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What an amazing and inspiring video! I hope you enjoy watching "Changing Education Paradigms" by
the gifted Sir Ken Robinson.

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RSA ANIMATE: Changing Education Paradigms

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Stiliana Milkova
Center for Research on Learning and Teaching

A lesson plan is the instructor's road map of what students need to learn and how it will be done effectively during the class time. Before you plan your lesson, you will first need to identify the learning objectives for the class meeting. Then, you can design appropriate learning activities and develop strategies to obtain feedback on student learning. A successful lesson plan addresses and integrates these three key components:

Objectives for student learning

Teaching/learning activities

Strategies to check student understanding

Specifying concrete objectives for student learning will help you determine the kinds of teaching and learning activities you will use in class, while those activities will define how you will check whether the learning objectives have been accomplished (see Fig. 1).

Steps for Preparing a Lesson Plan

Below are six steps to guide you when you create your first lesson plans. Each step is accompanied by a set of questions meant to prompt reflection and aid you in designing your teaching and learning activities.

(1) Outline learning objectives

The first step is to determine what you want students to learn and be able to do at the end of class. To help you specify your objectives for student learning, answer the following questions:

What is the topic of the lesson?

What do I want students to learn?

What do I want them to understand and be able to do at the end of class?

What do I want them to take away from this particular lesson?

Once you outline the learning objectives for the class meeting, rank them in terms of their importance. This step will prepare you for managing class time and accomplishing the more important learning objectives in case you are pressed for time. Consider the following questions:

What are the most important concepts, ideas, or skills I want students to be able to grasp and apply?

Why are they important?

If I ran out of time, which ones could not be omitted?

And conversely, which ones could I skip if pressed for time?

(2) Develop the introduction

Now that you have your learning objectives in order of their importance, design the specific activities you will use to get students to understand and apply what they have learned. Because you will have a diverse body of students with different academic and personal experiences, they may already be familiar with the topic. That is why you might start with a question or activity to gauge students' knowledge of the subject or possibly, their preconceived notions about it. For example, you can take a simple poll: "How many of you have heard of X? Raise your hand if you have." You can also gather background information from your students prior to class by sending students an electronic survey or asking them to write comments on index cards. This additional information can help shape your introduction, learning activities, etc. When you have an idea of the students' familiarity with the topic, you will also have a sense of what to focus on.

Develop a creative introduction to the topic to stimulate interest and encourage thinking. You can use a variety of approaches to engage students (e.g., personal anecdote, historical event, thought-provoking dilemma, real-world example, short video clip, practical application, probing question, etc.). Consider the following questions when planning your introduction:

How will I check whether students know anything about the topic or have any preconceived notions about it?

What are some commonly held ideas (or possibly misconceptions) about this topic that students might be familiar with or might espouse?

What will I do to introduce the topic?

(3) Plan the specific learning activities (the main body of the lesson)

Prepare several different ways of explaining the material (real-life examples, analogies, visuals, etc.) to catch the attention of more students and appeal to different learning styles. As you plan your examples and activities, estimate how much time you will spend on each. Build in time for extended explanation or discussion, but also be prepared to move on quickly to different applications or problems, and to identify strategies that check for understanding. These questions would help you design the learning activities you will use:

What will I do to explain the topic?

What will I do to illustrate the topic in a different way?

How can I engage students in the topic?

What are some relevant real-life examples, analogies, or situations that can help students understand the topic?

What will students need to do to help them understand the topic better?

(4) Plan to check for understanding

Now that you have explained the topic and illustrated it with different examples, you need to check for student understanding - how will you know that students are learning? Think about specific questions you can ask students in order to check for understanding, write them down, and then paraphrase them so that you are prepared to ask the questions in different ways. Try to predict the answers your questions will generate. Decide on whether you want students to respond orally or in writing. You can look at Strategies to Extend Student Thinking, http://www.crlt.umich.edu/gsis/P4_4.php to help you generate some ideas and you can also ask yourself these questions:

What questions will I ask students to check for understanding?

What will I have students do to demonstrate that they are following?

Going back to my list of learning objectives, what activity can I have students do to check whether each of those has been accomplished?

An important strategy that will also help you with time management is to anticipate students' questions. When planning your lesson, decide what kinds of questions will be productive for discussion and what questions might sidetrack the class. Think about and decide on the balance between covering content (accomplishing your learning objectives) and ensuring that students understand.

(5) Develop a conclusion and a preview

Go over the material covered in class by summarizing the main points of the lesson. You can do this in a number of ways: you can state the main points yourself ("Today we talked about..."), you can ask a student to help you summarize them, or you can even ask all students to write down on a piece of paper what they think were the main points of the lesson. You can review the students' answers to gauge their understanding of the topic and then explain anything unclear the following class. Conclude the lesson not only by summarizing the main points, but also by previewing the next lesson. How does the topic relate to the one that's coming? This preview will spur students' interest and help them connect the different ideas within a larger context.

(6) Create a realistic timeline

GSIs know how easy it is to run out of time and not cover all of the many points they had planned to cover. A list of ten learning objectives is not realistic, so narrow down your list to the two or three key concepts, ideas, or skills you want students to learn. Instructors also agree that they often need to adjust their lesson plan during class depending on what the students need. Your list of prioritized learning objectives will help you make decisions on the spot and adjust your lesson plan as needed. Having additional examples or alternative activities will also allow you to be flexible. A realistic timeline will reflect your flexibility and readiness to adapt to the specific classroom environment. Here are some strategies for creating a realistic timeline:

Estimate how much time each of the activities will take, then plan some extra time for each

When you prepare your lesson plan, next to each activity indicate how much time you expect it will take

Plan a few minutes at the end of class to answer any remaining questions and to sum up key points

Plan an extra activity or discussion question in case you have time left

Be flexible - be ready to adjust your lesson plan to students' needs and focus on what seems to be more productive rather than sticking to your original plan

Presenting the Lesson Plan

Letting your students know what they will be learning and doing in class will help keep them more engaged and on track. You can share your lesson plan by writing a brief agenda on the board or telling students explicitly what they will be learning and doing in class. You can outline on the board or on a handout the learning objectives for the class. Providing a meaningful organization of the class time can help students not only remember better, but also follow your presentation and understand the rationale behind in-class activities. Having a clearly visible agenda (e.g., on the board) will also help you and students stay on track.

Reflecting on Your Lesson Plan

A lesson plan may not work as well as you had expected due to a number of extraneous circumstances. You should not get discouraged - it happens to even the most experienced teachers! Take a few minutes after each class to reflect on what worked well and why, and what you could have done differently. Identifying successful and less successful organization of class time and activities would make it easier to adjust to the contingencies of the classroom. For additional feedback on planning and managing class time, you can use the following resources: student feedback, peer observation, viewing a videotape of your teaching, and consultation with a staff member at CRLT (see also, Improving Your Teaching: Obtaining Feedback, http://www.crlt.umich.edu/gsis/P9_1.php and Early Feedback Form, http://www.crlt.umich.edu/gsis/earlyfeedback.pdf).

Conclusion

To be effective, the lesson plan does not have to be an exhaustive document that describes each and every possible classroom scenario. Nor does it have to anticipate each and every student's response or question. Instead, it should provide you with a general outline of your teaching goals, learning objectives, and means to accomplish them. It is a reminder of what you want to do and how you want to do it. A productive lesson is not one in which everything goes exactly as planned, but one in which both students and instructors learn from each other.

Additional Resources

Online:

Video clips of GSIs at the University of Michigan actively engaging students in a practice teaching session: https://crlte.engin.umich.edu/engineering-gsi-videos/

Plan the First Day's Session: How to create to a lesson plan for the first day of class: http://gsi.berkeley.edu/gsi-guide-contents/pre-semester-intro/first-day-plan/

References

Fink, D. L. (2005). Integrated course design. Manhattan, KS: The IDEA Center.
Retrieved from https://www.ideaedu.org/idea_papers/integrated-course-design/

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Strategies for Effective Lesson Planning

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A lesson plan is the instructor's road map of what students need to learn and how it will be done effectively during the class time. Before you plan your lesson, you will first need to identify the learning objectives for the class meeting.

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20 Simple Assessment Strategies You Can Use Every Day
contributed by Saga Briggs

The ultimate goal of teaching is understanding.

But sometimes it's easier to talk than to teach, as we all know, especially when we need to cover a lot of material in a short amount of time. We hope students will understand, if not now then before test time, and we keep our fingers crossed that their results will indicate we've done our job.

The problem is, we often rely on these tests to measure understanding and then we move on. There isn't always time to address weaknesses and misunderstandings after the tests have been graded, and the time to help students learn through strategies to ask great questions is gone.

Below are 22 simple assessment strategies and tips to help you become more frequent in your teaching, planning, and curriculum design.

Book TeachThought Professional Development for training on assessment practices that grow teachers
22 Simple Assessment Strategies & Tips You Can Use Every Day 1. An open-ended question that gets them writing/talking
Avoid yes/no questions and phrases like "Does this make sense?" In response to these questions, students usually answer 'yes.' So, of course, it's surprising when several students later admit that they're lost.

To help students grasp ideas in class, ask open-ended questions that require students that get students writing/talking. They will undoubtedly reveal more than you would've thought to ask directly.
2. Ask students to reflect
During the last five minutes of class ask students to reflect on the lesson and write down what they've learned. Then, ask them to consider how they would apply this concept or skill in a practical setting.
3. Use quizzes
Give a short quiz at the end of class to check for comprehension.
4. Ask students to summarize
Have students summarize or paraphrase important concepts and lessons. This can be done orally, visually, or otherwise.
5. Hand signals
Hand signals can be used to rate or indicate students' understanding of content. Students can show anywhere from five fingers to signal maximum understanding to one finger to signal minimal understanding. This strategy requires engagement by all students and allows the teacher to check for understanding within a large group.
6. Response cards
Index cards, signs, whiteboards, magnetic boards, or other items are simultaneously held up by all students in class to indicate their response to a question or problem presented by the teacher. Using response devices, the teacher can easily note the responses of individual students while teaching the whole group.
7. Four corners
A quick and easy snapshot of student understanding, Four Corners provides an opportunity for student movement while permitting the teacher to monitor and assess understanding.

The teacher poses a question or makes a statement. Students then move to the appropriate corner of the classroom to indicate their response to the prompt. For example, the corner choices might include "I strongly agree," "I strongly disagree," "I agree somewhat," and "I'm not sure."
8. Think-pair-share
Students take a few minutes to think about the question or prompt. Next, they pair with a designated partner to compare thoughts before sharing with the whole class.
9. Choral reading
Students mark text to identify a particular concept and chime in, reading the marked text aloud in unison with the teacher. This strategy helps students develop fluency; differentiate between the reading of statements and questions; and practice phrasing, pacing, and reading dialogue.
10. One question quiz
Ask a single focused question with a specific goal that can be answered within a minute or two. You can quickly scan the written responses to assess student understanding.
11. Socratic seminar
Students ask questions of one another about an essential question, topic, or selected text. The questions initiate a conversation that continues with a series of responses and additional questions. Students learn to formulate questions that address issues to facilitate their own discussion and arrive at a new understanding.
12. 3-2-1
Students consider what they have learned by responding to the following prompt at the end of the lesson: 3) things they learned from your lesson; 2) things they want to know more about; and 1) questions they have. The prompt stimulates student reflection on the lesson and helps to process the learning.
13. Ticket out the door
Students write in response to a specific prompt for a short period of time. Teachers collect their responses as a "ticket out the door" to check for students' understanding of a concept taught. This exercise quickly generates multiple ideas that could be turned into longer pieces of writing at a later time.
14. Journal reflections
Students write their reflections on a lesson, such as what they learned, what caused them difficulty, strategies they found helpful, or other lesson-related topics. Students can reflect on and process lessons. By reading student work-especially - types of learning journals that help students think- teachers can identify class and individual misconceptions and successes. (See also
15. Formative pencil-paper assessment
Students respond individually to short, pencil-paper formative assessments of skills and knowledge taught in the lesson. Teachers may elect to have students self-correct. The teacher collects assessment results to monitor individual student progress and to inform future instruction.

Both student and teacher can quickly assess whether the student acquired the intended knowledge and skills. This is a formative assessment, so a grade is not the intended purpose.
16. Misconception check
Present students with common or predictable misconceptions about a concept you're covering. Ask them whether they agree or disagree and to explain why.
17. Analogy prompt
Teaching with analogies can be powerful. Periodically, present students with an analogy prompt: "the concept being covered is like ____ because ____."
18. Practice frequency
Check for understanding at least three times a lesson, minimum.
19. Use variety
Teachers should use enough different individual and whole group techniques to check understanding that they accurately know what all students know. More than likely, this means during a single class the same technique should not be repeated.
20. Make it useful
The true test is whether or not you can adjust your course or continue as planned based on the information received in each check. Do you need to stop and start over? Pull a few students aside for three minutes to re-teach? Or move on?
21. Peer instruction
Perhaps the most accurate way to check for understanding is to have one student try to teach another student what she's learned . If she can do that successfully, it's clear she understood your lesson.
22. "Separate what you do and don't understand"
Whether making a t-chart, drawing a concept map, or using some other means, have the students not simply list what they think they know, but what they don't know as well. This won't be as simple as it sounds-we're usually not aware of what we don't know.

They'll also often know more or less than they can identify themselves, which makes this strategy a bit crude. But that's okay-the goal isn't for them to be precise and complete in their self-evaluation the goal is for you to gain insight as to what they do and don't know.

And seeing what they can even begin to articulate on their own is an excellent starting point here.
This post was written by Saga Briggins and was first publish by on opencolleges.edu.au; 20 Simple Assessment Strategies You Can Use Every Day

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20 Simple Assessment Strategies You Can Use Every Day

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20 Simple Assessment Strategies You Can Use Every Day contributed by Saga Briggs The ultimate goal of teaching is understanding. But sometimes it's easier to talk than to teach, as we all know, especially when we need to cover a lot of material in a short amount of time.

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The Practice of English Language Teaching  by Jeremy Harmer (PDF)       -  Maria João Ricardo

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The Practice of English Language Teaching  by Jeremy Harmer (PDF)       -  Maria João Ricardo

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Strategies for Effective Lesson Planning | CRLT

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Assessment Definition - The Glossary of Education Reform

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Writing Activities for Kids | Education.com

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Examples of reading activities

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Reading activities guide your child through learning about letters, sight words, and more the fun way. Use these reading activities with your young reader.

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Writing activities

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Reading Activities | Education.com

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House and home vocabulary - Patrícia Granja

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House and home vocabulary - Patrícia Granja

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My Home Vocabulary - Home and House Vocabulary Chant for Kids by ELF Learning

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Unit 6 - Songs - Days of the week - Patrícia Granja

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Unit 6 - Songs - Days of the week - Patrícia Granja

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TheLearningStation - Kids Songs and Nursery Rhymes

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The 7 Days of the Week Song ♫ 7 Days of the Week Calendar Song ♫ Kids Songs by The Learning Station

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Sign Language - Alphabet song - Patrícia Granja

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Sign Language - Alphabet song - Patrícia Granja

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The Alphabet Chant | Learn And Review Letters | Super Simple Songs

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Seasons Song for Kids (Autumn Version) | Pancake Manor

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TheLearningStation - Kids Songs and Nursery Rhymes

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Months of the Year Song - 12 Months of the Year - Kids Songs by The Learning Station

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Christmas traditions for kids - YouTube [360p]

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Unit 4 - Language Chunks - Feelings - Patrícia Granja

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Unit 4 - Language Chunks - Feelings - Patrícia Granja

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More sign language.

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My students are used to have different lessons. In order to raise awareness for the difference I teach them some topics in sign language. They love it

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I've created these for the seasons of the year.

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In order to help with pronunciation this year I introduced some phonetic. Hope you have fun!

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Why Is Project-Based Learning Important? | Edutopia

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Bazo - Teaching the Four Skills in the Primary EFL Classroom (TESL/TEFL)

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Ana DIY Crafts - How to make a Foam Puppet Ana | DIY Crafts.

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Ana DIY Crafts - How to make a Foam Puppet Ana | DIY Crafts In this video tutorial I show you step by step how to make a foam puppet with patterns.

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Inês Ribeiro - Unit 7 Classroom Management 

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Inês Ribeiro - Unit 7 Classroom Management 

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https://www.google.pt/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwiG8Oi8vNfJAhWKbBoKHTzeATYQFggvMAE&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.myenglishpages.com%2Fblog%2Fl1-efl-classes%2F&usg=AFQjCNEriSnWUQaXQ48zB3lu0_AH_JBKaw&sig2=C0U4wzvqOM_C6HhbFjsv_Q

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Unit 7 Classroom Mangaement Paula Nogueira

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Unit 7 Classroom Mangaement Paula Nogueira

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weather chart

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Unit 7 classroom management - Paula Nogueira

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Unit 7 classroom management - Paula Nogueira

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paula Nogueira

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Unit 7 - Classroom Management - Paula Nogueira

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Unit 7 - Classroom Management - Paula Nogueira

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Unit 7 - Classroom Management - Paula Nogueira

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Unit 7 - Classroom Management - Paula Nogueira

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Unit 8 - Art & Crafts - Maria João Ricardo

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Unit 8 - Art & Crafts - Maria João Ricardo

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Christmas art & crafts.

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Unit 8 - Art & Crafts - Maria João Ricardo

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Unit 8 - Art & Crafts - Maria João Ricardo

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Christmas activity (art & crafts).

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Unit 7 - Classroom Management - Maria João Ricardo

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Unit 7 - Classroom Management - Maria João Ricardo

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More tips on classroom management

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Another interesting page.

Why should songs be used MORE in the Young Learners classroom? | Oxford University Press

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Ana Cristina Ferreira - The days of the week 

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Ana Cristina Ferreira - The days of the week 

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tbbKjDjMDok

I hope yoy can enjoy this lovely moment with your students. You can put actions and it will be great!

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Not exactlu a resource but some Food for Thought about Creativity, which I believe is of the utmost importance when teaching, especially Young Children.

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Do schools kill creativity? | Sir Ken Robinson | TED

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Unit 4. Language chunks: What is this?Inês Ribeiro

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Unit 4. Language chunks: What is this?Inês Ribeiro

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Unit 5: Learning Styles and Strategies to effective language learners - Inês Ribeiro

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Unit 5: Learning Styles and Strategies to effective language learners - Inês Ribeiro

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learning styles and strategies of effective language learners

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Unit 5 - Multiple Intelligences (MI) - Maria João Ricardo

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Unit 5 - Multiple Intelligences (MI) - Maria João Ricardo

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An interesting page.

Birmingham Grid for Learning - Multiple Intelligences (Secondary)

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Unit 4- Language Chunks - Feelings Flashcards - Ana Gamito

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Unit 4- Language Chunks - Feelings Flashcards - Ana Gamito

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I love these flashcards. They are great to work with the language chunk "How are you?"

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I love using Matt's songs and this one is amazing for Christmas and you can add a special coreography as well!

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Twinkle Twinkle Little Star | Nursery Rhymes for Kids | Super Simple Songs

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This website tells us Piaget's stages of cognitive development.

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This page presents an overview of the development of intellectual abilities. Children are not little adults. Until they reach the age of 15 or so they are not capable of reasoning as an adult. The following information is based on the work of Jean Piaget. He was not a psychologist. He was a developmental biologist who devoted his life to closely observing and recording the intellectual abilities of infants, children and adolescents.

The stages of intellectual development formulated by Piaget appear to be related to major developments in brain growth. The human brain is not fully developed until late adolescence or in the case of males sometimes early adulthood. We often expect children to think like adults when they are not yet capable of doing so. It is important that parents know what to expect from their child as they develop and to be sure that the expectations they may have for their child at a given age are realistic.
[CLICK HERE to learn more about intellectual and cognitive development along with suggestions on how to encourage and guide your child's or teen's development]
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Sensory Motor Period (0 - 24 months)

Stage-Age Characteristic Behavior

Primary Circular Reactions(2-4 months)
Reflexive behaviors occur in stereotyped repetition such as opening and closing fingers repetitively.

The Preoperational Period (2-7 years)

Stage-Age
Characteristic Behavior

Period of Concrete Operations (7-12 years)

Characteristic Behavior:

Evidence for organized, logical thought. There is the ability to perform multiple classification tasks, order objects in a logical sequence, and comprehend the principle of conservation. thinking becomes less transductive and less egocentric. The child is capable of concrete problem-solving.

Some reversibility now possible (quantities moved can be restored such as in arithmetic:
3+4 = 7 and 7-4 = 3, etc.)

Class logic-finding bases to sort unlike objects into logical groups where previously it was on superficial perceived attribute such as color. Categorical labels such as "number" or animal" now available.

Period of Formal Operations (12 years and onwards)
Characteristic Behavior:
Thought becomes more abstract, incorporating the principles of formal logic. The ability to generate abstract propositions, multiple hypotheses and their possible outcomes is evident. Thinking becomes less tied to concrete reality.

Formal logical systems can be acquired. Can handle proportions, algebraic manipulation, other purely abstract processes. If a + b = x then a = x - b. If ma/ca = IQ = 1.00 then Ma = CA.

Prepositional logic, as-if and if-then steps. Can use aids such as axioms to transcend human

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They Learn Fast! Understand Your Kid's Intellectual Development

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This page presents an overview of the development of intellectual abilities. Children are not little adults. Until they reach the age of 15 or so they are not capable of reasoning as an adult. The following information is based on the work of Jean Piaget. He was not a psychologist.

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The child as a Learner - this is from the extra resources of unit 2

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When to start language learning

What stops children from learning

How children learn languages

Getting parents involved

Get to know how your children learn

When to start language learning

Most experts believe that when a child is introduced to a second language at an early age their chances of becoming more proficient in the target language will be higher. However, it is not necessarily true to say ' the earlier the better'. It is suggested that the most efficient time to learn another language is between 6 and 13.

However, children who learn in pre-to-early teens often catch up very quickly with children who learn from an earlier age. Also this does not mean that languages cannot be learnt later in life. The experience and environment at school and how language is taught and practised play a vital role in language acquisition, regardless of how young or old the child is.

Whatever the age, when children learn a second language they develop skills that will help to create opportunities in their future. They acquire the lifelong ability to communicate with others under diverse circumstances. Indeed, regardless of the level of proficiency, learning a second language and learning about different cultures generally broadens a child's outlook on life. It also opens up alternative educational and career opportunities.

What stops children from learning

Feeling uncomfortable, distracted or under pressure

Feeling confused by abstract concepts of grammar rules and their application which they cannot easily understand

Activities which require them to focus attention for a long time

Boredom

Being over-corrected

Reading the list above, you may be surprised at the number of items that remind you of traditional educational practices. In fact, research does suggest that traditional classroom teaching may have the effect of preventing
rather than helping children to learn better. You cannot force a child to learn. You can only provide a conducive environment, useful resources, and carefully structured input and practice opportunities.
How children learn languages
Children learn by:

Having more opportunities to be exposed to the second language

Making associations between words, languages, or sentence patterns and putting things into clear, relatable contexts

Using all their senses and getting fully involved; by observing and copying, doing things, watching and listening

Exploring, experimenting, making mistakes and checking their understanding

Repetition and feeling a sense of confidence when they have established routines

Being motivated, particularly when their peers are also speaking/learning other languages

Getting parents involved

Children also like their parents to be involved and understand what and how they are learning. Here are some tips and advice you can give to parents to help them support their child as a learner.
How you can help your child to learn another language

Get involved with their learning

Be interested in what happens in your child's English lessons

Even if you do not know any English yourself, there are many things you can do to support your child's learning

Tips
1. Talk to the teacher to find out how English is taught at school:

Become familiar with the materials used at school.

Ask about your child's progress regularly and make sure you attend your child's parents' day / evening.

Check what they have to do for homework each day and set up a routine and regular time for doing homework.

2. Learn more about the language yourself:

Engage your child in conversations about what they learnt in school and learn along with them.

Study English with your child.

Have them teach you some new language.

3. Motivate them! Make learning fun and stress free.

Here are some language learning games you can play with your child:

Bingo - Use numbers, letters of the alphabet, or word families: furniture, fruits, sports, jobs, colours, actions.

Memory - Put ten everyday objects on a tray. Say what they are in English, cover them. Can your child remember what's there and tell you in English? You can also use photos from magazines or newspapers of different word families.

Alphabet Game - Say a letter of the alphabet. Can your child find an animal, something to eat, etc. beginning with that letter? Or ask your child to write five words beginning with one letter.

I-Spy - Say that you are thinking of something beginning with a letter. Your child has to guess what it is.
Example: 'I spy with my little eye, something beginning with W.' 'Is it water?' 'No.' 'Is it the window?' 'Yes!'

Twenty Questions - Think of an object or animal. Your child has to ask questions to find out what it is.
Example: 'Is it big?' 'No.' 'Is it very small?' 'Yes.' 'Is it green?' 'No.' 'Is it grey?' 'Yes.' 'Is it a mouse?' 'Yes!'

Definition Game - Give your child a definition, they have to guess what you're defining.
Example: 'It is very big and it has a long nose.' 'Is it an elephant?' 'Yes!'

Treasure Hunt - Your child has to find something by following the clues you've written in English.

Get to know how your children learn

Each child has their own way of learning. It is a complex mixture of a number of different personality factors, some of which are explained below. Research shows that all types of learners can be successful second-language learners. Try to evaluate the methods your children are using, and introduce them to different ones if they're not working.

Using what you know about your child try to see which styles below would suit them best.
Dominant Senses
Some prefer using pictures and reading (visual learners), some like listening to explanations and reading aloud (auditory learners), others need some kind of physical activity to help them learn (kinesthetic learners).
Interaction Preferences
Some children are outgoing and sociable and learn a second language quickly because they want to be able to communicate quickly (interpersonal learners). They do not worry about mistakes, and are happy being creative with the limited resources they have acquired.

Other children are more reflective and quiet (intrapersonal learners). They learn by listening and by observing what is happening and being said around them. They may be cautious about making mistakes but can be much more accurate.
Analytical processes
Some children need to have everything clearly explained to them piece by piece so that they can understand how things work (deductive learners). These children like rules and patterns that are easy to apply to the world they live in. They need explicit explanations and often ask 'Why?' a lot.

Others prefer to work out the rules of what they are learning for themselves based on their experience (inductive learners). These children like asking questions and having their answers confirmed or corrected. They are more likely to tell you what they understand to be the truth and then ask you to agree with them.

The second part of this article will deal with how to handle mistakes and how to promote a positive classroom environment.

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When to start language learning What stops children from learning How children learn languages Getting parents involved Get to know how your children learn When to start language learning Most experts believe that when a child is introduced to a second language at an early age their chances of becoming more proficient in the target language will be higher.

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The child as a learner 2 - from extra resources of unit 2

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Involving the whole child
Involving the whole child
Helping children with vocabulary

Top ten requests for parents

These interactions between parent and child always have a clear reason for the communication.
Tips to parents
This is a very different learning situation from asking, 'What is the past tense of 'give'?' The only reason for this question is to test the child's memory. It is not fun and it does not involve the child's senses.

Create an 'English Corner' by providing materials in English at home such as comics and books, cable TV and Internet (with parental guidance!)

Play language-based games in English such as Scrabble and bingo, I-spy, 20 questions, Memory, Simon says etc.

Use sticky labels or 'post-it' notes to label objects at home in English. For example, in the kitchen you can label table, chairs, refrigerator, etc.

Collect music in English, get the lyrics from the Internet and sing along!

Do craft activities in English, for example make puppets and invent a little show in English.

Make posters (about their favourite star, sport, etc.) or make picture dictionaries with drawings and cut-outs.

Take an 'English adventure outing'. Take your children to a park. Using English only they have to say what they see such as, 'The children are riding their bikes.', 'The man is selling fruit.', 'There are some boats on the lake.' and so on. Other locations where you could do this are the supermarket, an office or a shopping centre.

Make reading a habit:

Read to your children in English. A short story or a few pages of a book daily creates a life-long habit.

You do not have to buy the books, you can join a library or download text from the Internet.

If you are concerned with your own pronunciation, there are plenty of materials on the Internet that have the text read to the viewer. Also, there are books that come with cassettes or CDs, so that children can read and listen at the same time. You could do this together.

Helping children with vocabulary
Children have highly inquisitive minds and enjoy learning through play and using their imagination by observing and copying, doing things, watching and listening.

Grouping words in contexts (foods, occupations, animals) or by meaning (boiling, hot, warm, cool, cold) or opposites (open, closed).

Ask the child to say the word out loud, or read a story aloud that contains the new word.

Have them write words down.

Ask them to draw a picture of the word.

Have them listen to new words in context on a tape.

Ask them to tell you about other words it sounds like.

Have them keep a vocabulary notebook, or word scrap-book. Review it regularly by:
Asking your child to tell you about the words in the book

Telling a story using the words

Reading the words without looking at their vocabulary book

Make a story yourself and have the child read or listen to it.

Dealing with mistakes
Children also learn a lot of their first language by physically responding to their parents' instructions in real and meaningful contexts. The parent says, 'Look at that dog!' or 'Give me the ball!' and the child does so.

A five-year-old speaking his mother tongue may still make grammar mistakes.

They will frequently 'invent' their own rules and over-generalisations like 'my car breaks', or 'my friend camed to the party yesterday'. So, learning another language will also involve a lot of mistakes.

This is a natural part of learning. In fact, for effective communication it is a good idea to concentrate on learning words, not grammatical accuracy. If a foreigner comes up to you and asks, 'Train station where please?' you can understand and help, even though the grammar is awful. Now, imagine if he says, 'Can you please tell me where to find... uh... er... oh?'

There's plenty of time later for learning the grammar; but knowing the words will help your child communicate now, and help them in learning the grammar later.

Parents can help by providing a rich learning environment and placing learning in context. They can help by making English fun to practise at home by using songs, games, drama and drawing. Here are some things you can suggest for them.

Don't correct, 'model' the correct form of the language. So if your child says 'The boy wented home,' you can say, 'Yes. The boy went home. What did he do then?'

Encourage children to correct themselves, this will build confidence and deepen the learning process. Say 'Almost right, try again...' or show the child where the mistake is but do not give them the answer. Some correction is okay but be careful not to over-correct. A page full of crossing out and corrections can be very demotivating, as is always being told, 'Wrong! Do it again!'

Particularly in speech it is much better to let the child develop their ideas and fluency than to keep interrupting with corrections. The ideas are more important than the grammar.

Keep their age and level of English in mind. Give lots of praise and encouragement for every effort - they can't know everything.

Top ten requests for parents
Encouraging children to memorise random vocabulary lists is not very helpful.The more associations you can make between different parts of the language the better. Methods that are likely to help the child are:

1. Be involved.
Parent involvement helps students learn and helps teachers work with your child to help them succeed.

2. Be positive.
Encourage children to do their best, but don't pressure them by setting goals too high or by scheduling too many activities.

3. Be a good role model.
Show your children by your own actions that you believe English is both enjoyable and useful. Read more and use television, videos and game systems creatively for education.

4. Accept your responsibility as parents.
Don't expect the school and teachers to take over your obligations as parents. Teach children self-discipline and respect for others at home - don't rely on teachers and schools to teach these basic behaviours and attitudes.

5. Encourage students to do their best in school.
Show your children that you believe education is important. Ask about homework, check it has been done. Don't let them miss classes unnecessarily.

6. Find a balance between schoolwork and outside activities.
Emphasise your children's progress in developing the knowledge and skills they need to be successful both in school and in life.

7. Be aware of things that affect classroom performance.
Try to limit the negative effects of late nights and long hours of extra activities.

8. Provide resources at home for learning.
Make sure you have English language books, comics and magazines available in your home.

9. Understand and support school rules and goals.
Take care not to undermine school rules, discipline, or goals.

10. Speak to the teacher!
As soon as you think there's a problem, contact the school. Don't wait for the end of term or parents' day.

Conclusion
For children, making mistakes is part of the natural process of learning.

Repeating, encouraging, praising and building confidence are what is needed to help a child to overcome mistakes. Avoid overtly correcting your child or you might discourage them. Some techniques that you can use are:

Here is a list of advice you can give to parents

We hope that this article has given you some useful insights into how to make learning more effective and enjoyable for young children and some tools to help you encourage and engage parents in the learning processes of their children.

Further Reading
Children Learning English, Moon. J.
Young Learners, Philips, S.
Very Young Learners, Reilly, V and Ward, S.

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Involving the whole child Involving the whole child Helping children with vocabulary Top ten requests for parents These interactions between parent and child always have a clear reason for the communication. Tips to parents This is a very different learning situation from asking, 'What is the past tense of 'give'?'

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This website tells us about cognitive skills ordered by school grade.

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Children develop at different rates and even though no two children are exactly alike, there are certain developmental milestones we can expect at a certain age. For kids who are ready to enter kindergarten, a new world is about to open up; they will be learning and experiencing new things. This is why it's good for them to show a few key cognitive skills before starting school.

Cognitive Skills and Development

Your child is reaching cognitive milestones at every stage of his or her life. But what exactly is cognitive development and why is it so important? Cognitive development refers to an individual's abilities to gain meaning and knowledge from experiences and information.

But cognition is more than learning new information. It's how we think about and process new information and disseminate it. It also involves how we apply new information to previously acquired knowledge.

As children grow, their thinking skills vastly improve. They are able to think and express themselves on higher levels. By the time they're kindergarten age, your child is thinking about things and expressing themselves in a variety of new ways.

Now that your child's cognitive skills are a little more sophisticated, they're ready to start school. The amount of growth you will see in your child during their first year of school is extraordinary.

Before you enroll, there are a few cognitive skills that are particularly important for kindergarten.

Cognitive Skill #1: Communication

Kindergarten-aged children should be able to use five to six-word sentences. They should also speak clearly enough so that most people are able to understand what is being said.

Why it's important: Good communication skills are a key part of kindergarten. Your child must be able to make their needs known, communicate with teachers and fellow students, and be able to answer questions.

Cognitive Skill #2: Counting

Most children at this age should be able to count to 10.

Why it's important: Counting skills are essential. Kindergarten students will learn how to write numbers, do basic addition and understand the concepts of "more" and "less" as they pertain to groups of items.

Cognitive Skill #3: Fact vs. Fiction

Kids at this age should begin to understand the difference between the truth and a story (fact or fiction).

Why it's important: Students will begin to hear more stories, tell and write their own stories, and even read some stories. That's why it's important for them to be able to distinguish between something that could have happened and something that actually happened.

Cognitive Skill #4: Sequence of Events

At this point in development, most children can talk about an event in a sequence order.

Why it's important: Being able to sequence events is a precursor to grasping that a story has a beginning, middle, and end. As students begin to read and write, this kind of knowledge is crucial.

Cognitive Skill #5: Simple Directions

Kindergarteners can follow two or three step directions without confusion.

Why it's important: Kindergarten is replete with multi-step directions, whether it be instructions on how to complete an assignment or how to get ready for recess. Your child needs to be able to complete basic instructions without having to ask for the directions to be repeated step by step.

When Your Child Isn't Reaching Milestones

Children reach developmental milestones at their own pace. Failing to hit benchmarks at a certain age doesn't necessarily indicate a learning disability, nor is it a reflection of "bad" parenting.

Still, if you're concerned about your child's cognitive development, don't ignore your instincts. Meet with your child's teacher or doctor to address your concerns.

The trajectory of a child's cognitive development is primarily influenced by genetics, but research has found that cognitive skills can actually be taught. You can help your child improve his or her cognitive skills by talking with them and asking questions about a book they read, a trip they took, what they did in school that day, etc. This will motivate your child to process and share information.

A Word From Verywell

Kindergarten is a big step for kids and parents, so it's understandable if you have concerns about whether your child is ready. Take some time to review these key cognitive skills and gauge where your child falls in. If there is a concern about a particular skill, try to work on it with them and seek advice if needed.
Bjorklund DF, Causey KB. Children's Thinking: Cognitive Development and Individual Differences. 6th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 2018.

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5 Cognitive Skills Your Child Should Know Before Kindergarten

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Children develop at different rates and even though no two children are exactly alike, there are certain developmental milestones we can expect at a certain age. For kids who are ready to enter kindergarten, a new world is about to open up; they will be learning and experiencing new things.

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Unit 2 - Developing Minds - Ana Sofia Cunha

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Unit 2 - Developing Minds - Ana Sofia Cunha

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This website tells us how children think and learn.

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Learning and Cognitive Development: how children think and learn: research articles | Parenting Counts

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A new study conducted by researchers at Columbia University's Mailman School of Public Health examines the impact of intensive early education programs on the health and health behaviors of low-income children. The study used data from the well-known Carolina Abededarian Project (ABC), a randomized control study that enrolled 111 infants in the 1970s and continued to follow them through age 21.

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Unit 2 -  Developing Minds - Vasco Costa

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Unit 2 -  Developing Minds - Vasco Costa

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"Assessing Cognitive Abilities in Young Children" - This is a short study describing cognitive factors and processes as well as the assessment of cognitive abilities in young children.

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Unit 2 -  Developing Minds -  Joana Silva

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Unit 2 -  Developing Minds -  Joana Silva

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The Eight Multiple Intelligences in Children

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Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences

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A cognitive skills activity you can do with your kids.

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Unit 2 - Developing Minds - Ângela Carvalho

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Unit 2 - Developing Minds - Ângela Carvalho

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An article on how to motivate learning in young children.

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Leadership Tools About NASP NASP Store Career Center Create an Account Join NASP Login

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How children develop theory of mind - Robert Seyfarth: Theory of Mind

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visualistan: inside the mind of a child #infographic

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While we all seek to be young at heart, children's brains are actually far different from that of an adult's. You'll see the progression in this infographic.

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Carol Read - The secret of working with children | TeachingEnglish | British Council | BBC - from extra resources unit 2

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In February 2012, Carol Read gave a workshop at the British Council in Warsaw. Her talk covered a range of primary issues and she gave a number of invaluable tips about teaching primary students. Watch her talk here.

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Carol Read - The secret of working with children

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In February 2012, Carol Read gave a workshop at the British Council in Warsaw. Her talk covered a range of primary issues and she gave a number of invaluable tips about teaching primary students. Watch her talk here.

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Unit 2 - Developing Minds - Andreia Mendes

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Unit 2 - Developing Minds - Andreia Mendes

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I think this web page is very interesting: http://c3ta.org/knowledgebases/early_language/1_1_2_0/understand-the-cognitive-development-of-the-early-learner.html

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Task 2: Understand the Cognitive Development of the Early Learner

Guideline: Cognitive development in early childhood involves abilities associated with memory, reasoning, problem-solving, and thinking. As young children are developing physically, they are developing their mental abilities as well. Being aware of how young learners develop intellectually helps educators of young learners understand young students. This task provides resources explaining how young learners develop their cognitive abilities.
Bilingualism: Consequences for Language, Cognition, Development, and the Brain
This article from the ASHA Leader newspaper, published by the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA), explores the association between bilingualism and cognitive development. Though not exclusively focused on early childhood development, educators of early learners may find the general content helpful.
Connecting Neurons, Concepts, and People: Brain Development and Its Implications
This National Institute for Early Education Research fact sheet explores the science of early brain development.
From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development
This National Academies of Science book is a comprehensive resource focusing on the scientific study of child development and how environmental factors impact early learning. It provides a synthesis of the research of child development and early learning. The book can be downloaded at this National Academies Press website. Access to an executive summary and related podcast is available at the website.
Models of Cognitive Development in Young Children
This resource provides information about models of cognitive development in young children advocated by Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, and Jerome Bruner.
National Scientific Council on the Developing Child
The National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, a multi-disciplinary, multi-university collaboration, is designed to bring the science of early childhood and early brain development to bear on public decision-making. As noted at its website, â€œweb-based interactive features describe and explain key concepts in the science of early childhood development and early childhood program evaluation research using an easy-to-follow slideshow format.â€

Element 1: The Developing Early Learner

Purpose: Understanding the early learner's overall development lays the foundation for effective early language and literacy development. As early learners develop their language and literacy skills, cognitive abilities, emotional and social maturity, and physical capabilities, it is important to be aware these domains are all interconnected. This interconnectedness is a critical piece in the support of literacy and language development. Possessing such awareness may be helpful to teachers of early learners to enhance their teaching methods. Element 1 provides resources about the development of early learners and the role of family, caregivers, and first teachers with language and literacy development from birth through age eight.

Activity 1: Understand the Continuum of Child Development of the Early Learner

Activity 2: Understand the Role of Literacy in the Family

Element 2: Developing an Early Language and Literacy Learning Profile

Purpose: Understanding the status of early language and literacy in the early childhood care and educational environment at the community level is necessary to improve language and literacy development among early learners. Gathering information about the community helps members, including families, schools, and early childhood educators and caregivers, to understand the local landscape of early language and literacy.

Gathering information about the community is an important part of understanding the early childhood educational environment.

Activity 1: Build a Community Literacy Profile

Activity 2: Build an Early Child Care and School Literacy Profile

Element 3: The Foundation for Learning to Read and Write

Purpose: The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) defines early literacy as "what children know about reading and writing before they actually learn to read and write." This Element explores the foundation for learning to read and write, focusing on language development and emergent literacy skills.

Activity 1: Understand Language Development

Activity 2: Understand Emergent Literacy Milestones, Terminology, and Stages

Activity 3: Intentional Instruction to Enhance Language and Emergent Literacy Development

Element 4: Becoming a Reader and Writer

Purpose: This Element explores learning to read and write, focusing on the transitions from pre-school to Kindergarten and Kindergarten to first grade and the importance of a child-centered curriculum. Additionally, the Element delineates the research-based components of learning to read and write.

Activity 1: Transitions

Activity 2: The Learning Environment

Activity 3: A Child-Centered Curriculum

Activity 4: Reading Instruction

Activity 5: Writing Instruction

Activity 6: Creative Expression

Activity 7: Technology, Reading, and Writing

Activity 8: Teaching All Children to Read and Write

Element 5: Standards for Early Childhood Teaching and Learning

Purpose: Standards for early learning include those for educators of early learners, state-level early learning guidelines or standards, and applicable national standards. Educators of early learners need to be aware of the standards impacting licensure and instruction. This Element provides information about applicable standards impacting educators of early learners and their students.

Activity 1: Be Aware of Standards for Early Childhood Educators

Activity 2: Be Aware of Early Childhood Learning Standards

Activity 3: Align Curriculum and Instruction to Standards

Element 6: Building Support for Early Learning Programs

Purpose: Building support for language and literacy development of early learners involves the participation of parents and caregivers, the business community, local community groups, and educational and state governmental leaders. To promote and enhance early learner language and development, educators need to be aware of the role each group plays and how to communicate with them. This Element provides resources to help educators of early learners gain such awareness.

Activity 1: Develop Parent, Caregivers, and Community Support

Activity 2: Interact with Advocates and Policy Makers

Element 7: Using Data to Improve Early Learning Outcomes

Purpose: Formative and summative assessments and observations provide the basis for planning instruction, making adjustments, and refining future assessments. Assessment results show educators of early learners where changes need to be made in instructional approaches for groups of students or individual students. The assessment outcomes also show parents of early learners how their child is progressing. This Element explores how to use data to improve learning outcomes for early learners.

Activity 1: Use Multidimensional Learning Data

Activity 2: Use Data to Improve Instruction and Increase Learning

Activity 3: Inform and Collect Feedback from Constituencies

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Guideline: Cognitive development in early childhood involves abilities associated with memory, reasoning, problem-solving, and thinking. As young children are developing physically, they are developing their mental abilities as well. Being aware of how young learners develop intellectually helps educators of young learners understand young students.

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UNIT 2 - Developing minds  - Sandra Vasconcelos - "What's missing?" 

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UNIT 2 - Developing minds  - Sandra Vasconcelos - "What's missing?" 

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A very simple game that we can you in our language class to help younger children develop cognitive skills.

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Unit 2 - Developing minds - Andreia Gonçalves

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Unit 2 - Developing minds - Andreia Gonçalves

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Unit 2 - Developing minds - Andreia Sousa

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Unit 2 - Developing minds - Andreia Sousa

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Social skills activities for children and teenagers

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Social skills activities for children and teens:

Evidence-based ideas to help kids communicate, connect, empathize, and read minds

© 2015-2017 Gwen Dewar, Ph.D., all rights reserved

Social skills activities put to the test

We want our children to succeed in the social world--to learn how to cooperate, make friends, and negotiate conflicts. We want them to develop strong perspective-taking skills, and treat other people with fairness and compassion.

How can we help them do it? In a variety of ways. Kids learn from us when we act as good role models. They also benefit when we create environments that reward self-control. And studies hint at the power of play. Fun activities may be a particularly promising way to foster friendly behavior and social savvy.

For instance, middle school children (11-14 years old) experienced significant changes after playing Awkward Moment™, a researcher-designed party game that requires players to choose solutions to thorny social problems. Compared to students in a control group, kids randomly assigned to play this game showed improvements in their ability to imagine another person's perspective. They also showed more interest in confronting detrimental social stereotypes (Kaufman and Flanagan 2015).

Other studies indicate that friendly, "prosocial" video games -- like Mario Sunshine™ or Animal Crossing™ -- motivate players to be more kind, sympathetic, and helpful. And as I show below, researchers have studied a variety of activities for improving social competence.

So here they are: Research-inspired social skills activities, listed by age group. For related ideas, see these tips for fostering friendships, teaching empathy, and encouraging kindness.

Social skills activities for toddlers

Babies and toddlers are capable of spontaneous acts of kindness, but they can be shy around new people. How can we teach them that a new person is a friend? Rodolfo Barragan and Carol Dweck (2015) tested this simple tactic: Have the child engage in playful acts of reciprocity, like

taking turns pressing the buttons on a toy,

rolling a ball back and forth, or

handing toys to each other

When an unfamiliar adult played in this way with 1- and 2-year-olds, the children seemed to flip a switch. They began to respond to their new playmate as a person to help and share with. There was no such effect when kids merely played alongside the stranger.

Sandra Sandy and Kathleen Cochran argue that young children need to learn the importance of getting someone's attention before you speak. To give kids a boost, they recommend this game for preschool groups: Have children sit in a circle, and give a ball to one of them. Then ask this child to name someone in the circle and roll the ball to him or her. The recipient then does the same thing-naming a recipient and rolling the ball--and the process repeats itself throughout the game (Teachers' College, Columbia University 1999).

To get along well with others, children need to develop focus, attention skills, and the ability to restrain their impulses. The preschool years are an important time to learn such self-control, and we can help them do it. Traditional games like "Simon Says" and "Red light, Green light" give youngsters practice in following directions and regulating their own behavior.

For more information, see the research-tested games described in this article about For additional advice about the socialization of young children, see this article about teaching self-control. preschool social skills.

In a small, experimental program, researchers at the University of Wisconsin-Madison tested the effects of their "Kindness Curriculum" on preschoolers. The program lasted 12 weeks, and improved social skills of the participants (Flook et al 2015). One of the social skills activities was a game of pretense. Teachers and children took turns acting out certain emotions, and guessed which feelings were being portrayed.

If you play this game, be sure to talk with children about body language and facial expressions they see. How do different emotions make the body feel?

Social skills activities for big kids

People who are good at interpreting facial expressions can better anticipate what others will do. They are also more "prosocial," or helpful towards others.

Experiments suggest that kids can improve their face reading skills with practice. See these social skills activities for teaching kids about faces.

It sounds simple, and it is: Read a story with emotional content, and have kids talk about it afterwards. Why did the main character get angry? What kinds of things make you get angry? What do you do to cool off? When kids participate in group conversations about emotion, they reflect on their own experiences, and learn about individual differences in the way people react to the world. And that understanding helps kids develop their "mind-reading" abilities.

In one study, 7-year-old school children met twice a week to discuss an emotion featured in a brief story. Sometimes their teachers encouraged them to talk about recognizing the signs of a given emotion. In other sessions, the kids discussed what causes emotions, or shared ideas about how to handle negative emotions ("When I feel sad, I play with the Wii," or "I feel better when my mother hugs me").

After two months, participants outperformed peers enrolled in non-conversational emotion classes. They showed significant improvements in their understanding of emotion. They also scored higher on tests of empathy and "theory of mind" -- the ability to reason about other people's thoughts and beliefs (Ornaghi et al 2014).

When kids team up to create something together with blocks, they must communicate, negotiate, and cooperate. Do these social skills activities make a difference? They might.

In one study of patients with high-functioning autism and Asperger's syndrome, school children attended a one hour session of group construction play once a week for 18 weeks. Compared with kids given special training in the social use of language, the kids in the construction group showed greater improvement in their social interactions (Owens et al 2008). Other research indicates that the benefits of these experiences last for years (Legoff and Sherman 2006).

I haven't found any randomized, controlled experiments on the subject, but some observational studies report that kids improve their social skills when they work together in school or community gardens (Ozer et al 2007; Block et al 2012; Gibbs et al 2013). Presumably, such gardening projects are like group construction projects, promoting better cooperation and communication.

The traditional game of charades, a player draws a slip of paper from a container and silently reads the word written there. Then she tries to convey this word to her unknowing team mates through pantomime.

What gestures are most likely to communicate the crucial information? The best players are good at perspective-taking, or imagining what viewers need to see in order to guess the answer. Moreover, recent research suggests that watching charades switches our brains into "mind-reading" mode: During fMRI scans, players observing gestures experienced enhanced activity in the temporo-parietal junction, a part of the brain associated with reflecting on the mental states of other people (Schippers et al 2009). It seems, then, that charades encourages kids to think about other perspectives, and fine-tune their nonverbal communication skills.

Research suggests that team athletics can beneficial effect -- if we teach kids how to be good sports. In one study, elementary school students who received explicit instruction in good sportsmanship showed greater leadership and conflict-resolution skills than did their control group peers (Sharpe et al 1995). Institute your own good sportsmanship program by following these principles.

Before a game, remind kids on the goals of good sportsmanship:

Being a good winner (not bragging; showing respect for the losing team)

Being a good loser (congratulating the winner; not blaming others for a loss)

Showing respect to other players and to the referee

Showing encouragement and offering help to less skillful players

Resolving conflicts without running to the teacher

During a game, give kids the chance to put these principles into action before you intervene in conflicts. If they don't sort things out themselves after two minutes, you can jump in. And when the game is over, give kids feedback on their good sportsmanship.

Social skills activities for adolescents

"Myside bias" is the tendency to evaluate evidence in favor of one's own point of view. Studies indicate that most people -- regardless of IQ -- fall prey to myside bias (Stanovich et al 2013). But that doesn't mean we're doomed to make an unlimited array of prejudiced, irrational decisions. People become less prone to myside bias as a function of the years they spend in higher education, even after controlling for age and cognitive ability (Toplak and Stanovich 2003).

So it seems likely that aspects of the traditional curriculum -- like exposure to diverse viewpoints, debate, and the tools of critical thinking -- are beneficial. And kids shouldn't have to wait until college to become aware of their biases. One classic educational approach is to assign students to take turns advocating both sides of a given debate. Not only will kids practice perspective-taking, they are likely to hone as well. For more information, see my article about critical thinking skills teaching debate skills to kids.

Researchers Geoff Kauffman and Anna Flanagan perceive a problem with many "consciousness-raising" programs and social skills activities: They're too preachy, and that tends to turn people off. So Kauffman and Flanagan recommend a more subtle approach, one that embeds the social message in a fun, lighthearted game.

To date, Flanagan has created two such games. The first, mentioned at the beginning of this article, is a card game called Awkward Moment™. It has been tested on kids as young as 11 years old, and found to improve players' perspective-taking skills. Players were also more likely to reject social biases, and imagine females pursuing careers in science (Kaufman and Flanagan 2015).

The second game, called Buffalo: The Name Dropping Game™, is intended for ages 14 and up. Buffalo asks players to think of real or fictional examples of people who fit a random combination of descriptors (like tattooed grandparent, misunderstood vampire, or Asian descent comedian). After playing this game, high school students showed increased motivation to recognize and check their social biases, agreeing more strongly with statements like "I attempt to act in non-prejudiced ways toward people from other social groups because it is personally important to me" (Kaufman and Flanagan 2015).

and Buffalo The Name Dropping Game

are available from Amazon.

More reading

For more information about the development of social skills, see these evidence-based articles.

References: Social skills activities

Bakeman R, Adamson LB, Konner MJ, and Barr RG. 1990. !Kung infancy: The social context of object exploration. Child Development 61: 794-809.

Block K, Gibbs L, Staiger PK, Gold L, Johnson B, Macfarlane S, Long C, Townsend M. 2012. Growing community: the impact of the Stephanie Alexander Kitchen Garden Program on the social and learning environment in primary schools. Health Educ Behav. 39(4):419-32.

Cortes Barragan R and Dweck CS. 2014. Rethinking natural altruism: simple reciprocal interactions trigger children's benevolence. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.111(48):17071-4.

Flook L., Goldberg S.B., Pinger L., and Davidson R.J. 2015. Promoting prosocial behavior and self-regulatory skills in preschool children through a mindfulness-based Kindness Curriculum. Dev Psychol. 51(1):44-51.

Gibbs L, Staiger PK, Townsend M, Macfarlane S, Gold L, Block K, Johnson B, Kulas J, Waters E. 2013. Methodology for the evaluation of the Stephanie Alexander Kitchen Garden program. Health Promot J Austr. 24(1):32-43.

Kaufman G and Flanagan M. 2015. A psychologically "embedded" approach to designing games for prosocial causes. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 9(3), article 1.

Lancy D. 2012. Ethnographic perspectives on cultural transmission/acquisition. Paper prepared for School of Advanced Research, Santa Fe, Multiple Perspectives on the Evolution of Childhood. November 4-8, 2012.

Lancy D. 2008. The anthropology of childhood: Cherubs, chattel and changelings. Cambridge University Press.

Legoff DB and Sherman M. 2006. Long-term outcome of social skills intervention based on interactive LEGO play. Autism. 10(4):317-29.

Ozer EJ. 2007. The effects of school gardens on students and schools: conceptualization and considerations for maximizing healthy development. Health Educ Behav. 34(6):846-63.

Pellegrini AD, Dupuis D, and Smith PK. 2007. Play in evolution and development. Developmental Review 27: 261-276.

Pellegrini AD and Smith PK. 2005. The nature of play: Great apes and humans. New York: Guilford.

Sharpe T, Brown M and Crider K. 1995. The effects of a sportsmanship curriculum intervention on generalized positive social behavior of urban elementary students. Journal of applied behavior analysis 28(4): 401-416.

Spinka, M., Newberry, RC, and Bekoff, M. 2001. Mammalian play: Training for the unexpected. Quarterly Review of Biology 76: 141-16.

Stanovich KE, West RF, Toplak ME. 2013. Myside Bias, Rational Thinking, and Intelligence. Current Directions in Psychological Science 2(4): 259-264.

Teacher's College, Columbia University. 1999. Conflict resolution for preschoolers. TC Media Center website. Accessed on 9/28/2015 at http://www.tc.columbia.edu/news.htm?articleID=4023.

Weiss MJ and Harris SL. 2001. Teaching social skills to people with autism. Behav Modif. 25(5):785-802.
Portions of this article are adapted from an earlier work by the same author.

Image of kids running: Elizabeth Jackson/wikimedia commons

Image of baby with teenager: Richard Leeming/flickr

Image of multiple facial expressions: istock

Image of teacher and teenagers: istock

Content of Social Skills Activities last modified 9/2017

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Social skills activities for children and teens

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© 2015-2017 Gwen Dewar, Ph.D., all rights reserved Social skills activities put to the test We want our children to succeed in the social world--to learn how to cooperate, make friends, and negotiate conflicts. We want them to develop strong perspective-taking skills, and treat other people with fairness and compassion.

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Some basic concepts/ examples of words to use in our lessons.

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Healthy Development of children 7-11 (Behaviour and Activities)

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Biography of Jean Piaget

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JEAN PIAGET

1896 - 1980

Dr. C. George Boeree

Biography

Jean Piaget was born in Neuchâtel, Switzerland, on August 9, 1896. His father, Arthur Piaget, was a professor of medieval literature with an interest in local history. His mother, Rebecca Jackson, was intelligent and energetic, but Jean found her a bit neurotic -- an impression that he said led to his interest in psychology, but away from pathology! The oldest child, he was quite independent and took an early interest in nature, especially the collecting of shells. He published his first "paper" when he was ten -- a one page account of his sighting of an albino sparrow.

He began publishing in earnest in high school on his favorite subject, mollusks. He was particularly pleased to get a part time job with the director of Nuechâtel's Museum of Natural History, Mr. Godel. His work became well known among European students of mollusks, who assumed he was an adult! All this early experience with science kept him away, he says, from "the demon of philosophy."

Later in adolescence, he faced a bit a crisis of faith: Encouraged by his mother to attend religious instruction, he found religious argument childish. Studying various philosophers and the application of logic, he dedicated himself to finding a "biological explanation of knowledge." Ultimately, philosophy failed to assist him in his search, so he turned to psychology.

After high school, he went on to the University of Neuchâtel. Constantly studying and writing, he became sickly, and had to retire to the mountains for a year to recuperate. When he returned to Neuchâtel, he decided he would write down his philosophy. A fundamental point became a centerpiece for his entire life's work: "In all fields of life (organic, mental, social) there exist 'totalities' qualitatively distinct from their parts and imposing on them an organization." This principle forms the basis of his structuralist philosophy, as it would for the Gestaltists, Systems Theorists, and many others.

In 1918, Piaget received his Doctorate in Science from the University of Neuchâtel. He worked for a year at psychology labs in Zurich and at Bleuler's famous psychiatric clinic. During this period, he was introduced to the works of Freud, Jung, and others. In 1919, he taught psychology and philosophy at the Sorbonne in Paris. Here he met Simon (of Simon-Binet fame) and did research on intelligence testing. He didn't care for the "right-or-wrong" style of the intelligent tests and started interviewing his subjects at a boys school instead, using the psychiatric interviewing techniques he had learned the year before. In other words, he began asking how children reasoned.

In 1921, his first article on the psychology of intelligence was published in the Journal de Psychologie. In the same year, he accepted a position at the Institut J. J. Rousseau in Geneva. Here he began with his students to research the reasoning of elementary school children. This research became his first five books on child psychology. Although he considered this work highly preliminary, he was surprised by the strong positive public reaction to his work.

In 1923, he married one of his student coworkers, Valentine Châtenay. In 1925, their first daughter was born; in 1927, their second daughter was born; and in 1931, their only son was born. They immediately became the focus of intense observation by Piaget and his wife. This research became three more books!

In 1929, Piaget began work as the director of the International Bureau of Education, a post he would hold until 1967. He also began large scale research with A. Szeminska, E. Meyer, and especially Bärbel Inhelder, who would become his major collaborator. Piaget, it should be noted, was particularly influential in bringing women into experimental psychology. Some of this work, however, wouldn't reach the world outside of Switzerland until World War II was over.

In 1940, He became chair of Experimental Psychology, the Director of the psychology laboratory, and the president of the Swiss Society of Psychology. In 1942, he gave a series of lectures at the Collège de France, during the Nazi occupation of France. These lectures became The Psychology of Intelligence. At the end of the war, he was named President of the Swiss Commission of UNESCO.

Also during this period, he received a number of honorary degrees. He received one from the Sorbonne in 1946, the University of Brussels and the University of Brazil in 1949, on top of an earlier one from Harvard in 1936. And, in 1949 and 1950, he published his synthesis, Introduction to Genetic Epistemology.

In 1952, he became a professor at the Sorbonne. In 1955, he created the International Center for Genetic Epistemology, of which he served as director the rest of his life. And, in 1956, he created the School of Sciences at the University of Geneva.

He continued working on a general theory of structures and tying his psychological work to biology for many more years. Likewise, he continued his public service through UNESCO as a Swiss delegate. By the end of his career, he had written over 60 books and many hundreds of articles. He died in Geneva, September 16, 1980, one of the most significant psychologists of the twentieth century.

Theory

Jean Piaget began his career as a biologist -- specifically, a malacologist! But his interest in science and the history of science soon overtook his interest in snails and clams. As he delved deeper into the thought-processes of doing science, he became interested in the nature of thought itself, especially in the development of thinking. Finding relatively little work done in the area, he had the opportunity to give it a label. He called it genetic epistemology, meaning the study of the development of knowledge.

He noticed, for example, that even infants have certain skills in regard to objects in their environment. These skills were certainly simple ones, sensori-motor skills, but they directed the way in which the infant explored his or her environment and so how they gained more knowledge of the world and more sophisticated exploratory skills. These skills he called schemas.

For example, an infant knows how to grab his favorite rattle and thrust it into his mouth. He's got that schema down pat. When he comes across some other object -- say daddy's expensive watch, he easily learns to transfer his "grab and thrust" schema to the new object. This Piaget called assimilation, specifically assimilating a new object into an old schema.

When our infant comes across another object again -- say a beach ball -- he will try his old schema of grab and thrust. This of course works poorly with the new object. So the schema will adapt to the new object: Perhaps, in this example, "squeeze and drool" would be an appropriate title for the new schema. This is called accommodation, specifically accomodating an old schema to a new object.

Assimilation and accommodation are the two sides of adaptation, Piaget's term for what most of us would call learning. Piaget saw adaptation, however, as a good deal broader than the kind of learning that Behaviorists in the US were talking about. He saw it as a fundamentally biological process. Even one's grip has to accommodate to a stone, while clay is assimilated into our grip. All living things adapt, even without a nervous system or brain.

Assimilation and accommodation work like pendulum swings at advancing our understanding of the world and our competency in it. According to Piaget, they are directed at a balance between the structure of the mind and the environment, at a certain congruency between the two, that would indicate that you have a good (or at least good-enough) model of the universe. This ideal state he calls equilibrium.

As he continued his investigation of children, he noted that there were periods where assimilation dominated, periods where accommodation dominated, and periods of relative equilibrium, and that these periods were similar among all the children he looked at in their nature and their timing. And so he developed the idea of stages of cognitive development. These constitute a lasting contribution to psychology.

The sensorimotor stage

The first stage, to which we have already referred, is the sensorimotor stage. It lasts from birth to about two years old. As the name implies, the infant uses senses and motor abilities to understand the world, beginning with reflexes and ending with complex combinations of sensorimotor skills.

Between one and four months, the child works on primary circular reactions -- just an action of his own which serves as a stimulus to which it responds with the same action, and around and around we go. For example, the baby may suck her thumb. That feels good, so she sucks some more... Or she may blow a bubble. That's interesting so I'll do it again....

Between four and 12 months, the infant turns to secondary circular reactions, which involve an act that extends out to the environment: She may squeeze a rubber duckie. It goes "quack." That's great, so do it again, and again, and again. She is learning "procedures that make interesting things last."

At this point, other things begin to show up as well. For example, babies become ticklish, although they must be aware that someone else is tickling them or it won't work. And they begin to develop object permanence. This is the ability to recognize that, just because you can't see something doesn't mean it's gone! Younger infants seem to function by an "out of sight, out of mind" schema. Older infants remember, and may even try to find things they can no longer see.

Between 12 months and 24 months, the child works on tertiary circular reactions. They consist of the same "making interesting things last" cycle, except with constant variation. I hit the drum with the stick -- rat-tat-tat-tat. I hit the block with the stick -- thump-thump. I hit the table with the stick -- clunk-clunk. I hit daddy with the stick -- ouch-ouch. This kind of active experimentation is best seen during feeding time, when discovering new and interesting ways of throwing your spoon, dish, and food.

Around one and a half, the child is clearly developing mental representation, that is, the ability to hold an image in their mind for a period beyond the immediate experience. For example, they can engage in deferred imitation, such as throwing a tantrum after seeing one an hour ago. They can use mental combinations to solve simple problems, such as putting down a toy in order to open a door. And they get good at pretending. Instead of using dollies essentially as something to sit at, suck on, or throw, now the child will sing to it, tuck it into bed, and so on.

Preoperational stage

The preoperational stage lasts from about two to about seven years old. Now that the child has mental representations and is able to pretend, it is a short step to the use of symbols.

A symbol is a thing that represents something else. A drawing, a written word, or a spoken word comes to be understood as representing a real dog. The use of language is, of course, the prime example, but another good example of symbol use is creative play, wherein checkers are cookies, papers are dishes, a box is the table, and so on. By manipulating symbols, we are essentially thinking, in a way the infant could not: in the absence of the actual objects involved!

Along with symbolization, there is a clear understanding of past and future. for example, if a child is crying for its mother, and you say "Mommy will be home soon," it will now tend to stop crying. Or if you ask him, "Remember when you fell down?" he will respond by making a sad face.

On the other hand, the child is quite egocentric during this stage, that is, he sees things pretty much from one point of view: his own! She may hold up a picture so only she can see it and expect you to see it too. Or she may explain that grass grows so she won't get hurt when she falls.

Piaget did a study to investigate this phenomenon called the mountains study. He would put children in front of a simple plaster mountain range and seat himself to the side, then ask them to pick from four pictures the view that he, Piaget, would see. Younger children would pick the picture of the view they themselves saw; older kids picked correctly.

Similarly, younger children center on one aspect of any problem or communication at a time. for example, they may not understand you when you tell them "Your father is my husband." Or they may say things like "I don't live in the USA; I live in Pennsylvania!" Or, if you show them five black and three white marbles and ask them "Are there more marbles or more black marbles?" they will respond "More black ones!"

Perhaps the most famous example of the preoperational child's centrism is what Piaget refers to as their inability to conserve liquid volume. If I give a three year old some chocolate milk in a tall skinny glass, and I give myself a whole lot more in a short fat glass, she will tend to focus on only one of the dimensions of the glass. Since the milk in the tall skinny glass goes up much higher, she is likely to assume that there is more milk in that one than in the short fat glass, even though there is far more in the latter. It is the development of the child's ability to decenter that marks him as havingmoved to the next stage.

Concrete operations stage

The concrete operations stage lasts from about seven to about 11. The word operations refers to logical operations or principles we use when solving problems. In this stage, the child not only uses symbols representationally, but can manipulate those symbols logically. Quite an accomplishment! But, at this point, they must still perform these operations within the context of concrete situations.

The stage begins with progressive decentering. By six or seven, most children develop the ability to conserve number, length, and liquid volume. Conservation refers to the idea that a quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance. If you show a child four marbles in a row, then spread them out, the preoperational child will focus on the spread, and tend to believe that there are now more marbles than before.

Or if you have two five inch sticks laid parallel to each other, then move one of them a little, she may believe that the moved stick is now longer than the other.

The concrete operations child, on the other hand, will know that there are still four marbles, and that the stick doesn't change length even though it now extends beyond the other. And he will know that you have to look at more than just the height of the milk in the glass: If you pour the mild from the short, fat glass into the tall, skinny glass, he will tell you that there is the same amount of milk as before, despite the dramatic increase in mild-level!

By seven or eight years old, children develop conservation of substance: If I take a ball of clay and roll it into a long thin rod, or even split it into ten little pieces, the child knows that there is still the same amount of clay. And he will know that, if you rolled it all back into a single ball, it would look quite the same as it did -- a feature known as reversibility.

By nine or ten, the last of the conservation tests is mastered: conservation of area. If you take four one-inch square pieces of felt, and lay them on a six-by-six cloth together in the center, the child who conserves will know that they take up just as much room as the same squares spread out in the corners, or, for that matter, anywhere at all.

If all this sounds too easy to be such a big deal, test your friends on conservation of mass: Which is heavier: a million tons of lead, or a million tons of feathers?

In addition, a child learns classification and seriation during this stage. Classification refers back to the question of whether there are more marbles or more black marbles? Now the child begins to get the idea that one set can include another. Seriation is putting things in order. The younger child may start putting things in order by, say size, but will quickly lose track. Now the child has no problem with such a task. Since arithmetic is essentially nothing more than classification and seriation, the child is now ready for some formal education!

Formal operations stage

But the concrete operations child has a hard time applying his new-found logical abilities to non-concrete -- i.e. abstract -- events. If mom says to junior "You shouldn't make fun of that boy's nose. How would you feel if someone did that to you?" he is likely to respond "I don't have a big nose!" Even this simple lesson may well be too abstract, too hypothetical, for his kind of thinking.

Don't judge the concrete operations child too harshly, though. Even adults are often taken-aback when we present them with something hypothetical: "If Edith has a lighter complexion than Susan, and Edith is darker than Lily, who is the darkest?" Most people need a moment or two.

From around 12 on, we enter the formal operations stage. Here we become increasingly competent at adult-style thinking. This involves using logical operations, and using them in the abstract, rather than the concrete. We often call this hypothetical thinking.

Here's a simple example of a task that a concrete operations child couldn't do, but which a formal operations teenager or adult could -- with a little time and effort. Consider this rule about a set of cards that have letters on one side and numbers on the other: "If a card has a vowel on one side, then it has an even number on the other side." Take a look at the cards below and tell me, which cards do I need to turn over to tell if this rule is actually true? You'll find the answer at the end of this chapter.

It is the formal operations stage that allows one to investigate a problem in a careful and systematic fashion. Ask a 16 year old to tell you the rules for making pendulums swing quickly or slowly, and he may proceed like this:

A long string with a light weight -- let's see how fast that swings.
A long string with a heavy weight -- let's try that.
Now, a short string with a light weight.
And finally, a short string with a heavy weight.
His experiment -- and it is an experiment -- would tell him that a short string leads to a fast swing, and a long string to a slow swing, and that the weight of the pendulum means nothing at all!
The teenager has learned to group possibilities in four different ways:

By conjunction: "Both A and B make a difference" (e.g. both the string's length and the pendulum's weight).
By disjunction: "It's either this or that" (e.g. it's either the length or the weight).

By implication: "If it's this, then that will happen" (the formation of a hypothesis).

By incompatibility: "When this happens, that doesn't" (the elimination of a hypothesis).

On top of that, he can operate on the operations -- a higher level of grouping. If you have a proposition, such as "it could be the string or the weight," you can do four things with it:
Identity: Leave it alone. "It could be the string or the weight."
Negation: Negate the components and replace or's with and's (and vice versa). "It might not be the string and not the weight, either."

Reciprocity: Negate the components but keep the and's and or's as they are. "Either it is not the weight or it is not the string."

Correlativity: Keep the components as they are, but replace or's with and's, etc. "It's the weight and the string."

Someone who has developed his or her formal operations will understand that the correlate of a reciprocal is a negation, that a reciprocal of a negation is a correlate, that the negation of a correlate is a reciprocal, and that the negation of a reciprocal of a correlate is an identity (phew!!!).
Maybe it has already occured to you: It doesn't seem that the formal operations stage is something everyone actually gets to. Even those of us who do don't operate in it at all times. Even some cultures, it seems, don't develop it or value it like ours does. Abstract reasoning is simply not universal.

[Answer to the card question: The E and the 7. The E must have an even number on the back -- that much is obvious. the 7 is odd, so it cannot have a vowel on the other side -- that would be against the rule! But the rule says nothing about what has to be on the back of a consonant such as the K, nor does it say that the 4 must have a vowel on the other side!]

References

It is hard to say, of Piaget's many works, which are most significant or interesting, but here goes:

The Moral Judgement of the Child (1932 -- one of the first five books), The Psychology of Intelligence (1947, in English 1950), The Construction of Reality in the Child (1937, in English 1954, based on observation of his own children), The Growth of Logical Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence (with Inhelder, 1958), The Psychology of the Child (with Inhelder, 1966, in English 1969), Insights and Illusions of Philosophy (1965, 1971 in English)

© Copyright 1999, 2006 C. George Boeree.

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JEAN PIAGET 1896 - 1980 Dr. C. George Boeree Biography Jean Piaget was born in Neuchâtel, Switzerland, on August 9, 1896. His father, Arthur Piaget, was a professor of medieval literature with an interest in local history.

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Extra resource from Unit 3 about lexical chunks for kids.

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I read this book and found
it very interesting. It is called The Educated Mind: How Cognitive Tools Shape Our Understanding,
by Kieran Egan.

Egan tries to establish an alternative to the contradictions between the Platonic, Rousseauian and
socialising goals of education. He suggests that teachers should let learning
follow the natural way the human mind develops and understands.

The book is available to buy on amazon:

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Unit 2 - Developing Minds - Andreia Pinto

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Unit 2 - Developing Minds - Andreia Pinto

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A game we can use for developing very young and young learners' cognitive skills.

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How to teach critical thinking skills: an inquiry-based learning activity

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Unit 2 - Developing Minds - Andreia Pinto

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Unit 2 - Developing Minds - Andreia Pinto

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Some coursebook activities which develop cognitive skills.

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Center for Innovation in Legal Education

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Developing critical thinking skills with Super Minds

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Along with basic thinking skills, critical thinking skills are a key part of young learners' development. Herbert Puchta, co-author of Super Minds, explains what these are and how critical thinking skills can be used in the classroom. www.cambridge.org/elt/superminds

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In this webpage we can find useful tips to promote cognitive development in the ESL classroom.

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Teach English in China - Current TEFL / ESL Teaching Jobs

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Too often we are asked the question at EF; what separates us from other ESL schools? A quick and easy answer would be that in our ESL lessons we don't dismiss or even short cut past the development of crucial cognitive skills. Cognitive development (CD) skills include, but aren't limited to;

* Sequencing (Determining the logical order of events in time)
* Predicting (Guessing what will happen next)
* Comparing (Discovering differences and similarities in data)
* Reasoning (Making deductions based on data)
* Identifying (Separating relevant from irrelevant data)
* Interacting with others (Expressing / Understanding)
* Evaluating (Drawing conclusions from data)

These CD skills have two things in common; especially in China.

1) They are overlooked in Chinese Public School Education
2) They are separate from explicit Language Learning

At EF, our students use most, if not all, of these skills many times over the course of any syllabus whether it be Young Learner, Teen or Adult classes. Perhaps we don't consider these skills as something we should be teaching explicitly, since students use them anyway in school and life and through practice they will get better regardless.

However, by not making the most of these skills, and not telling parents we are doing it, we are selling our school and our students short.

Planning an ESL Lesson from a Cognitive Development Perspective

At EF Chongqing, teachers are expected to state Linguistic, Communicative and Cognitive Lesson aims. This is the first stage in getting ourselves thinking seriously about whether we are providing opportunities to use the full range of their faculties in class, and not just the linguistic. During the planning stage we should ask ourselves;

1) Will this class provide opportunities for both peer to peer interaction and independent learning?
2) Have I adapted certain Linguistic Materials to allow opportunities for students to predict, compare, reason and identify?
3) Will this class provide the conditions for low-anxiety self or peer to peer evaluation of work or materials?

Incorporating Cognitive Development into an ESL Lesson

Once you have clear aims, it can be remarkably easy to convert your lessons so it satisfies the requirements for a CD rich session.

Very Young Learner class (Colors and Shapes)
Teacher Pre-Teachers colors and shapes
Students Color the correct shapes in the correct color

Linguistic Instructions: The square is blue

Simply telling your learners to color a square in a certain color satisfies the requirements for a purely linguistic class. You'll see this kind of activity in Chinese Public School and many private training centers. Now, lets see how the activity changes when you consider a students CD requirements.

Teacher "Okay, look at the square. The square isn't blue. The square isn't green. The square isn't yellow. So the square is..."
Student "Red!"

Here, the learner has the opportunities to reason, predict, identify and evaluate.

Teenage Class (Fears and Phobias)
Teacher Gets students thinking and talking about Phobias
Students Talk about what phobias they have or know about

Linguistic Instructions: Look at these list of phobias and try to match them to the definitions provided on the worksheet. Discuss your answers.

This activity is a standard matching exercise but it dos include some CD skills (interaction, reasoning and identifying). However the teacher here has missed a valuable opportunity to promote the usage of these skills in this class.

Cognitive Instructions Go online and find the strangest phobia you can find. Write down the key points and present to your group and decide which phobia is the strangest of all.

Now we have not only made the activity more interesting by allowing them to navigate the internet in search of data (see next section), but we've expanded on the use of interaction, reasoning, identifying while adding opportunities for comparing and evaluating.

Benefits of Incorporating CD in ESL Lessons

Facilitating your ESL class from the perspective of CD has benefits for enhancing learner autonomy; which is a key component for motivating teenagers. (Students who were given the opportunity to choose homework assignments produced on average 60% more completed homework tasks compared to other classes).

For much younger learners, we can greatly improve their cognitive functions which will reduce the requirements for tedious concept and instruction checking, closely monitoring the completion of tasks and reviewing or previous language learned.

We can also, without hyperbole or exaggeration inform parents that at EF your child will not just learn English, but learn how to learn greatly improving the prospects for public school success and achievement later on in a competitive economy.

Conclusion

We've all had classes that felt like nothing was achieved. Students didn't produce sentences, they weren't able to use the target language in context, maybe some were too shy to speak or still couldn't spell 'Elephant' by the end of class. As DoSes in particular we often have to spend time encouraging teachers who wrongly feel that just because the linguistic aims weren't met this time, they are bad teachers.

Teachers should view the time spent with their students from a cognitive as well as linguistic development perspective. It is then likely that some success can be gleamed from an otherwise disappointing lesson. Maybe the shy student was able to share an idea (even in L1) with another student? Maybe your students felt confident enough to ask for help a little less or were able to solve a small problem independently.

CD in ESL classes improves learner skills, increases autonomy and motivation, helps you to feel more positive about your lessons and clearly explains the differences between EF, Public School and other training centers. CD practice features in all our lessons already, so let's start talking about it!

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Promoting Cognitive Development in ESL Lessons

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Too often we are asked the question at EF; what separates us from other ESL schools? A quick and easy answer would be that in our ESL lessons we don't dismiss or even short cut past the development of crucial cognitive skills.

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I found this article and this webpage very interesting. I hope you like it :)

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Cognitive skills are the skills the brain uses to think, learn, read, remember, pay attention, and solve problems.

The "cognitive profile" of every child is unique, with some strong skills and other skills that are not as strong. For example, here's a look at the cognitive profiles of three children before undergoing cognitive testing and training at LearningRx:

You can see that every child is very distinctive in his or her cognitive strengths. What's more, a child's cognitive profile influences the kinds of success or struggles he or she is experiencing in school or life. This is because cognitive skills include attention, short-term memory, long-term memory, visual processing, auditory processing, logic & reasoning, and processing speed.
These skills are so critical because they are the very skills the brain uses to think, learn, read, remember, pay attention, and solve problems. These are also the skills that determine IQ. So even one weak skill can make learning or life harder than it needs to be.

The purpose of cognitive skills training for children

Cognitive skills training is a way of targeting and strengthening weak skills. LearningRx offers a very effective form of cognitive training (also known as brain training) that pairs children with their own cognitive training (or brain trainer) for fun, challenging exercises that "work" the brain.

Working one-on-one a brain trainer is so effective because trainers provide accountability and encouragement. They also customize each session to keep things difficult enough to work up a mental sweat, but not difficult enough so that the child feels frustrated or discouraged. Finally, the human interaction provided by one-on-one cognitive training is a powerful change agent. Children typically develop a positive bond with their trainers that fosters a great environment for motivation and results.

Cognitive skills training is an important intervention because, typically, weak skills don't just "catch up" with age. This is why struggling children often grow into struggling adults.

The difference between cognitive skills training and tutoring

Cognitive skills training and tutoring are very different solutions for very different problems:

Teaching and tutoring provide information.

Cognitive training strengthens the skills the brain uses to grasp that information.

This is why families of students with a cognitive weakness can find themselves using tutors year after year. For children with weak skills, the problem is not how the information is being presented. Instead, the root cause of the problem has to do with how the brain is grasping what is being presented. Many families discover that once weak cognitive skills are strengthened, the need for tutors is reduced or even eliminated altogether.

That said, tutoring can be an excellent choice if a child is struggling because something interfered with the delivery of classroom content the first time it was presented. This could be due to relocating, missing class due to illness or vacation, or even the absence of a teacher. In cases like these, using a tutor to reteach classroom content can be the perfect solution.

Studies show, however, that most children who struggle in school do so because of one or more weak cognitive skills. In cases like these, cognitive training can get to the root of the problem by targeting and strengthening those skills.

Does cognitive skills training actually work?

Let's take one of the examples above and see what difference, if any, was made following cognitive training. This 12-year-old was struggling with attention, math, and schoolwork. His cognitive profile showed why. While many skills were very strong, weak skills included processing speed, short-term memory and long term memory-and these weaknesses were making it difficult to focus and perform.

Following cognitive training, this student showed cognitive improvements across the board, including dramatic gains in his weakest skills.
Naturally, these are the scores of a single student, and you or your child may or may not get the same results. But even when looking at the average improvements of thousands of children and adults who have undergone cognitive training, the results show movement in every cognitive area.

Over a six-year period, LearningRx tested the cognitive skills of 17,998 clients before and after brain training, which revealed dramatic gains in nine core areas of cognitive performance, including IQ.* The following scores are represented below in percentiles, which show where someone ranks compared to 100 of their peers. Here are the results:

*These are the results of past clients. You may or may not achieve similar results.
To learn more about the results of cognitive training, visit www.learningrx.com/results and download the full report.

If you or someone you love is struggling with learning, reading, attention, or memory, the next step is to find out why. Call a LearningRx brain training center near you and schedule a time to take a Cognitive Skills Assessment. The assessment takes about an hour and will provide you with invaluable information regarding specific cognitive strengths and weaknesses.

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Cognitive skills are the skills the brain uses to think, learn, read, remember, pay attention, and solve problems. The "cognitive profile" of every child is unique, with some strong skills and other skills that are not as strong.

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Unit 2: Developing Minds - Teresa Coelho

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Unit 2: Developing Minds - Teresa Coelho

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This video shows us how teaching English to very young learners can offer ideal opportunities to improve not only language skills, but also to develop cognitive skills.

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Teaching English to very young learners offers ideal opportunities to help students develop their thinking skills at the same time as the are practising language skills. Watch how this can be done.

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The Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding

By Saul McLeod, updated 2019

What Is the Zone of Proximal Development?

The zone of proximal development refers to the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.

Thus, the term "proximal" refers to those skills that the learner is "close" to mastering.

Vygotsky's Definition of ZPD

The concept, zone of proximal development was developed by Soviet psychologist and social constructivist Lev Vygotsky (1896 - 1934).

The zone of proximal development (ZPD) has been defined as:

"the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers" (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86).

Vygotsky believed that when a student is in the zone of proximal development for a particular task, providing the appropriate assistance will give the student enough of a "boost" to achieve the task.

To assist a person to move through the zone of proximal development, educators are encouraged to focus on three important components which aid the learning process:

More Knowledgeable Other

The more knowledgeable other (MKO) is somewhat self-explanatory; it refers to someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept.

Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older adult, this is not necessarily the case. Many times, a child's peers or an adult's children may be the individuals with more knowledge or experience.

Social Interaction

According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child occurs through social interaction with a skillful tutor. The tutor may model behaviors and/or provide verbal instructions for the child. Vygotsky refers to this as cooperative or collaborative dialogue.

The child seeks to understand the actions or instructions provided by the tutor (often the parent or teacher) then internalizes the information, using it to guide or regulate their own performance.

What is the Theory of Scaffolding?

The ZPD has become synonymous in the literature with the term scaffolding. However, it is important to note that Vygotsky never used this term in his writing, and it was introduced by Wood, Bruner and Ross (1976).

Scaffolding consists of the activities provided by the educator, or more competent peer, to support the student as he or she is led through the zone of proximal development.

Support is tapered off (i.e. withdrawn) as it becomes unnecessary, much as a scaffold is removed from a building during construction. The student will then be able to complete the task again on his own.

Wood et al. (1976, p. 90) define scaffolding as a process "that enables a child or novice to solve a task or achieve a goal that would be beyond his unassisted efforts."
As they note, scaffolds require the adult's "controlling those elements of the task that are initially beyond the learner's capability, thus permitting him to concentrate upon and complete only those elements that are within his range of competence" (p. 90).

It is important to note that the terms cooperative learning, scaffolding and guided learning all have the same meaning within the literature.

The following study provides empirical support both the concept of scaffolding and the ZPD.

Wood and Middleton (1975)

Procedure: 4-year-old children had to use a set of blocks and pegs to build a 3D model shown in a picture. Building the model was too difficult a task for a 4-year-old child to complete alone.

Wood and Middleton (1975) observed how mothers interacted with their children to build the 3D model. The type of support included:

* General encouragement e.g., 'now you have a go.'

* Specific instructions e.g., 'get four big blocks.'

* Direct demonstration, e.g., showing the child how to place one block on another.

The results of the study showed that no single strategy was best for helping the child to progress. Mothers whose assistance was most effective were those who varied their strategy according to how the child was doing.

When the child was doing well, they became less specific with their help. When the child started to struggle, they gave increasingly specific instructions until the child started to make progress again.

The study illustrates scaffolding and Vygotsky's concept of the ZPD. Scaffolding (i.e., assistance) is most effective when the support is matched to the needs of the learner. This puts them in a position to achieve success in an activity that they would previously not have been able to do alone.

Wood et al. (1976) named certain processes that aid effective scaffolding:

Gaining and maintaining the learner's interest in the task. Making the task simple. Emphasizing certain aspects that will help with the solution. Control the child's level of frustration. Demonstrate the task.

Scaffolding vs. Discovery Learning

Freund (1990) wanted to investigate if children learn more effectively via Piaget's concept of discovery learning or by guided learning via the ZPD.

She asked a group of children between the ages of three and five years to help a puppet to decide which furniture should be placed in the various rooms of a dolls house. First Freund assessed what each child already understood about the placement of furniture (as a baseline measure).

Next, each child worked on a similar task, either alone (re: discovery based learning) or with their mother (re: scaffolding / guided learning). To assess what each child had learned they were each given a more complex, furniture sorting task.

The results of the study showed that children assisted by their mother performed better at the furniture sorting than the children who worked independently.

Educational Applications

Vygotsky believes the role of education to provide children with experiences which are in their ZPD, thereby encouraging and advancing their individual learning. (Berk, & Winsler, (1995).

'From a Vygotskian perspective, the teacher's role is mediating the child's learning activity as they share knowledge through social interaction' (Dixon-Krauss, 1996, p. 18).

Lev Vygotsky views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing skills and strategies. He suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises where less competent children develop with help from more skillful peers - within the zone of proximal development.

Scaffolding is a key feature of effective teaching, where the adult continually adjusts the level of his or her help in response to the learner's level of performance.

In the classroom, scaffolding can include modeling a skill, providing hints or cues, and adapting material or activity (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009).

Consider these guidelines for scaffolding instruction (Silver, 2011).

Assess the learner's current knowledge and experience for the academic content. Relate content to what students already understand or can do. Break a task into small, more manageable tasks with opportunities for intermittent feedback. Use verbal cues and prompts to assist students.

Scaffolding not only produces immediate results, but also instills the skills necessary for independent problem solving in the future.

A contemporary application of Vygotsky's theories is "reciprocal teaching," used to improve students' ability to learn from text. In this method, teacher and students collaborate in learning and practicing four key skills: summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting. The teacher's role in the process is reduced over time.

Vygotsky's theories also feed into current interest in collaborative learning, suggesting that group members should have different levels of ability so more advanced peers can help less advanced members operate within their zone of proximal development.

Example of the Zone of Proximal Development

Maria just entered college this semester and decided to take an introductory tennis course. Her class spends each week learning and practicing a different shot. Weeks go by, and they learn how to properly serve and hit a backhand.

During the week of learning the forehand, the instructor notices that Maria is very frustrated because she keeps hitting her forehand shots either into the net or far past the baseline. He examines her preparation and swing. He notices that her stance is perfect, she prepares early, she turns her torso appropriately, and she hits the ball at precisely the right height.

However, he notices that she is still gripping her racquet the same way she hits her backhand, so he goes over to her and shows her how to reposition her hand to hit a proper forehand, stressing that she should keep her index finger parallel to the racquet. He models a good forehand for her, and then assists her in changing her grip. With a little practice, Maria's forehand turns into a formidable weapon for her!

In this case, Maria was in the zone of proximal development for successfully hitting a forehand shot. She was doing everything else correctly, but just needed a little coaching and scaffolding from a " More Knowledgeable Other" to help her succeed in this task.

When that assistance was given, she became able to achieve her goal. Provided with appropriate support at the right moments, so too will students in classrooms be able to achieve tasks that would otherwise be too difficult for them.

APA Style References

Berk, L., & Winsler, A. (1995). Scaffolding children's learning: Vygotsky and early childhood learning. Washington, DC: National Association for Education of Young Children.

Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (2009). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Dixon-Krauss, L. (1996). Vygotsky in the classroom. Mediated literacy instruction and assessment. White Plains, NY: Longman Publishers.

Freund, L. S. (1990). Maternal Regulation of Children's Problem-solving behavior and Its Impact on Children's Performance. Child Development, 61, 113-126.

Silver, D. (2011). Using the 'Zone'Help Reach Every Learner. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 47(sup1), 28-31.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Wood, D., Bruner, J., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psychiatry, 17, 89−100.

Wood, D., & Middleton, D. (1975). A study of assisted problem-solving. British Journal of Psychology, 66(2), 181−191.

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Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding | Simply Psychology

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By Saul McLeod, updated 2019 What Is the Zone of Proximal Development? The zone of proximal development refers to the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.

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Characteristics of Young Learners - Languages & Children

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Unit 2: Developing Minds in Mixed Classes- Joana Arnaud

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Unit 2: Developing Minds in Mixed Classes- Joana Arnaud

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Mixed Classes are a reality for all of us. This article gives us some tips of how to make our lessons easier and more interesting in mixed classes.

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Parent Category: Articles

Category: Miscellaneous Articles

Written by Chris Cotter

Classes with mixed levels are a difficulty many teachers face from time to time. No two students are alike, of course. Some have stronger skills in speaking, while others struggle with it. Other students are more like novice grammarians, while others focus on fluency and communication. However, what can a teacher do when portion of the class is much lower overall, say a group of beginners mixed in with a class of intermediate students? Or how about a class with beginners, intermediates, and advanced students all together?

This article will look at several ideas to address the problem of mixed-level classes.

It's Not Your Fault
First and foremost, it's important to realize that a class of mixed levels requires more preparation time. Equally important, the teacher must realize that no matter the time and energy put into the class, it may not be as enjoyable or as satisfying to teach. The students may similarly find less enjoyment. Don't write the class off, of course. Continue to prepare interesting lessons, work to move students up the skills' ladder, and provide help whenever possible. Yet you should also realize that you can only make the best of an unfortunate situation. This may sound like common sense, but it's also hard to keep this point in mind while in the middle of the problem.

Teach to the Intended Level of the Class
You must consider the level of the students, as well as individual learning styles and specific learning objectives. However, you should teach to the intended level of the class. In other words, have you or the school offered/advertised the class to beginners, intermediates, or advanced students? If the class is for intermediates, for example, then all the materials and activities should primarily focus on their needs.

Let's look at this point in more detail. The example class has been billed for intermediate students, so all lesson plans and materials should target this level. If beginner students happen to enroll as well, then it's quite unfair for the students in the correct class to suddenly find a less challenging curriculum. The same holds true for advanced students enrolled in the intermediate course. It would be unfair to the correctly placed students to struggle with materials too difficult for their level.

One effective solution comes in the form of individual work done outside of the class. Assignments can be given to all students in the form of essays, mini-presentations, additional research, or even short articles for further reading. Students may be required to participate in a discussion forum or group online. They may be required to listen to an online lecture, podcast, or similar material. This allows students to work on the same theme or topic, yet do so at their level of ability.

Another solution can come from outside tutoring for the weaker students, as well as additional assignments that are more challenging for the stronger students. However, this only works when you speak with the misplaced students to explain the situation. You must also explain that the class won't be adjusted for the weaker/stronger levels. These points must be made clear, else the weaker/stronger students could become disruptive or discouraged. They may wonder why the class is too difficult, too easy, or just boring, all of which results in unfair finger-pointing directed at you, the teacher.

A Word about Pairs and Groups
You may be tempted to divide the class, with lower-level and upper-level students working separately on a majority of the activities. However, this isn't always the best course of action, as it fails to create a unified classroom. What's more, pairs and groups of mixed ability have some benefit for both the stronger and weaker students, so placing them together does have benefits.

When stronger students work with weaker students, then the latter can see what's attainable with more study and work. Mastery of the language (or at least the next step in their studies) feels more tangible, because it's a peer who possesses the improved ability/skill. As for the stronger student, he now has the chance to teach the weaker student. This means monitoring for mistakes, offering advice, and even providing brief explanations on grammar, vocabulary, or other points. The stronger student better solidifies his knowledge and understanding of the language.

However, such pairs and groups work best when limited. A stronger student usually doesn't mind helping a weaker peer, provided he only does so for a short activity or two. He will grow bored and frustrated if forced to spend an hour together. The weaker student will immediately sense the frustration and boredom as well, and he could very likely feel self-conscious of his poorer ability as a result. The weaker student isn't singularly focused on the target material, and the stronger student cannot expand beyond the focus of the language. Retention of the target material and overall improvement are hindered for both the weaker and the stronger students.

There are instances when large groups can work together, as on a project or a large assignment. Writing a story, creating a dialogue or role play, or even giving a group presentation can all be accomplished with students of mixed levels. Each person will have a specifically assigned task, allowing him to effectively contribute to the assignment and to the group. These assignments can take the form of in-class activities, or as outside work and projects.

What to Teach
In many lessons, the purpose or target focuses on how the language can be applied. Grammar may provide support, but other times it may not be covered at all. These lessons work better in classes of mixed ability. Let's look at an example to highlight this important point.

In the intermediate class mentioned earlier, you decide to focus on plans for the upcoming summer break. Students should be able to talk about their plans by the end of the lesson. As such, you may need to introduce some vocabulary useful for the topic, as well as some grammar needed to successfully talk about the break.

As in any lesson, you present the information, practice it, and then provide opportunities to apply the target language in free(r) activities. Although the stronger students may find some of the early activities easy, they can always expand their answers. They can also work with weaker students as a guide/tutor, which presents different challenges. Later in the lesson, the stronger students can then work together and, during their discussions, further expand on the material with richer grammar and vocabulary. The stronger students may even receive extra challenges or tasks, such as to speak for ten minutes with a partner rather than change partners every few minutes. This results in an entire class able to work to their full potential, and do so together in a supportive environment.

When a class focuses on grammar, vocabulary, and communicative ability, then you must struggle with what sort of target language to teach, how to practice the material, and how to best arrange students into pairs and groups, just to name a few points. There's also boredom and frustration to contend with by all the students present. The myriad of problems really goes on and on. Yet applying the techniques above improves the chances for a more enjoyable and more successful lesson for all involved.

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Heads Up English | ESL Lessons - Teaching Mixed-Level Classes

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User Rating: / 18 Details Parent Category: Articles Category: Miscellaneous Articles Written by Chris Cotter Classes with mixed levels are a difficulty many teachers face from time to time. No two students are alike, of course. Some have stronger skills in speaking, while others struggle with it.

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Get pictures and flshcards from

http://www.activityvillage.co.uk/memory-games

http://esl-kids.com/flashcards/weather.html

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A great site with resources that you could use to teach language chunks.

http://www.kizclub.com/index.html

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Learning resources for kids featuring free worksheets, coloring pages, activities, stories, and more!

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I've been looking at some resources.
I really liked watching Carol Read's video "The Secret of Teaching Children".
I've also came across two interesting articles in the teaching English portal.
Here they are.

http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/child-a-learner

http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/child-a-learner-2

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Games and activities to use with posters by Carol Read.

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Here you can find posters with teacher`s notes. Have a look at Old Mac Donald and Food!

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Unit 2: Developing minds - MJoão Barradas

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Unit 2: Developing minds - MJoão Barradas

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This exercise is not ment for children, but I think our 3rd or 4th grade students could find the first 2 exercises interesting.

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The question and answer patterns (language chunks) learned in the "Who Took The Cookie?" song are great for a variety of classroom situations.