8020-9749-1.Jump up ^ Simon N. M. Young (2009). Civil Forfeiture of Criminal Property. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 176. ISBN 978-1-84844-621-2.Jump up ^ Leuprecht/Russell, 2011. p. 451.Jump up ^ Lesley Ellen Harris (2001). Canadian Copyright Law. McGraw-Hill Ryerson. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-07-560369-6.Jump up ^ Michelle G. Grossman; Julian V. Roberts (2011). Criminal Justice in Canada: A Reader. Cengage Learning. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-17-650228-7.Jump up ^ H. Stephen Harris (2001). Competition Laws Outside the United States: Supplement. American Bar Association. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-57073-881-4.Jump up ^ Kevin Heller; Markus Dubber (2010). The Handbook of Comparative Criminal Law. Stanford University Press. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-8047-7729-2.Jump up ^ Canada; James Crankshaw (1910). The Criminal Code of Canada and the Canada Evidence Act as Amended to Date. Carswell Company. p. intro.Jump up ^ Malcolm C. Kronby (2010). Canadian Family Law. John Wiley and Sons. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-470-67647-9.Jump up ^ Alan Price (2007). Human Resource Management in a Business Context. Cengage Learning EMEA. p. 391. ISBN 978-1-84480-548-8.Jump up ^ John Powell (2009). Encyclopedia of North American Immigration. Infobase Publishing. p. 362. ISBN 978-1-4381-1012-7.Jump up ^ http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/b-3/page-23.html#h-26Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2013-07-23. Retrieved 2013-07-27.Jump up ^ Thomas F. Cotter (21 March 2013). Comparative Patent Remedies: A Legal and Economic Analysis. Oxford University Press. pp. 166–167. ISBN 978-0-19-984065-6.Jump up ^ Stuart C. McCormack (1999). Intellectual Property Law of Canada. Juris Publishing, Inc. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-57823-070-9.Jump up ^ Jean Louis Baudouin; Allen M. Linden (2010). Tort Law in Canada. Kluwer Law International. ISBN 978-90-411-3373-1.Jump up ^ Borden Ladner Gervias LLP (2011). Trade-Mark Practice in Canada. Borden Ladner Gervais LLP. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-9730750-5-2.Jump up ^ Augustus Henry Frazer Lefroy (2005). Canada's Federal System: Being a Treatise on Canadian Constitutional Law Under the British North America Act. The Lawbook Exchange. p. 151. ISBN 978-1-58477-591-1.^ Jump up to: a b Ian Bushnell (1997). The Federal Court of Canada: A History, 1875-1992. University of Toronto Press. pp. 234–237. ISBN 978-0-8020-4207-1.Jump up ^ Peter H. Russell (2007). Canada's Trial Courts: Two Tiers Or One?. University of Toronto Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-8020-9323-3.Jump up ^ Michel Proulx; David Layton (2001). Ethics and Canadian criminal law. Irwin Law. p. 153. ISBN 978-1-55221-044-4.Jump up ^ International Business Publications, USA (2008). Canada Company Laws and Regulations Handbook. Int'l Business Publications. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-4330-6959-8.Jump up ^ Gerhard Robbers (2006). Encyclopedia of World Constitutions. Infobase Publishing. p. 169. ISBN 978-0-8160-6078-8.Bibliography[edit]Craik, Neil; Forcese, Craig; Bryden, Philip; Carver, Peter; Haigh, Richard; Ratushny, Ed; Sullivan, Ruth, eds. (2006). Public Law: Cases, materials, and commentary. Toronto: Emond Montgomery Publications Limited. ISBN 1-55239-185-X.

# data[].attributes.subject
Law of CanadaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaPart of a series on theConstitutionof CanadaConstitutional historyBill of Rights (1689)Act of Settlement (1701)Treaty of Paris (1763)Royal Proclamation (1763)Quebec Act (1774)Constitutional Act (1791)Act of Union (1840)Constitution Act (1867)Supreme Court Act (1875)Constitution Act, 1886British North America Acts (1867–1975)Statute of Westminster (1931)Succession to the Throne Act (1937)Letters Patent (1947)Canada Act (1982)Constitution Act (1982)Document listAmendmentsUnsuccessful amendmentsConstitutional lawConstitutional debatePatriationCharter of Rights and FreedomsCanadian federalismLaw of CanadaCanadian Bill of RightsImplied Bill of RightsCanadian Human Rights ActPolitics of Canada portalv t eThe Canadian legal system has its foundation in the English common law system, inherited from being a former colony of the United Kingdom and later a Commonwealth Realm member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The legal system is bi-jurisdictional, as the responsibilities of public (includes criminal) and private law are separated and exercised exclusively by Parliament and the provinces respectively. Quebec, however, still retains a civil system for issues of private law (as this domain falls within the exclusive jurisdiction of the provinces).Both legal systems are subject to the Constitution of Canada. The federal government has jurisdiction over certain exclusive domains which are regulated exclusively by Parliament, as well as all matters and disputes between provinces. These generally include interprovincial transport (rail, air and marine transport) as well as interprovincial trade and commerce (which generally concerns energy, the environment, agriculture). Criminal prosecutions are conducted in the style of the British common law, as this jurisdiction falls exclusively to the federal government.Contents  [hide] 1	Constitution of Canada2	Legislation3	Legal traditions3.1	Common law3.2	Civil law4	Areas of law4.1	Aboriginal law4.2	Administrative law4.3	Contract law4.4	Constitutional law4.5	Copyright law4.6	Criminal law4.7	Evidence law4.8	Family law4.9	Human Rights Law4.10	Immigration and refugee law4.11	Indigenous Legal Traditions4.12	Inheritance law4.13	Insolvency law of Canada4.14	Labour and employment law4.15	Patent law4.16	Procedural law4.17	Property law4.18	Tort law4.19	Trademark law5	Judicial system6	See also7	References7.1	Bibliography8	Further reading9	External linksConstitution of Canada[edit]See also: Constitution of CanadaCover of the Constitution Act, 1867Canada's constitution is its supreme law, and any law passed by any federal, provincial, or territorial government that is inconsistent with the constitution is invalid.[1]The Constitution Act, 1982 stipulates that Canada's constitution includes that act, a series of thirty acts and orders referred to in a schedule to that act (the most notable of which is the Constitution Act, 1867), and any amendment to any of those acts.[2] However, the Supreme Court of Canada has found that this list is not intended to be exhaustive, and in 1998's Reference re Secession of Quebec identified four "supporting principles and rules" that are included as unwritten elements of the constitution: federalism, democracy, constitutionalism and the rule of law, and respect for minorities.[3] While these principles are an enforceable part of Canada's constitution, Canadian courts have not used them to override the written text of the constitution, instead confining their role to "filling gaps".[4]Because the Constitution Act, 1867 provides that Canada's constitution is "similar in Principle to that of the United Kingdom",[5] which is considered to be an uncodified constitution, the Supreme Court has also recognized the existence of constitutional conventions. In 1981's Reference re a Resolution to amend the Constitution, the Court provided three factors necessary for the existence of a constitutional convention: a practice or agreement developed by political actors, a recognition that they are bound to follow that practice or agreement, and a purpose for that practice or agreement. It also found that, while these conventions are not law and are therefore unenforceable by the courts, courts may recognize conventions in their rulings.[6]Copies of the Canadian Charter of Rights and FreedomsThe Constitution Act, 1867 assigns powers to the provincial and federal governments. Matters under federal jurisdiction include criminal law, trade and commerce, banking, and immigration.[7] The federal government also has the residual power to make laws necessary for Canada's "peace, order and good government".[8] Matters under provincial jurisdiction include hospitals, municipalities, education (except education on First Nation reserves), and property and civil rights.[7][9]The Constitution Act, 1867 also provides that, while provinces establish their own superior courts, the federal government appoints their judges.[10] It also gives the federal Parliament the right to establish a court system responsible for federal law and a general court of appeal to hear appeals of decisions of both federal and provincial courts.[11] This last power resulted in the federal Parliament's creation of the Supreme Court of Canada, which is, despite its role as supreme arbiter of all Canadian law, a creation of simple, rather than constitutional, statute.[12]The Constitution Act, 1982 created a mechanism by which Canada's constitution could be amended by joint action of federal and provincial governments; prior to 1982, it could be amended only by the Parliament of the United Kingdom.[13] It also created the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which grants individual rights which may not be contravened by any provincial or federal law.[14]Legislation[edit]Acts passed by the Parliament of Canada and by provincial legislatures are the primary sources of law in Canada. Sections 91 and 92 of the Constitution Act, 1867 enumerate the subject matters upon which either level of government (federal and provincial) may legitimately enact legislation.Laws passed by the federal government are initially announced in the Canada Gazette, a regularly published newspaper for new statutes and regulations.[15][16] Federal bills that receive Royal Assent are subsequently published in the Annual Statutes of Canada. From time to time, the federal government will consolidate its current laws into a single consolidation of law known as the Revised Statutes of Canada.[17] The most recent federal consolidation was in 1985.Laws passed by the provinces follow a similar practice. The Acts are announced in a provincial gazette, published annually and consolidated from time to time.Legal traditions[edit]Common law[edit]All provinces and territories within Canada, excluding Quebec, follow the common law legal tradition.[18] Equally, courts have power under the provincial Judicature Acts to apply equity.As with all common law countries, Canadian law adheres to the doctrine of stare decisis.[19] Lower courts must follow the decisions of higher courts by which they are bound. For instance, all Ontario lower courts are bound by the decisions of the Ontario Court of Appeal and, all British Columbia lower courts are bound by the decisions of the British Columbia Court of Appeal. However, no Ontario court is bound by decisions of any British Columbia court and no British Columbia court is bound by decisions of any Ontario court. Nonetheless, decisions made by a province's highest court (provincial Courts of Appeal) are often considered as "persuasive" even though they are not binding on other provinces.[20]Only the Supreme Court of Canada has authority to bind all courts in the country with a single ruling.[21] The busier courts, such as the Court of Appeal for Ontario, for example, are often looked to for guidance on many local matters of law outside the province, especially in matters such as evidence and criminal law.When there is little or no existing Canadian decision on a particular legal issue and it becomes necessary to look to a non-Canadian legal authority for reference, decisions of English courts and American courts are often utilized.[22] In light of the long-standing history between English law and Canadian law, the English Court of Appeal and the House of Lords are often cited as and considered persuasive authority, and are often followed.[22] If the legal question at issue relates to matters of constitutional or privacy law, however, decisions of United States courts are more likely to be utilized by Canadian lawyers because there is a much greater body of jurisprudence in U.S. law than English law in these areas.Decisions from Commonwealth nations, aside from England, are also often treated as persuasive sources of law in Canada.A major difference between U.S. and Canadian common law is that Canada does not follow the doctrine of Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins (1938), and this is so taken for granted that the Supreme Court of Canada has never needed to actually rule upon the question.[23] In other words, there is no distinction in Canada between federal and provincial common law, and the Supreme Court can and does dictate common law directly to the provinces on all matters traditionally encompassed by common law (to the extent not superseded by legislation).[23] From the American perspective, Canadian federalism is thus relatively incomplete, since Canada continues to operate as a unitary state with respect to common law (and is truly federal only as to statutory law).[23]Due to Canada’s historical connection with the United Kingdom, decisions of the House of Lords before 1867 are technically still binding on Canada unless they have been overturned by the Supreme Court of Canada, and Canada is still bound by the decisions of the Privy Council before the abolishment of appeals to that entity in 1949.[24] In practice, however, no court in Canada has declared itself bound by any English court decision for decades, and it is highly unlikely that any Canadian court will do so in the future.[24]Criminal offences are found only within the Criminal Code and other federal statutes; an exception is that contempt of court is the only remaining common law offence in Canada.[25]Civil law[edit]Main article: Law in QuebecFor historical reasons, Quebec has a hybrid legal system. Private law follows the civil law tradition, originally expressed in the Coutume de Paris as it applied in what was then New France.[26] Today, the jus commune of Quebec is codified in the Civil Code of Quebec. As for public law, it was made that of the conquering British nation after the fall of New France in 1760, that is the common law. It is important to note that the distinction between civil law and common law is not based on the division of powers set out in the Constitution Act, 1867. Therefore, legislation enacted by the provincial legislature in matters of public law, such as the Code of Penal Procedure, should be interpreted following the common law tradition. Likewise, legislation enacted by the federal Parliament in matters of private law, such as the Divorce Act, is to be interpreted following the civil law tradition and in harmony with the Civil Code of Quebec.Areas of law[edit]Aboriginal law[edit]Main article: Canadian aboriginal lawAboriginal law is the area of law related to the Canadian Government's relationship with its Indigenous peoples (First Nations, Métis and Inuit). Section 91(24) of the Constitution Act, 1867 gives the federal parliament exclusive power to legislate in matters related to Aboriginals, which includes groups governed by the Indian Act, different Numbered Treaties and outside of those Acts.[27]Administrative law[edit]Main article: Canadian administrative lawCanadian administrative law is the body of law that addresses the actions and operations of governments and governmental agencies.[28]Contract law[edit]Main article: Canadian contract lawIndividual provinces have codified some principles of contract law in a Sale of Goods Act, which was modeled on early English versions. Outside of Quebec, most contract law is still common law, based on the rulings of judges in contract litigation over the years. Quebec, being a civil law jurisdiction, does not have contract law, but rather has its own law of obligations.[29]Constitutional law[edit]Main article: Canadian constitutional lawConstitutional law is the area of Canadian law relating to the interpretation and application of the Constitution of Canada by the Courts.[30] This is represented in the Constitution Act, 1867, Constitution Act, 1982 and Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.Copyright law[edit]Main article: Canadian copyright lawCopyright law of Canada governs the legally enforceable rights to creative and artistic works under the laws of Canada.[31]Criminal law[edit]Main article: Criminal law of CanadaCanadian Criminal Cases collectionCriminal law in Canada falls under the exclusive legislative jurisdiction of the federal government. The power to enact criminal law is derived from section 91(27) of the Constitution Act, 1867.[32] Most criminal laws have been codified in the Criminal Code, as well as the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, Youth Criminal Justice Act, and several other peripheral Acts.The provinces are responsible for the administration of justice, including criminal trials within their respective provinces, despite their inability to enact criminal laws.[33] Provinces do have the power to promulgate quasi-criminal or regulatory offences in a variety of administrative and other areas, and every province has done so with myriad rules and regulations across a broad spectrum.[34]Evidence law[edit]Further information: Canada Evidence ActThe Canada Evidence Act is an Act of the Parliament of Canada, first passed in 1893, that regulates the rules of evidence in court proceedings under federal law.[35] Each province also has its own evidence statute, governing the law of evidence in civil proceedings in the province.Family law[edit]Main article: Canadian family lawFamily law in Canada concerns the body of Canadian law dealing with family relationship, marriage, and divorce.[36] The federal government has exclusive jurisdiction over the substance of marriage and divorce. Provinces have exclusive jurisdiction over the procedures surrounding marriage. Provinces also have laws dealing with marital property and with family maintenance (including spousal support).Human Rights Law[edit]Main article: Human rights in CanadaThere are currently four key mechanisms in Canada to protect human rights: the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, the Canadian Human Rights Act, the Canadian Human Rights Commission, and provincial human rights laws and legislation.[37]Immigration and refugee law[edit]Main article: Canadian immigration and refugee lawCanadian immigration and refugee law concerns the area of law related to the admission of foreign nationals into Canada, their rights and responsibilities once admitted, and the conditions of their removal.[38] The primary law on these matters is in the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act.Indigenous Legal Traditions[edit]Main article: Indigenous peoples in CanadaCanada was founded on the original territory of over 900 different Indigenous groups, each using different Indigenous legal traditions. Cree, Inuit, Mohawk, Mi'kmaq and numerous other First Nations will apply their own legal traditions in daily life, creating contracts, working with governmental and corporate entities, ecological management and criminal proceedings and family law.Inheritance law[edit]Main article: Inheritance law in CanadaInheritance law in Canada is constitutionally a provincial matter. Therefore, the laws governing inheritance in Canada are legislated by each individual province.Insolvency law of Canada[edit]Main article: Insolvency law of CanadaThe Parliament of Canada has exclusive jurisdiction to regulate matters relating to bankruptcy and insolvency, by virtue of s.91 of the Constitution Act, 1867. It has passed some statutes as a result, i.e., The Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act ("BIA") and the Winding-Up and Restructuring Act (which essentially applies only to financial institutions under federal jurisdiction). In applying these statutes, provincial law has important consequences. Section 67(1)(b) of the BIA provides that "any property that as against the bankrupt is exempt from execution or seizure under any laws applicable in the province within which the property is situated and within which the bankrupt resides" is not divisible among their creditors.[39] Provincial legislation under the property and civil rights power of the Constitution Act, 1867 regulates the resolution of financial difficulties that occur before the onset of insolvency.Labour and employment law[edit]Main article: Canadian labour and employment lawCanadian labour law is that body of law which regulates the rights, restrictions obligations of trade unions, workers and employers in Canada. Canadian employment law is that body of law which regulates the rights, restrictions obligations of non-unioned workers and employers in Canada.[40] Most labour regulation in Canada is conducted at the provincial level by government agencies and boards. However, certain industries under federal regulation are subject solely to federal labour legislation and standards.Patent law[edit]Main article: Canadian patent lawCanadian patent law is the legal system regulating the granting of patents for inventions within Canada, and the enforcement of these rights in Canada.[41]Procedural law[edit]The functioning of the Courts is regulated by the laws of civil procedure which are codified in each province's civil procedures rules.Property law[edit]Main article: Canadian property lawProperty law in Canada is the body of law concerning the rights of individuals over land, objects, and expression within Canada. It encompasses personal property, real property, and intellectual property.[42]Tort law[edit]Main article: Tort law in CanadaTort law in Canada concerns the treatment of the law of torts within the Canadian jurisdiction excluding Quebec, which is covered by the law of obligations. [43]Trademark law[edit]Main article: Canadian trademark lawCanada's trademark law provides protection for distinctive marks, certification marks, distinguishing guises, and proposed marks against those who appropriate the goodwill of the mark or create confusion between different vendors' goods or services.[44]Judicial system[edit]See also: Court system of CanadaCanadian court system (Source Canadian Department of Justice)Under the Constitution Act, 1867, the federal Parliament and the provincial legislatures both have the constitutional authority to create courts: Parliament under s. 101, and the Provinces under s. 92(14).[45] However, the federal power to create courts is much more limited than the provincial power. The provincial courts have a much more extensive jurisdiction, including the constitutionally entrenched power to determine constitutional issues.The Supreme Court of Canada (French: Cour suprême du Canada) is the highest court of Canada and is the final court of appeal in the Canadian justice system. Parliament created it by Act of Parliament in 1875, as a "general court of appeal for Canada".[46] Prior to 1949, cases could be appealed to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in the United Kingdom, and some cases bypassed the Supreme Court of Canada entirely.[46]Other than the Supreme Court, the Canadian court system is divided into two classes of courts:[47] superior courts of general jurisdiction, and courts of limited jurisdiction, sometimes referred to as inferior courts. The superior courts, created and maintained by the provinces, are divided into superior courts of original jurisdiction and superior courts of appeal. These courts are sometimes also referred to as "Section 96" courts, in reference to s. 96 of the Constitution Act, 1867, which grants the federal government the power to appoint the judges of these courts.[10] As courts of general jurisdiction, the provincial superior courts of original jurisdiction have jurisdiction over all matters, under both federal and provincial law, unless the matter has been assigned to some other court or administrative agency by a statute passed by the appropriate legislative body. The superior courts of original jurisdiction have an extensive civil jurisdiction, under both federal and provincial laws. Under the Criminal Code, a federal statute, they have jurisdiction over the most serious criminal offences, such as murder.[48] They also hear appeals from the Provincial Courts in criminal matters and some civil matters. A further appeal normally lies to superior court of appeal, the highest court in each province.[49]The provinces also can establish courts of limited jurisdiction, whose jurisdiction is limited solely to what is included in the statutory grant of jurisdiction. These courts are often called "Provincial Courts", even though the superior courts established by the provinces are also provincial courts. The Provincial Courts have an extensive criminal jurisdiction under the Criminal Code, a federal statute, and also typically have a limited civil jurisdiction in matters under provincial jurisdiction, such as small claims and some family matters. The judges of the Provincial Courts are appointed by the provincial governments.[50]There are also additional federal courts established by Parliament, which have a specialised jurisdiction in certain areas of federal law. These courts are the Federal Court of Appeal, the Federal Court, the Tax Court of Canada, and the Court Martial Appeal Court of Canada.See also[edit]	Law portalflag	Canada portalBook icon	Book: CanadaAt Her Majesty's pleasureCanadian Legal Information Institute (CanLI)Human rights in CanadaLegal systems of the worldList of Acts of Parliament of CanadaStatutes of CanadaThe Canadian Crown and Aboriginal peoplesList of Vancouver court casesReferences[edit]Jump up ^ Richard W. Bauman; Tsvi Kahana (2006). The Least Examined Branch: The Role of Legislatures in the Constitutional State. Cambridge University Press. p. 159. ISBN 978-1-139-46040-8.Jump up ^ Craik 94Jump up ^ Craik 96Jump up ^ Craik 98Jump up ^ Frederick Lee Morton (2002). Law, Politics and the Judicial Process in Canada. University of Calgary Press. p. 216. ISBN 978-1-55238-046-8.Jump up ^ Craik 105^ Jump up to: a b OECD (2007). Linking Regions and Central Governments Contracts for Regional Development: Contracts for Regional Development. OECD Publishing. p. 173. ISBN 978-92-64-00875-5.Jump up ^ Munroe Eagles; Larry Johnston (2008). Politics: An Introduction to Modern Democratic Government. University of Toronto Press. p. 262. ISBN 978-1-55111-858-1.Jump up ^ Craik 125^ Jump up to: a b Patrick N. Malcolmson; Richard Myers (2009). The Canadian Regime: An Introduction to Parliamentary Government in Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 149. ISBN 978-1-4426-0047-8.Jump up ^ Craik 127Jump up ^ Craik 127–128Jump up ^ Craik 131Jump up ^ Craik 119Jump up ^ Statutory Instrument ActJump up ^ "Canada Gazette - About Us". Gazette.gc.ca. 2010-06-09. Retrieved 2011-02-28.Jump up ^ Legislation Revision and Consolidation ActJump up ^ Dennis Campbell; Susan Cotter (1998). Comparative Law Yearbook. Kluwer Law International. p. 234. ISBN 978-90-411-0740-4.Jump up ^ Richard A. Mann (2013). Business Law and the Regulation of Business. Cengage Learning. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-133-58757-6.Jump up ^ Robert A. Battram (2010). Canada In Crisis...: An Agenda to Unify the Nation. Trafford Publishing. p. 26. ISBN 978-1-4269-8062-6.Jump up ^ Graeme R. Newman (30 October 2010). Crime and Punishment around the World: [Four Volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-313-35134-1.^ Jump up to: a b Ian Bushnell (1992). Captive Court: A Study of the Supreme Court of Canada. McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-7735-6301-8.^ Jump up to: a b c Hogg, Peter W. (2007). Constitutional Law of Canada (5th ed.). Toronto: Carswell. pp. 8–9 — 8–11. ISBN 9780779813377.^ Jump up to: a b Frederick Lee Morton (2002). Law, Politics and the Judicial Process in Canada. University of Calgary Press. p. 389. ISBN 978-1-55238-046-8.Jump up ^ A Compendium of Law and Judges[dead link]Jump up ^ J. M. Smits (2012). Elgar Encyclopedia of Comparative Law. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 132. ISBN 978-1-78100-610-8.Jump up ^ Christian Leuprecht; Peter H. Russell (2011). Essential Readings in Canadian Constitutional Politics. University of Toronto Press. p. 477. ISBN 978-1-4426-0368-4.Jump up ^ Robert Leckey (2008). Contextual Subjects: Family, State and Relational Theory. University of Toronto Press. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-8020-9749-1.Jump up ^ Simon N. M. Young (2009). Civil Forfeiture of Criminal Property. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 176. ISBN 978-1-84844-621-2.Jump up ^ Leuprecht/Russell, 2011. p. 451.Jump up ^ Lesley Ellen Harris (2001). Canadian Copyright Law. McGraw-Hill Ryerson. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-07-560369-6.Jump up ^ Michelle G. Grossman; Julian V. Roberts (2011). Criminal Justice in Canada: A Reader. Cengage Learning. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-17-650228-7.Jump up ^ H. Stephen Harris (2001). Competition Laws Outside the United States: Supplement. American Bar Association. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-57073-881-4.Jump up ^ Kevin Heller; Markus Dubber (2010). The Handbook of Comparative Criminal Law. Stanford University Press. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-8047-7729-2.Jump up ^ Canada; James Crankshaw (1910). The Criminal Code of Canada and the Canada Evidence Act as Amended to Date. Carswell Company. p. intro.Jump up ^ Malcolm C. Kronby (2010). Canadian Family Law. John Wiley and Sons. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-470-67647-9.Jump up ^ Alan Price (2007). Human Resource Management in a Business Context. Cengage Learning EMEA. p. 391. ISBN 978-1-84480-548-8.Jump up ^ John Powell (2009). Encyclopedia of North American Immigration. Infobase Publishing. p. 362. ISBN 978-1-4381-1012-7.Jump up ^ http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/b-3/page-23.html#h-26Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2013-07-23. Retrieved 2013-07-27.Jump up ^ Thomas F. Cotter (21 March 2013). Comparative Patent Remedies: A Legal and Economic Analysis. Oxford University Press. pp. 166–167. ISBN 978-0-19-984065-6.Jump up ^ Stuart C. McCormack (1999). Intellectual Property Law of Canada. Juris Publishing, Inc. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-57823-070-9.Jump up ^ Jean Louis Baudouin; Allen M. Linden (2010). Tort Law in Canada. Kluwer Law International. ISBN 978-90-411-3373-1.Jump up ^ Borden Ladner Gervias LLP (2011). Trade-Mark Practice in Canada. Borden Ladner Gervais LLP. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-9730750-5-2.Jump up ^ Augustus Henry Frazer Lefroy (2005). Canada's Federal System: Being a Treatise on Canadian Constitutional Law Under the British North America Act. The Lawbook Exchange. p. 151. ISBN 978-1-58477-591-1.^ Jump up to: a b Ian Bushnell (1997). The Federal Court of Canada: A History, 1875-1992. University of Toronto Press. pp. 234–237. ISBN 978-0-8020-4207-1.Jump up ^ Peter H. Russell (2007). Canada's Trial Courts: Two Tiers Or One?. University of Toronto Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-8020-9323-3.Jump up ^ Michel Proulx; David Layton (2001). Ethics and Canadian criminal law. Irwin Law. p. 153. ISBN 978-1-55221-044-4.Jump up ^ International Business Publications, USA (2008). Canada Company Laws and Regulations Handbook. Int'l Business Publications. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-4330-6959-8.Jump up ^ Gerhard Robbers (2006). Encyclopedia of World Constitutions. Infobase Publishing. p. 169. ISBN 978-0-8160-6078-8.Bibliography[edit]Craik, Neil; Forcese, Craig; Bryden, Philip; Carver, Peter; Haigh, Richard; Ratushny, Ed; Sullivan, Ruth, eds. (2006). Public Law: Cases, materials, and commentary. Toronto: Emond Montgomery Publications Limited. ISBN 1-55239-185-X.

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you're a soggy waffle. ha. take that