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According to the Global Policy Forum, "50 countries on five continents might soon be caught up in water disputes unless they move quickly to establish agreements on how to share reservoirs, rivers, and underground water acquifers." Learn more about conflicts over access to water at GPF's website.

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Picture Credit: UN Photo/Ky Chung

As demand for water hits the limits of finite supply, potential conflicts are brewing between nations that share transboundary freshwater reserves. More than 50 countries on five continents might soon be caught up in water disputes unless they move quickly to establish agreements on how to share reservoirs, rivers, and underground water acquifers. The articles and analysis below examine international water disputes, civil disturbances caused by water shortages, and potential regulatory solutions to diffuse water conflict.

Key Documents

This comprehensive document studies the environmental and socio-political dangers of shared fresh water resources in a world experiencing climate change. Climate change will interfere significantly with global fresh water systems. As glaciers melt, seas rise and storm intensity increases, the availability of drinking water will diminish considerably. ( Stimson)

Water-related tensions occur when the resource is scarce and access is limited. According to this OECD briefing, political, socio-economic and cultural factors fuel these tensions and can create conflicts on four different levels - local, national, international and global. International cooperation on rivers, basins and other sources of water can help diminish tensions, as they serve to build trust and confidence, as well as facilitating development.

Sandra Postel of the Global Water Policy Project stresses the need for nations to react preemptively, rather than retroactively, in order to avoid emerging crisis over water usage. ( Foreign Policy)

As the demand for clean water becomes more and more of a concern, there are nearly three hundreds potential conflicts over water around the world. ( Agence France-Presse)

Water is the lifesource of all humanity. In particularly arid climates like those of the Middle East and Northern Africa, water rights can become very contentious issues. This article demonstrates water's role in internal state conflicts. ( Forum: Water and War)

Articles

2013 l 2012 l 2011 | 2010 | 2009 | 2008 | 2007 | Archived Articles

2013

Water is a fundamental resource, it is a vital part of the production process of almost everything we make and do. Most importantly, it is essential in the generation and production of energy and food. Water security is important for retaining political, economic and environmental stability. With supplies declining (1.2 to 1.7 billion people struggle with shortages), water has been described as an "urgent security issue" by a group of former heads of state and government. As the draft of the Sustainable Development Goals is to be released in September, many international observers and organizations are pushing for the inclusion of universal water security. ( IPS)

The Asia-Pacific region has recently witnessed a series of threats to peace. The Sino-Japanese dispute over the ownership of the Senkaku Islands has escalated, with both countries now flying surveillance fighter jets. Chinese jets have entered what is known as Japan's Air Defense Identity Zone, but have not infringed Japan's airspace under international law. There are also maritime disputes over the Paracels and the Spratlys, two island chains claimed in whole or in part by a number of countries including the Phillipines, Vietnam and China. China, a permanent, veto-holding Council member, is opposed to a multilateral solution to these disputes, which explains the absence of the issue on the Council's agenda. No other involved state has forced the issue, and without any other members having interest in the conflict, it is unlikely it will be preemptively addressed. Israel-Palestine, Kashmir, US counterterrorism policies, and Asia's territorial disputes show that the Council still struggles to be relevant in the crises most likely to spark conflict. ( Foreign Affairs)

The shrinking Lake Chad, on which approximately 30 million people in surrounding areas of Nigeria, Cameroon, Chad and Niger depend, is proof of the growing problem of water scarcity worldwide. It has depleted to 1/5 th of its original area and is expected to disappear by the end of the century if nothing is done to protect it, according to the FAO. Farming and fishing are the main livelihoods in the basin; however, fishing activity is already threatened. Tensions over scarce resources have also led to conflicts between users. To help replenish the lake, a $14 billion project to divert water from the Congo River is currently awaiting funding. The future of Lake Chad cannot be ensured solely through large water diversion projects, requiring instead greater focus on sustainable management of current and future water demands within the basin. ( Al Jazeera)

The displacement of small farmers, environmental degradation and food insecurity are common concerns in the discussion of land grabbing. A recent study, " Global land and water grabbing", examines how the mass acquisition of land also has severe impacts on countries' water reserves, an implication that is often less prominent. Water security in many southern countries is put under strain, particularly in Africa which accounts for over half of the total land grabbed across the globe. Although the FAO's " Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of National Food Security" are an important step to regulate land grabbing, they do not address water grabbing. Furthermore, as the title "Voluntary Guidelines" suggests, the extent to which they will be implemented is uncertain. (farmlandgrab)

2011

Dr. Mark Zeitoun has developed a new framework for analyzing how power politics influence international water issues, significantly shifting the dominant discourse. Working in Gaza and the West Bank, he was forced to cope with Israeli rules impeding aid workers' attempts to construct a basic sustainable water infrastructure for Palestinians. Under the Oslo Accords, Palestinians agreed to an inequitable distribution of the Jordan River's water, and all water-related projects require Israeli political and military approval. According to Dr. Zeitoun, the Palestinians' consent to this agreement demonstrates that hydro-hegemony can be attained by coercion rather than force. ( New York Times)

Egypt faces water shortages due to infrastructure problems, evaporation, a rapidly growing population and the increasing demand for Nile water by neighboring countries. This water crisis challenges the Egyptians' usage of water and poses a direct threat to agriculture. Regional tension contributes to worsening the crisis while the Egyptian population fears fights over water. ( IRIN News)

The control of natural resources remains a source of conflict between states. China has decided to build dams and river diversion projects in Tibet. These initiatives will divert all the major rivers originating on the Tibetan plateau and will directly affect lower riparian states. These different projects may have negative environmental consequences for two billion of people living in the entire zone and trigger an eco-disaster while pushing population to migrate. The Chinese government's unwillingness to engage in a dialogue on water with its neighbors contributes to tensions in the region. ( Institute for Defense Studies & Analyses)

Ethiopia is planning the construction of the Grand Renaissance Dam. This $4.8bn project has been controversial, worsening the already tense relations between Ethiopia and Egypt. The core of the dispute lies in the revision of colonial-era agreements, which Ethiopia supports but Egypt rejects. However, following Hosni Mubarak's ousting, the Egyptian prime minister has announced his will to settle the dispute and forge new relations with his Ethiopian counterpart. Ethiopia and Egypt have recently agreed to review together the impact of the Nile River dam. This is meant to promote a win-win strategy between the two countries and could prove beneficial for the entire region, including Sudan. ( Al Jazeera)

Saudi Arabia is facing an important water crisis that will have negative consequences for its population and the rest of the world. The Kingdom is using its underground water for agricultural purposes and to feed its citizens. But rapid population expansion and industrial development have led to water shortages and food insecurity. Saudi Arabia is now leasing land in Ethiopia to meet national food demand and is undertaking the desalination of seawater. This second solution remains energy-consuming and will deplete Saudi Arabia's oil reserves. This would mean that Saudi Arabia will have to diminish its oil exports, thus slowing down production in other countries. ( State of the Planet)

In a recent statement, Secretary General Ban Ki-moon has asserted that water, a human right, has a market price. Water distribution has become increasingly profit-driven as governments have shifted this service to private companies, often with disastrous consequences. In Argentina, for instance, the price of water increased 88.2% after privatization. Governments should be responsible for providing a clean and affordable water supply, particularly if the alternative is an unreliable and expensive private system. Public-public partnerships (PUPS), a method of providing water through not-for-profit partnered municipalities, are an option that would increase the quality and range of water distribution, ensuring that water remains a right rather than a business opportunity. ( IPS News)

Thousands of people depend on the Amu Darya River, the longest river in Central Asia, for irrigation as well as for personal use. But while the population - and thus the demand for water - has more than doubled in the past two decades, the river is drying up. Central Asian governments are unable to cooperate on water management and relations between Tajikistan and Uzbekistan have worsened. At the core of their disagreement lies Tajikistan's plan to complete the construction of Rogun, a hydropower dam from the Soviet-era. The existing problems will be magnified by climate change and the increasing demand for water. According to a UNEP report, Central Asian States must cooperate and agree on water sharing, otherwise the situation will continue to deteriorate. ( Radio Free Europe)

The Niger delta is Africa's second largest floodplains. It sustains millions of farmers, fisher people and herders and is home of a rich diversity of wildlife. But, Libya supports a project to divert the Niger River for extensive irrigation upstream and make Libya self-sufficient in food. This plan is the result of a backdoor deal between Libyan leader, Moammar Gaddafi, and Mali's President, Amadou Toumani Toure. Mali, one of the poorest countries in the world, has agreed to hand over land to a Libyan-controlled organization and "undisclosed rights" to the Niger delta in exchange for aid and investment. Yet, this will prove detrimental to Malian food security. The Niger delta will run dry, diminishing the seasonal floods and damaging the livelihood of millions of poor citizens. ( Yale Environment 360)

1.4 billion people lack access to safe water and half the world's population is expected to live in areas of high "water stress" by 2030. 80% of the world's fresh water sources originate in basins that cross national and cultural boundaries leading to concerns of impending "water wars." Such concerns are exacerbated due to the reality of climate change and water depletion. A new approach to the sustainable distribution of water is necessary. International cooperation must be achieved through treaties ensuring a more equitable distribution of the world's water. (InterPress Service)

The Illisu dam project in Turkey has raised concerns from Turks, Kurds and Iraqis as the project will impact all three groups. While the dam will generate a significant amount of energy, it will at least partially destroy a town inhabited by Turks. Kurds in the area see the project as "a violation of their culture and land." Iraqis have raised concerns over Turkish control of the water on the Tigris River, which despite promises of an increase of water flow could actually result in less water if there are Iraqi-Turkish tensions. The Turkish government, however, argues that if Turks want a more modern lifestyle, they must accept the sacrifices that come with projects like the Illisu dam.( Inter Press Service)

This report released by the Council of Canadians condemns increased corporate influence on UN water policy. The timing of the report is important as water was only recognized as a human right last year, and the UN is still determining the limits of corporate involvement. While the report does not oppose corporate involvement in ensuring sustainable water protection policies, it warns that the UN should be aware of the "imbalance in power, influence, and money" that comes from allowing corporate lobbying. ( The Council of Canadians)

China has been building new hydroelectric dams, and many more are planned or under construction. However, these dams are ruining fisheries and displacing citizens in the process. Some are even being built in seismically active regions, where they could alter the environment enough to cause earthquakes, such as scientists believe occurred in May 2008 in the Sichuan province. While protests are sometimes stalling the building process, the Chinese government is determined to increase the country's hydroelectric power. ( Circle of Blue)

The Moringa oleifera tree's seeds are capable of purifying water and reducing the amount of present bacteria. The shrubs are widely grown in Africa, Central and South America, and South and Southeast Asia. While not a solution for purifying large amounts of drinking water, it could function on the household level. Moringa trees can't clean all water pollutants, but they could help make clean drinking water more accessible. ( IRIN)

Officials in Afghanistan's Farah province have renewed accusations that insecurities at the Bakhshabad hydropower plant are part of Iranian sabotage attempts. The dam project would divert water from the Farah River to make water more affordable in the province, where the population depends on farming. However, altering the course of the river would reduce the water available for the Iranian provinces of Sistan and Baluchestan, which are among its driest. The attacks seem to be aimed at discouraging any investment in the project. ( IWPR)

2010

Despite their tumultuous relationship, India and Pakistan have peacefully managed their needs for the same water sources since 1960 through the Indus Waters Treaty. Under the treaty, Pakistan filed a complaint about a new Indian hydropower plant on the Neelum River that conflicts with a Pakistani dam project. Pakistan views the treaty as a method of conflict prevention and resolution. The decision could alter Pakistan's investment in the treaty because the last time a complaint was filed, the ruling was in India's favor. Without a water treaty, India and Pakistan's relations will be further strained. ( Circle of Blue)

Large pastoral populations in Ethiopia and Kenya depend on water from Lake Turkana and the Omo River for survival. Climate change has caused the water levels of the Omo River to decrease and Lake Turkana's area to retreat into Kenya. Tribal competition for water and grazing lands has been escalating. Humanitarian response has focused on immediate relief, but has failed to offer a long term solution. The conflicts are likely to intensify in the future as resource scarcity increases. ( Yale Environment 360)

Water is a key factor in the on-going dispute over the Karabakh region, which is claimed by both Azerbaijan and Armenia. The water in the Karabakh region was shared by the Armenians and the Azeris under the USSR, but has been under Armenian control since the early 1990's. The Armenians see control of the water as part of their sovereign right, regardless of how their water policy affects the Azeris downstream. The Azeris, who had been accustomed to access under the Soviets, view the Armenian water policy as deliberately hostile. Water is now one of the key factors in the ongoing negotiations over the Karabakh region. ( Institute for War and Peace Reporting)

A report published in the journal Nature shows how 23 different human influences, ranging from dams, pollution and the introduction of alien fish, affect water security and biodiversity. The report indicated that even the world's greatest rivers such as the Nile and the Ganges are suffering serious biodiversity and water security stress. Moreover, some of the highest threat levels in the world are in the US and the EU, particularly concerning biodiversity loss. Scientists warn that human activity has affected the world's rivers greatly and almost 5 billion people face the threat of water insecurity. ( The Guardian)

For downstream Pakistan, dependent on irrigated agriculture and facing water scarcity, India's plans to build the Kishenganga dam are of serious concern. Under a 1960 treaty, Pakistan is afforded 80% of water in the Indus river system. Yet while the treaty permits India to dam the water, providing it doesn't withhold too much, Pakistan is concerned that the dam would give India power to manipulate the water flow as it wants. In this latest challenge to the already volatile inter-state relations, discussion of water sharing is envenomed by distrust and secrecy, preventing any mutually agreeable resolution. ( New York Times)

A new report from the risk consultancy Maplecroft addresses the gross global inequalities in water availability and consumption. Many of the world's poorest groups remain without access to safe drinking water and sanitation, and vulnerable to water-related diseases and potential water-related conflict. Current water use is often unsustainable and competition for resources is expected to worsen with projected population growth and climate change. The report finds water and sanitation spending offers economic benefits. Yet it is power relations, rather than absolute resource availability, that maintain present water insecurities. ( IDN Environment Desk)

For the third time in three months, an Iraqi water distribution official has been murdered as tribal negotiations over scarce water resources intensify. The decline in the flow of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers has made water a highly contested resource in Iraq. The weak central government's has been unable to effectively regulate water resources, compelling clans to take matters into their own hands. As inter-clan tensions mount, the government has reminded Iraqis to comply with regulation guidelines, but to no avail. The situation illustrates how political destabilization brought on by external intervention can expose the dark side of natural resources. ( IRIN)

The ten countries through which the Nile River runs have been unable to reach a water-sharing agreement. The agreement currently in place gives Egypt the right to nearly all of the Nile's flow. Egypt defends the status quo vigorously, declaring that its growing population would be devastated by any decrease in water flow. However, other parties claim that the current agreement is illegitimate, as it was drawn up and enforced by foreign colonial powers. Analysts urge parties to reach a deal, fearing that the Nile will become a source of armed conflict as water scarcity increases with rapid population growth. ( IRIN)

China has confirmed that it is constructing five dams on rivers it shares with downstream India. The confirmation is perceived by many Indians as tantamount to a declaration of war. Beijing, however, does not seem fazed as it continues to hoard as much water as it can to provide energy for its booming economy. In contrast to other Chinese natural resource grabs - copper in Afghanistan, oil in Sudan etc - stealing India's water could have drastic political and military repercussions. ( World Politics Review)

Major countries - like the US and UK - are pressing for water prices to increase substantially, whilst the number of people without access to clean water continues to rise. The governments argue that increasing the price of water will make people "value" it more; however, critics rightly argue, it is the water subsidies given to agriculture and industry that have to stop if we are to halt real water wastage. Furthermore, the price hike will simply deprive the world's poor of this human necessity. (Guardian)

In 2005, forty-two-thousand residences in Detroit were without water. This number has now declined marginally but still tens-of-thousands lack water. As the number of people on the water system declines, water bills have increased to compensate for loss of revenue. Last year, the average water bill rose by $83 - putting this life necessity even further out of reach. Detroit feels the effects of increased utility bills especially because of chronic unemployment in the wake of the financial crisis. ( Circle of Blue)

Egypt insists that its traditional share of the River Nile, around eighty-seven percent of the river's flow, must be upheld. Egypt's insistence comes days after countries in the Nile basin met to discuss new frameworks for the river's distribution; a meeting Egypt did not attend. Egypt receives a disproportionately large amount of water because of a 1929 agreement between Egypt and Britain's other African colonies. This agreement gave Egypt power to veto decisions of upstream Nile countries. (Al Jazeera)

A dam being built in Myanmar's northern Kachin State will displace more than fifteen-thousand people, according to the Kachin Development Networking Group. The dam, known as Myitsone, is a joint project between the Myanmar's military government and two Chinese energy companies. The massive dam will inundate sixty-six villages, 766km2 of rainforest and create a reservoir the size of New York City. Controversially, the dam is not being built for Burmese gain; rather, the electricity generated will be exported to China. (IRIN)

Many territories around the world - Cyprus, Yemen, Texas - are running out of fresh water. Despite this, societies have not changed the ways in which they use and produce water. Cyprus for example continues in its water intensive citrus trade and fails to invest sufficiently in desalinization. In order to avoid water wars, instability and mass migration, governments must adopt a radical new approach to water. (Newstatesman)

Over the past year the cost of water in Sanaa has tripled , and thousands of families are left without water over the summer months. Annual per capita water availability is 1,500 cubic meters less than the international scarcity line. Sanaa's population is growing rapidly, and the capital may - by 2017 - simply run out of water. (IRIN)

The impending water crisis in the Middle East could accelerate the region's peace process because nothing reconciles old foes like a new common enemy. The Jordanian, Israeli and Palestinian government are jointly examining the possibility of bringing water 110-miles from the Red Sea to the Dead Sea to provide desalinated drinking water for Palestinians and Jordanians. However, this ambitious project is seen by many as a political move in which many of the environmental consequences - rising sea temperatures and loss of aquatic life - are being overlooked. (Global Post)

India is feeling the effects of climate change - monsoons have failed and two thirds of the country is affected by drought. Food security is at serious risk. Making matters worse are the methods of farming implemented since the green revolution which deplete groundwater reserves. The chemical monocultures promoted by the green revolution use ten times more water than bio diverse ecological farming. The author promotes bio ecological farming as the solution to the crisis. Sustainable, organic agriculture, she says, will increase climate resilience, food security and water security. (CounterCurrents)

The 2008 drought in Cyprus has encouraged Greek and Turkish Cypriots to revive old plans to construct a massive underwater pipeline which would run from Turkey. Turkish Cypriot authorities call this the "pipeline for peace," and have offered to share the water with the Greek half of the Island. Some, however, such as the Greek Cypriot water director, fear that this pipeline will remain a pipedream. (Global Post)

Timor-Leste joins the ever-growing list of countries suffering from chronic water scarcity. Forty-percent of the country's population lacks access to an improved water source. This number rises to as high fifty-percent in the Eastern provinces. The country's water shortage stems from the destruction of eighty-percent of the water infrastructure during the war of independence from Indonesia. ( IRIN)

The 2008 drought in Cyprus has encouraged Greek and Turkish Cypriots to revive old plans to construct a massive underwater pipeline which would run from Turkey. Turkish Cypriot authorities call this the "pipeline for peace," and have offered to share the water with the Greek half of the Island. Some, however, such as the Greek Cypriot water director, fear that this pipeline will remain a pipedream. (Global Post)

Yemen's current water crisis was exacerbated by previous IMF and World Bank (WB) policies. Prior to their intervention, Yemeni farmland was irrigated with collected rainwater. However, in the 1970s, the IMF and the WB provided financial incentives for farmers to dig wells and use underground aquifers. These agricultural readjustments - though bolstering food production levels originally - have led to 85% of Yemen's water being used in agriculture. Agriculture in Yemen not only requires large amounts of water, but also wastes large amounts of this valuable resource. ( National Public Radio)

New tensions arise in the long standing Kashmiri conflict between India and Pakistan over water security. India has begun to construct a dam in the Jhuleum River, a river allocated to Pakistan under the "Indus Water Treaty 1960." However, Pakistan has also begun dam construction in the region, with the help of the Chinese. India is concerned about the deepening role China plays in Pakistani infrastructure projects; especially after the Chinese government blocked a $60 million "Asian Development Bank" loan to help India with flood management in the Kashmir area. ( Asia Sentinel)

The highlands in Southern Yemen have exhausted their water resources. The three districts affected by the shortages have a combined population of two-million. Yemenis in the area have resorted to transporting water, at great expense, from neighbouring districts. Extensive cultivation of the popular chewing substance qat is partially blamed for the water shortages. ( IRIN)

2009

The need for fresh, clean water unites all people. But population growth and climate change are threatening water security all over the world. The increasingly scant supply and inadequate management of resources has fuelled conflict worldwide and will likely do so still more in the years ahead. This World Policy publication outlines the danger hotspots and urges world leaders to establish procedures for efficient water use and conservation. ( World Policy)

The Nile Delta in Egypt is being dramatically transformed by the Mediterranean, which has risen one foot in about 70 years, creeping into aquifers and transforming fields into marshland. Meanwhile, the Nile itself is shrinking. Ethiopia is damming the river upstream, while Sudan is selling millions of acres of land to China for agriculture, which will require enormous amounts of water. Tellingly, the Pentagon is taking the issue seriously and increasingly includes climate-driven conflicts in its military planning. ( NBC News World Blog)

Uzbekistan has announced its withdrawal from the Central Asian electricity grid, a move that isolates Tajikistan by making it impossible for the country to import power from other Central Asian states. Following this announcement, Tajiks say that they may retaliate by restricting water supplies that Uzbekistan desperately need for its cotton sector during the spring and summer. This bilateral spat could create a major problem for US military operations in Afghanistan, given that the US and NATO use both countries to funnel material to troops on the ground. ( EurasiaNet)

In Kenya, three years of drought have left nearly four million people dependent on food aid. The pastoralists have been hit hardest, forcing them to travel extra distances in search of water and pasture for their livestock. Although Kenya has usually suffered from drought in cycles of 10 years, climate change has increased the frequency and duration of droughts, sharpening competition over scarce resources. Since January 2009, 306 pastoralists have died from conflicts over water. ( The Guardian)

Specialists and UN officials recently discussed the security implications of increased water scarcity during a panel on "Enhancing governance on water" held by the UN Second Committee (Economic and Financial). As a specialist in water resource policy and conflict resolution pointed out, the last formal war over water was fought in 2,500 B.C. Since then, water-related treaties have proven particularly resilient, even as cross-border conflicts raged. But while the risk of international conflict over water is low, regional and sub regional water disputes are a real security concern, with deep ramifications for poverty and food security. ( UN)

Amnesty International is denouncing Israel's discriminatory water policies in the Occupied Territories and their disastrous impact on the Palestinian economy. As the occupying power, Israel controls the underground water supplies for the West Bank, which it has disproportionately redirected towards Israel settlements and farms. The average water consumption per Palestinian is only a quarter of consumption per settler and way below the daily intake recommended by the WHO. Meanwhile, Palestinians under the Israeli blockade in Gaza are left with polluted water and no alternatives. ( Amnesty International)

Groundwater reserves in Yemen are critically low. The widespread production of the local drug 'qat,' which consumes large amounts of water, exacerbates the problem. Experts predict that, unless the government reduces the amount of eater used for 'qat' production Yemen could become the first nation to run out of water. (The Times)

As the Middle East is suffering from one of the worst droughts in decades, existing regional conflicts are making the water crisis more difficult to solve. In the disputed Golan Heights, Palestinians and Syrians resent the disproportionate appropriation of scarce water resources by Israelis. Meanwhile, Syria and Turkey are at loggerheads over the construction of Turkish upstream dams blocking water flows into Syria. Although water alone is unlikely to become the cause of war in the Middle-East, its destabilizing power is already apparent. ( BBC)

Central Asian countries are facing a regional water crisis linked to disastrous past Soviet water policies, the impact of climate change and a rapidly growing population. Upstream countries are pitched against their downstream neighbors for the control and use of water flows. Existing tensions will increase as regional water resources are expected to reduce by 40-80% by the end of the century. In light of the failure of regional cooperation to save the Aral sea, effective cooperation on the upcoming water crisis seems improbable. ( chinadialogue)

Rivers feeding Pakistan and India are running through disputed Kashmir, and both countries are vying for the control of these increasingly valuable water resources. With their huge populations still growing and global warming affecting water availability and quality, India and Pakistan are considering access to water a vital interest. While the sharing of rivers could form a framework for cooperation, hawks on both sides are using water to create an insurmountable impasse in the dispute over Kashmir. ( GlobalPost)

The Israeli-occupied Shebaa Farms, an 8 square miles area of land wedged between Lebanon, Israel and Syria, possess water resources highly sought-after in the arid Middle East. Regional actors are vying for the control of the land and its resources. With supply dwindling and climate change worsening, water will be a major trigger for conflict in the region if the key players don't engage in hydro-diplomacy. ( IRIN)

Climate change is expected to take a heavy toll on the countries of the Levant, which is already considered the world's most water-scarce region in the world. This in-depth report by the International Institute for Sustainable Development warns that rising temperatures will redraw the maps of water availability, food security, disease prevalence and population distribution, and may hold serious implications for regional security. After more than 60 years of regional conflict, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan and the occupied Palestinian Territory will find it hard to cooperate in order to cope with climate change. With competition for water resources becoming fiercer, existing tensions are likely to worsen. ( International Institute for Sustainable Development)

Shortages of water must be tackled at a local level in order to avoid a widening water crisis. Mid-way through the "UN International decade for Action for Water" the focus in 2009 is "Transboundary Waters." This article acknowledges that while it is not uncommon to witness violence over water, lessons from the past point to cooperation as the "logical response to trans-boundary water management issues." Water treaties date as far back as 2500 BC. Recently, India and Pakistan have held talks on the Indus Water Treaty that the two countries signed in 1960. ( Dawn)

In Peru the number of social conflicts related to water management issues has risen dramatically. Peru's growing population and shrinking portable water supply increase the tension among the population. One of Peru's sources of freshwater, the Andes Mountains glaciers, shrunk about 25 percent in the last 30 years, increasing social tensions. ( Inter Press Service)

The Middle East faces severe drought, especially in Syria, Jordan and the Occupied Palestinian Territories. Israel controls more than 85% of the water in the occupied West Bank, where one third of the Palestinians do not have access to proper water supplies and sanitation services, because Israel does not issue licenses. Moreover, Israel's military activities pollute the ground water in the West Bank, resulting in significant environmental damage. ( Middle East Times)

The UN estimates that half the world's population lives in countries suffering from water scarcity, after decades of over-exploitation by rich nations. UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon warns that a lack of water increases international conflicts and ultimately can cause a threat to peace. In the Occupied Palestinian Territories for example, Israel controls most of Palestine's water resources, and unequally distributes the water between its own citizens and Palestinians. ( Guardian)

Since the 1990s, many countries have handed over water management to private companies. Water became a commodity instead of a public good, leaving millions of poor people without access to safe drinking water and sanitation. And as water resources dwindle, conflicts over water intensify. In Bolivia, South Africa, Ghana, the Philippines and Indonesia violent struggles have broken out against companies seeking to privatize water. ( Hindu)

This Inter Press Service article argues that Israeli settlements dispose their waste on Palestinian land, thereby polluting valuable water resources. Israel controls 57,1 percent of the water in the West-Bank and Jordan 34,7 percent leaving only 8,2 percent for Palestinian control. Because Israel refuses to share its water resources, Palestinians have limited access to drinking water, which contains high levels of salinity.

This article argues that the collapsing global economy causes a new wave of privatization of water. In their pursuit of profit multinational corporations want customers to use extra water and pay more for it. This caused people in communities to campaign to the water supply to return to public ownership( TomDispatch)

Under the 2008 Road Map - the basis for Israeli-Palestinian peace talks - Israel must halt all settlement activities in Palestinian territory. However, Israeli settlements in Arab East Jerusalem and the West Bank have actually increased in 2008. According to this BBC article, Israeli authorities also continue to order the demolition of Palestinian homes and restrict Palestinians' access to water for drinking and irrigation in the Jordan Valley. The UN, together with the UK and the US, urges Israel to freeze all settlement activity in order to advance the peace process.

Since its inception, Israel has developed policies to secure its water sovereignty, resulting in armed clashes such as the 1967 war with Syria over water supply networks. This article argues that Israel's economic and military superiority allow it to control the water resources in one of the world's driest regions. For example, Palestinians receive 60 liters per day, while Israelis get 280 liters. This imbalance threatens the water security of neighboring countries and fuels political conflict. ( Countercurrents.org)

Water scarcity in eastern Africa fuels deadly conflicts, forcing thousands of displaced farmers and pastoralists to seek refuge in neighboring countries. This Z Magazine article claims that water shortage creates desperation that fuel politically-based conflicts in Kenya and Ethiopia. The author also warns that water wars are soon to engulf the nine countries that share the Lake Victoria/Nile River system, which would drastically increase the number of refugees in the region.

Water scarcity in the Middle East raises the risk of conflict between countries in the region. This report by the Middle East Institute argues that water scarcity is not just a natural scientific problem, but a political issue, which will lead to water wars. Powerful nations such as Turkey and Israel have become "hydro-hegemons." These nations' superior geographic, economic, and military positions give them greater access to water, inciting violent conflict with poorer nations such as Iraq and Syria.

Climate change triggers conflict over water resources in Sudan. As temperatures rise and rainfall drops in Sudan, pastoral herders and agricultural farmers clash over shared water reserves. However, while this report warns of the dangers of climate change, it also illustrates that the pastoral Kawahla tribe and farming Gawamha people of Sudan offer a useful model of conflict resolution. The two groups have learnt to adapt to the changes in climate - by increasing trade, making use of livestock byproducts on crops, and using community forums to mediate disputes over scarce water access. ( Integrated Regional Information Networks)

This article reports on the growing water crisis. One billion people worldwide do not have access to safe drinking water and 2.5 billion are lacking safe sanitation. Experts say the crisis is not due to an outright lack of water, but rather a "chronic lack of funding and inadequate understanding of the need for sanitation and good hygiene at the local level." Climate change will only worsen the problem. In addition, UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon warns that water shortages will drive future conflicts. ( Inter Press Service)

Climate change exacerbates tensions over natural resources in poorer countries, warns Global Politics Magazine. The article notes that global warming reduces rainfall, which depletes fertile agricultural land and diminishes fresh water sources. These environmental changes will heighten competition for shared natural resources between different social groups, intensifying existing tensions. Therefore, the author urges that UN member states reduce their reliance on fossil fuels, and increase aid to the countries most affected by climate change.

The Peruvian Environmental Health Office has declared that mining companies have polluted 30.2 percent of Peru's coastal rivers. Aside from containing damaging quantities of aluminum, arsenic and lead, the river's water volume has also decreased compared to past years. Tensions arise when river-based villagers and local NGO's like the Red Muqui fight against the mining companies, who pollute the Andine region. The Ombudsman's Office of Peru has reported at least 35 conflicts caused by water. He also proposes a reform of the environmental regulations, which will include the participation of local population and regional governments. ( Latin America Press)

A UN report predicts that water will be the main cause of conflicts in Africa over the next 25 years. Water disputes already exist in the Middle East and African Countries, especially concerning rivers and basins that flow through different nations. Humans can only consume 2.5 percent of the world's water, and even less is technologically and economically accessible. Population growth, the misuse of water and limited access, creates desertification. Unless strong institutions establish and act on prevention and management of these conflicts, an immense crisis will emerge. ( Daily Star)

This New York Sun article points to Israel's shortage of water as fundamental to Israel-Syria peace negotiations. Twenty-five percent of Israel's water supply depends on access to the Golan Heights. Since Israel's 1967 occupation of the Golan Heights, Israel has claimed the territory as its own. To move peace negotiations forward, Israel should consider desalinization of the Mediterranean Sea as an alternative water source, and return the Golan Heights to Syria under a water-sharing agreement similar to that between Israel and Jordan.

According to a UN Environmental Program report, degradation and desertification influence conflict in Darfur. The Sudanese government's manipulation and appropriation of such scarce resources as land, water and especially oil exacerbate conflict-inciting tensions. For example, in eastern Sudan, Khartoum diverted limited water from grazing land to commercial irrigation, leading to fighting in the region. ( New York Times)

Tibet's rivers water the world's most populous continent. In Asia, water shortages and China's assertive water policy threaten regional stability. China's approach to the impending shortage involves water appropriation projects. It aggressively implemented the US$25 million Three Gorges Dam project, which displaced at least 1.2 million, and it plans to redirect Tibet's Brahmaputra waters to China's Yellow River through a project called the Great North-South Water Transfer. ( Japan Times)

In this Washington Post column, UN Secretary General Ban Ki-Moon discusses the role of climate change behind the conflict in Darfur. Ban asserts that underneath the sociopolitical unrest, the real reason for the conflict is an ecological crisis. Since the 1980s, a sharp temperature rise in the Indian Ocean has caused a 40 per cent drop in Sub-Saharan Africa precipitation levels. The resulting water shortage triggered the violence between black farmers and Arab nomads in Darfur. Ban proposes economic development as the solution and urges UN member states to work in conjunction with Khartoum, humanitarian agencies and NGOs to cater to Darfur's urgent needs.

This article explains how conflict over water and land distribution aligned black African farmers and Arab pastoralists against each other in Darfur. Khartoum's interference in favor of the pastoralists, beginning in 2003, politicized the issue, moving the conflict beyond the humanitarian issue of water shortage. ( Worldwide Faith News)

"Decades of mismanagement and climate change" are causing rivers in Africa and Asia to slowly dry up, threatening drought and increased conflict over natural resources in already vulnerable areas. Although nonprofit organizations and ecoconscious corporations have developed a multitude of simple and inexpensive ways to purify water, this Newsweek article reports that wealthy Western countries will likely "only really start to worry about the water when it isn't there."

Water shortages could lead to severe conflict says Rohini Nilekani in Yale Global. As climate change reduces freshwater supplies in glaciers and polar ice caps, depleted water stocks and unequal access to drinking water will cause intense competition for this most essential natural resource. Instead of focusing on maintaining modern lifestyles, Nilekani suggests that richer nations increase development aid to those countries most affected by water shortages, raise individual consciousness of water consumption and reduce the need to use fresh water to carry human waste.

The BBC analyzes the role of water in the Arab-Israeli conflict. Israel says that the proportion of water it uses has not changed substantially since the 1950s but Palestine claims that Israel allocates three to five times more water to its own citizens than to Palestinians. Israeli settlement activity has continued in some of the most sensitive areas of water dispute, with Israel pulling troops and settlers from Gaza and building a barrier around West Bank areas allegedly as a security measure. However the barrier encroaches onto occupied territory - especially some areas of high water yield.

Mark Zeitoun, researcher with the London Water Research Group, tells Inter Press Service that whilst water resources are not usually a sole cause for violent conflict, it can often be an element and sometimes sparks conflicts falling short of war. Whilst in theory there is enough water for everyone, access to water can be a highly political issue because it is such an instrumental factor in development and climate change will only exacerbate the problem. As well as occurring between countries, water conflicts can also be on a sub-national level, with different tribes or even members of the same tribe fighting over limited resources.

Inter Press Service discusses the strong links between drought and violent civil conflicts in the developing world. Marc Levy of the Centre for International Earth Science Information Network argues that whilst drought does not cause conflicts, it can contribute to them when there are already underlying political tensions between peoples. Discontentment grows in the developing world that while the rich are the main cause of global warming, the poor will suffer most from it.

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Picture Credit: UN Photo/Ky Chung As demand for water hits the limits of finite supply, potential conflicts are brewing between nations that share transboundary freshwater reserves. More than 50 countries on five continents might soon be caught up in water disputes unless they move quickly to establish agreements on how to share reservoirs, rivers, and underground water acquifers.

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Salva in A Long Walk is based on a real person. This video will introduce you to Salva and tell his inspiring story. There's more information at this link: http://www.waterforsouthsudan.org/salvas-story/

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http://www.waterforsouthsudan.org/salvas-story/  Documentary video of how Water for South Sudan transforms lives by drilling wells and providing safe, fresh water. Produced by POV-Rose Media, Rochester, NY for Water for South Sudan.

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Water for South Sudan is an organization set up to build wells and irrigation systems in South Sudan. They believe they can spread peace and health by providing people with access to water.

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It all started with a Lost Boy of Sudan who just kept walking...

Water for South Sudan began when a Lost Boy from a rural village in southwestern Sudan returned home, only to find his father fighting deadly waterborne parasites.

After seeing his father's condition, Salva decided to take matters into his own hands and help his community access better water, sanitation, and hygiene practices.

And today, we call this movement Water for South Sudan!

5 MILLION

people in South Sudan live without daily access to safe water and sanitation services.

3.7 MILES
Children, often girls, spend their days walking for water. They walk an average of 3.7 miles per trip. Sometimes they make multiple trips to obtain water, carrying up to 40 pounds (18 kgs) of water each time.

10 PERCENT
of people in South Sudan have access to basic sanitation services

20 Years of Watering the Seeds of Change

Water Wells

We help drill, maintain, and restore water wells so the people in South Sudan have access to clean water all year-round.

Hygiene

We make sure to educate communities about hygiene so that the clean water from existing wells doesn't get contaminated due to poor hygiene practices.

Sanitation

Our sanitation program makes sure people have access to latrines so communities can prevent the spread of diseases.

Subscribe to The Wellspring, our monthly newsletter.

Stay up-to-date with our news and events.

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people in South Sudan live without daily access to safe water and sanitation services. Children, often girls, spend their days walking for water. They walk an average of 3.7 miles per trip. Sometimes they make multiple trips to obtain water, carrying up to 40 pounds (18 kgs) of water each time.

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A Long Walk to Water takes place in South Sudan. South Sudan used to be part of the Republic of Sudan, but became a separate nation in 2011 (after the events in the story) in part because of the violence conflict described in this novel.

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South Sudan (), officially the Republic of South Sudan, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia, Sudan, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda and Kenya. Its population was estimated as 12,778,250 in 2019. Juba is the capital and largest city.

It gained independence from Sudan on 9 July 2011, making it the most recent sovereign state or country with widespread recognition as of 2022. It includes the vast swamp region of the Sudd, formed by the White Nile and known locally as the Bahr al Jabal, meaning "Mountain River". Sudan was occupied by Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty and was governed as an Anglo-Egyptian condominium until Sudanese independence in 1956. Following the First Sudanese Civil War, the Southern Sudan Autonomous Region was formed in 1972 and lasted until 1983. A second Sudanese civil war soon broke out in 1983 and ended in 2005 with the Comprehensive Peace Agreement. Later that year, southern autonomy was restored when an Autonomous Government of Southern Sudan was formed. South Sudan became an independent state on 9 July 2011, following 98.83% support for independence in a January 2011 referendum. It has suffered ethnic violence and endured a civil war characterised by rampant human rights abuses, including various ethnic massacres and killings of journalists by various parties to the conflict from December 2013 until February 2020, when competing combat leaders Salva Kiir Mayardit and Riek Machar struck a unity deal and formed a coalition government, paving the way for refugees to return home.

The South Sudanese population is composed mostly of Nilotic peoples, and it is demographically among the youngest nations in the world, with roughly half under 18 years old. The majority of inhabitants adhere to Christianity or various Indigenous faiths. The country is a member of the United Nations, the African Union, the East African Community, and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development.

The name Sudan is a name given to a geographical region to the south of the Sahara, stretching from Western Africa to eastern Central Africa. The name derives from the Arabic (بلاد السودان ), or the "Land of the Blacks".

The Nilotic people of South Sudan-the Dinka, Anyuak, Bari, Acholi, Nuer, Shilluk, Kaligi (Arabic Feroghe), and others-first entered South Sudan sometime before the 10th century, coinciding with the fall of medieval Nubia. From the 15th to the 19th century, tribal migrations, largely from the area of Bahr el Ghazal, brought the Anyuak, Dinka, Nuer and Shilluk to their modern locations in Bahr El Ghazal and the Upper Nile Region, while the Acholi and Bari settled in Equatoria. The Zande, Mundu, Avukaya and Baka, who entered South Sudan in the 16th century, established the region's largest state of Equatoria Region.

The Dinka is the largest, Nuer the second largest, the Zande the third-largest, and the Bari the fourth-largest of South Sudan's ethnic groups. They are found in the Maridi, Yambio, and Tombura districts in the tropical rainforest belt of Western Equatoria, the Adio of Azande client in Yei, Central Equatoria, and Western Bahr el Ghazal. In the 18th century, the Avungara sib rose to power over the rest of Azande society, a domination which continued into the 20th century. British policies favoring Christian missionaries, such as the Closed District Ordinance of 1922 (see History of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan), and geographical barriers such as the swamplands along the White Nile curtailed the spread of Islam to the south, thus allowing the southern tribes to retain much of their social and cultural heritage, as well as their political and religious institutions.

British colonial policy in Sudan had a long history of emphasizing development of the Arab north, and largely ignoring the Black African south, which lacked schools, hospitals, roads, bridges, and other basic infrastructure. After Sudan's first independent elections in 1958, the continued neglect of the southern region by the Khartoum government led to uprisings, revolt, and the longest civil war on the continent. Peoples affected by the violence included the Dinka, Nuer, Shilluk, Anyuak, Murle, Bari, Mundari, Baka, Balanda Bviri, Boya, Didinga, Jiye, Kaligi, Kuku, Lotuka, Nilotic, Toposa and Zande.

The Azande have had good relations with their neighbours, namely the Moru, Mundu, Pöjulu, Avukaya, Baka and the small groups in Bahr el Ghazal, due to the expansionist policy of their king Gbudwe, in the 18th century. In the 19th century, the Azande fought the French, the Belgians and the Mahdists to maintain their independence. Ottoman Egypt, under the rule of Khedive Ismail Pasha, first attempted to control the region in the 1870s, establishing the province of Equatoria in the southern portion. Egypt's first appointed governor was Samuel Baker, commissioned in 1869, followed by Charles George Gordon in 1874, and by Emin Pasha in 1878.

The Mahdist Revolt of the 1880s destabilized the nascent province, and Equatoria ceased to exist as an Egyptian outpost in 1889. Important settlements in Equatoria included Lado, Gondokoro, Dufile and Wadelai. European colonial maneuverings in the region came to a head in 1898, when the Fashoda Incident occurred at present-day Kodok; Britain and France almost went to war over the region. In 1947, British hopes of joining South Sudan with Uganda while leaving Western Equatoria as part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo were dashed by the Rajaf Conference to unify North and South Sudan.[citation needed ]

South Sudan has an estimated population of 8 million, but, given the lack of a census in several decades, this estimate may be severely distorted. The economy is predominantly rural and relies chiefly on subsistence farming. Around 2005, the economy began a transition from this rural dominance, and urban areas within South Sudan have seen extensive development.

The region has been negatively affected by two civil wars since Sudanese independence: from 1955 to 1972, the Sudanese government fought the Anyanya rebel army (Anya-Nya is a term in the Madi language which means "snake venom") during the First Sudanese Civil War, followed by the Sudan People's Liberation Army/Movement (SPLA/M) in the Second Sudanese Civil War for over 20 years. As a result, the country suffered serious neglect, a lack of infrastructural development, and major destruction and displacement. More than 2.5 million people have been killed, and millions more have become refugees both within and outside the country.

Independence (2011)

Between 9 and 15 January 2011, a referendum was held to determine whether South Sudan should become an independent country and separate from Sudan, with 98.83% of the population voting for independence. On 23 January 2011, members of a steering committee on post-independence governing told reporters that upon independence the land would be named the Republic of South Sudan "out of familiarity and convenience". Other names that had been considered were Azania, Nile Republic, Kush Republic and even Juwama, a portmanteau for Juba, Wau and Malakal, three major cities. South Sudan formally became independent from Sudan on 9 July, although certain disputes still remained, including the division of oil revenues, as 75% of all the former Sudan's oil reserves are in South Sudan. The region of Abyei still remains disputed and a separate referendum will be held in Abyei on whether they want to join Sudan or South Sudan. The South Kordofan conflict broke out in June 2011 between the Army of Sudan and the SPLA over the Nuba Mountains.

On 9 July 2011, South Sudan became the 54th independent country in Africa (9 July is now celebrated as Independence Day, a national holiday) and since 14 July 2011, South Sudan is the 193rd member of the United Nations. On 27 July 2011, South Sudan became the 54th country to join the African Union. In September 2011, Google Maps recognized South Sudan as an independent country, after a massive crowdsourcing mapping initiative was launched.

In 2011 it was reported that South Sudan was at war with at least seven armed groups in 9 of its 10 states, with tens of thousands displaced. The fighters accuse the government of plotting to stay in power indefinitely, not fairly representing and supporting all tribal groups while neglecting development in rural areas. Joseph Kony's Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) also operates in a wide area that includes South Sudan.

Inter-ethnic warfare that in some cases predates the war of independence is widespread. In December 2011, tribal clashes intensified between the Nuer White Army of the Lou Nuer and the Murle. The White Army warned it would wipe out the Murle and would also fight South Sudanese and UN forces sent to the area around Pibor.

In March 2012, South Sudanese forces seized the Heglig oil fields in lands claimed by both Sudan and South Sudan in the province of South Kordofan after conflict with Sudanese forces in the South Sudanese state of Unity. South Sudan withdrew on 20 March, and the Sudanese Army entered Heglig two days later.

Joining East Africa

Civil war (2013-2020)

In December 2013, a political power struggle broke out between President Kiir and his former deputy Riek Machar, as the president accused Machar and ten others of attempting a coup d'état. Fighting broke out, igniting the South Sudanese Civil War. Ugandan troops were deployed to fight alongside South Sudanese government forces against the rebels. The United Nations has peacekeepers in the country as part of the United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS). Numerous ceasefires were mediated by the Intergovernmental Authority on Development ( IGAD) between the Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) and SPLM - in opposition and were subsequently broken. A peace agreement was signed in Ethiopia under threat of United Nations sanctions for both sides in August 2015. Machar returned to Juba in 2016 and was appointed vice president. Following a second breakout of violence in Juba, Machar was replaced as vice-president and he fled the country as the conflict erupted again. Rebel in-fighting has become a major part of the conflict. Rivalry among Dinka factions led by the President and Malong Awan have also led to fighting. In August 2018, another power sharing agreement came into effect.

About 400,000 people are estimated to have been killed in the war, including notable atrocities such as the 2014 Bentiu massacre. Although both men have supporters from across South Sudan's ethnic divides, subsequent fighting has been communal, with rebels targeting members of Kiir's Dinka ethnic group and government soldiers attacking Nuers. More than 4 million people have been displaced, with about 1.8 million of those internally displaced, and about 2.5 million having fled to neighboring countries, especially Uganda and Sudan.

On 20 February 2020, Salva Kiir Mayardit and Riek Machar agreed to a peace deal, and on 22 February 2020 formed a national unity government.

Post-civil war (2020-present)

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Government and politics

Government

The now-defunct Southern Sudan Legislative Assembly ratified a transitional constitution shortly before independence on 9 July 2011. The constitution was signed by the President of South Sudan on Independence Day and thereby came into force. It is now the supreme law of the land, superseding the Interim Constitution of 2005.

The constitution establishes a presidential system of government headed by a president who is head of state, head of government, and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. It also establishes the National Legislature comprising two houses: a directly elected assembly, the National Legislative Assembly, and a second chamber of representatives of the states, the Council of States.

John Garang, the founder of the SPLA/M, was the first president of the autonomous government until his death on 30 July 2005. Salva Kiir Mayardit, his deputy, was sworn in as First Vice President of Sudan and President of the Government of Southern Sudan on 11 August 2005. Riek Machar replaced him as Vice-President of the Government. Legislative power is vested in the government and the bicameral National Legislature. The constitution also provides for an independent judiciary, the highest organ being the Supreme Court.

National capital project

The capital of South Sudan is located at Juba, which is also the state capital of Central Equatoria and the county seat of the eponymous Juba County, and is the country's largest city. However, due to Juba's poor infrastructure and massive urban growth, as well as its lack of centrality within South Sudan, the South Sudanese Government adopted a resolution in February 2011 to study the creation of a new planned city to serve as the seat of government. It is planned that the capital city will be changed to the more centrally located Ramciel. This proposal is functionally similar to construction projects in Abuja, Nigeria; Brasília, Brazil; and Canberra, Australia; among other modern-era planned national capitals. It is unclear how the government will fund the project.

In September 2011, a spokesman for the government said the country's political leaders had accepted a proposal to build a new capital at Ramciel, a place in Lakes state near the borders with Central Equatoria and Jonglei. Ramciel is considered to be the geographical center of the country, and the late pro-independence leader John Garang allegedly had plans to relocate the capital there before his death in 2005. The proposal was supported by the Lakes state government and at least one Ramciel tribal chief. The design, planning, and construction of the city will likely take as many as five years, government ministers said, and the move of national institutions to the new capital will be implemented in stages.

2020-present

As a result of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement signed in 2005, the Abyei Area was given special administrative status and following the independence of South Sudan in 2011, is considered to be simultaneously part of both the Republic of Sudan and the Republic of South Sudan, effectively a condominium.

The Kafia Kingi area is disputed between South Sudan and Sudan and the Ilemi Triangle is disputed between South Sudan and Kenya.

The states of and administrative areas are grouped into the three former historical provinces of the Sudan; Bahr el Ghazal, Equatoria and Greater Upper Nile:

In October 2015, South Sudan's President Salva Kiir issued a decree establishing 28 states in place of the 10 constitutionally established states. The decree established the new states largely along ethnic lines. A number of opposition parties and civil society challenged the constitutionality of this decree and Kiir later resolved to take it to parliament for approval as a constitutional amendment. In November the South Sudanese parliament empowered President Kiir to create new states.

The Abyei Area, a small region of Sudan bordering on the South Sudanese states of Northern Bahr el Ghazal, Warrap, and Unity, currently has a special administrative status in Sudan and is governed by an Abyei Area Administration. It was due to hold a referendum in 2011 on whether to join South Sudan or remain part of the Republic of Sudan, but in May the Sudanese military seized Abyei, and it is not clear if the referendum will be held.

Prior to 2015, South Sudan was divided into the current 10 states, which also correspond to three historical regions: Bahr el Ghazal, Equatoria, and Greater Upper Nile:

As of 2015, South Sudan has the third highest military spending as a percentage of GDP in the world, behind only Oman and Saudi Arabia.

While former Information Minister Barnaba Marial Benjamin vowed that South Sudan will respect freedom of the press and allow journalists unrestricted access in the country, the chief editor of Juba newspaper The Citizen claimed that in the absence of a formal media law in the fledgling republic, he and his staff have faced abuse at the hands of security forces. This alleged fettering of media freedom was attributed in an Al Jazeera report to the difficulty SPLM has faced in reforming itself as a legitimate government after years of leading a rebellion against the Sudanese government. The Citizen is South Sudan's largest newspaper, but poor infrastructure and poverty have kept its staff relatively small and limited the efficiency of both its reporting and its circulation outside of Juba, with no dedicated news bureaus in outlying states and newspapers often taking several days to reach states like Northern Bahr el Ghazal. In May 2020, South Sudan Friendship Press was established as the country's first dedicated online news website.

Censorship

On 1 November 2011, South Sudan's National Security Services (NSS) arrested the editor of a private Juba-based daily, Destiny, and suspended its activities indefinitely. This was in response to an opinion article by columnist Dengdit Ayok, entitled "Let Me Say So", which criticized the president for allowing his daughter to marry an Ethiopian national, and accused him of "staining his patriotism". An official letter accused the newspaper of breaking "the media code of conduct and professional ethics", and of publishing "illicit news" that was defamatory, inciting, and invading the privacy of personalities. The Committee to Protect Journalists had voiced concerns over media freedoms in South Sudan in September. The NSS released the journalists without charge after having held them for 18 days.

In 2015, Salva Kiir threatened to kill journalists who reported "against the country". Work conditions have become terrible for journalists, and many have left the country. Documentary filmmaker Ochan Hannington is one of them. In August 2015, after journalist Peter Moi was killed in a targeted attack, being the seventh journalist killed during the year, South Sudanese journalists held a 24-hour news blackout.

In August 2017, a 26-year-old American journalist, Christopher Allen, was killed in Kaya, Yei River State, during fighting between government and opposition forces. Christopher Allen was a freelance journalist who had worked for several U.S. news outlets. He had been reportedly embedded with the opposition forces in South Sudan for a week before he was killed. The same month, President Salva Kiir said the millions of civilians fleeing South Sudan were being driven by the propaganda from social media users conspiring against his government. Just a month prior in July 2017, access to major news websites and popular blogs including Sudan Tribune and Radio Tamazuj had been blocked by the government without formal notice. In June 2020, access to Sudans Post, a local news website, was blocked by the government following the publication of an article deemed defamatory by the NSS. Two months later, Qurium Media Foundation, a Swedish non-profit organization, announced that it has deployed a mirror for the website to circumvent the government blocking.

Foreign relations

Since independence, relations with Sudan have been changing. Sudan's President Omar al-Bashir first announced, in January 2011, that dual citizenship in the North and the South would be allowed, but upon the independence of South Sudan he retracted the offer. He has also suggested an EU-style confederation. Essam Sharaf, Prime Minister of Egypt after the 2011 Egyptian Revolution, made his first foreign visit to Khartoum and Juba in the lead-up to South Sudan's secession. Israel quickly recognized South Sudan as an independent country, and is host to thousands of refugees from South Sudan, who now face deportation to their native country. According to American sources, President Obama officially recognised the new state after Sudan, Egypt, Germany and Kenya were among the first to recognise the country's independence on 8 July 2011. Several states that participated in the international negotiations concluded with a self-determination referendum were also quick to acknowledge the overwhelming result. The Rationalist process included Kenya, Uganda, Egypt, Ethiopia, Libya, Eritrea, the United Kingdom and Norway.

South Sudan is a member state of the United Nations, the African Union, and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa. South Sudan plans to join the Commonwealth of Nations, the East African Community, the International Monetary Fund, OPEC+, and the World Bank. Some international trade organizations categorize South Sudan as part of the Greater Horn of Africa.

Full membership in the Arab League has been assured, should the country's government choose to seek it, though it could also opt for observer status. It was admitted to UNESCO on 3 November 2011. On 25 November 2011, it officially joined the Intergovernmental Authority on Development, a regional grouping of East African states.

The United States supported the 2011 referendum on South Sudan's independence. The New York Times reported that "South Sudan is in many ways an American creation, carved out of war-torn Sudan in a referendum largely orchestrated by the United States, its fragile institutions nurtured with billions of dollars in American aid." The U.S. government's long-standing sanctions against Sudan were officially removed from applicability to newly independent South Sudan in December 2011, and senior RSS officials participated in a high-level international engagement conference in Washington, D.C., to help connect foreign investors with the RSS and South Sudanese private sector representatives. Given the interdependence between some sectors of the economy of the Republic of South Sudan and the Republic of Sudan, certain activities still require OFAC authorization. Absent a license, current Sudanese sanction regulations will continue to prohibit U.S. persons from dealing in property and interests that benefit Sudan or the Government of Sudan. A 2011 Congressional Research Service report, "The Republic of South Sudan: Opportunities and Challenges for Africa's Newest Country", identifies outstanding political and humanitarian issues as the country forges its future.

In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including South Sudan, have signed a joint letter to the UNHRC defending China's treatment of Uyghurs in the Xinjiang region.

Human rights

Campaigns of atrocities against civilians have been attributed to the SPLA. In the SPLA/M's attempt to disarm rebellions among the Shilluk and Murle, they burned scores of villages, raped hundreds of women and girls and killed an untold number of civilians. Civilians alleging torture claim fingernails being torn out, burning plastic bags dripped on children to make their parents hand over weapons, and villagers burned alive in their huts if it was suspected that rebels had spent the night there. In May 2011, the SPLA allegedly set fire to over 7,000 homes in Unity State.

The UN reports many of these violations and the frustrated director of one Juba-based international aid agency calls them "human rights abuses off the Richter scale". In 2010, the CIA issued a warning that "over the next five years,...a new mass killing or genocide is most likely to occur in southern Sudan." The Nuer White Army has stated it wished to " wipe out the entire Murle tribe on the face of the earth as the only solution to guarantee long-term security of Nuer's cattle" and activists, including Minority Rights Group International, warned of genocide in Jonglei. At the beginning of 2017, genocide was imminent again.

The child marriage rate in South Sudan is 52%. Homosexual acts are illegal.

Recruitment of child soldiers has also been cited as a serious problem in the country. In April 2014, Navi Pillay, then the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, stated that more than 9,000 child soldiers had been fighting in South Sudan's civil war.

The United Nations rights office has described the situation in the country as "one of the most horrendous human rights situations in the world". It accused the army and allied militias of allowing fighters to rape women as form of payment for fighting, as well as raid cattle in an agreement of "do what you can, take what you can." Amnesty International claimed the army suffocated to death in a shipping container more than 60 people accused of supporting the opposition.

South Sudan lies between latitudes 3° and 13°N, and longitudes 24° and 36°E. It is covered in tropical forest, swamps, and grassland. The White Nile passes through the country, passing by Juba.

South Sudan's protected area of Bandingilo National Park hosts the second-largest wildlife migration in the world. Surveys have revealed that Boma National Park, west of the Ethiopian border, as well as the Sudd wetland and Southern National Park near the border with Congo, provided habitat for large populations of hartebeest, kob, topi, buffalo, elephants, giraffes, and lions.

South Sudan's forest reserves also provided habitat for bongo, giant forest hogs, red river hogs, forest elephants, chimpanzees, and forest monkeys. Surveys begun in 2005 by WCS in partnership with the semi-autonomous government of Southern Sudan revealed that significant, though diminished wildlife populations still exist, and that, astonishingly, the huge migration of 1.3 million antelopes in the southeast is substantially intact.

Habitats in the country include grasslands, high-altitude plateaus and escarpments, wooded and grassy savannas, floodplains, and wetlands. Associated wildlife species include the endemic white-eared kob and Nile Lechwe, as well as elephants, giraffes, common eland, giant eland, oryx, lions, African wild dogs, cape buffalo, and topi (locally called tiang). Little is known about the white-eared kob and tiang, both types of antelope, whose magnificent migrations were legendary before the civil war. The Boma-Jonglei Landscape region encompasses Boma National Park, broad pasturelands and floodplains, Bandingilo National Park, and the Sudd, a vast area of swamp and seasonally flooded grasslands that includes the Zeraf Wildlife Reserve.

Little is known of the fungi of South Sudan. A list of fungi in Sudan was prepared by S. A. J. Tarr and published by the then Commonwealth Mycological Institute (Kew, Surrey, UK) in 1955. The list, of 383 species in 175 genera, included all fungi observed within the then boundaries of the country. Many of those records relate to what is now South Sudan. Most of the species recorded were associated with diseases of crops. The true number of species of fungi in South Sudan is probably much higher.

Several ecoregions extend across South Sudan: the East Sudanian savanna, Northern Congolian forest-savanna mosaic, Saharan flooded grasslands (Sudd), Sahelian Acacia savanna, East African montane forests, and the Northern Acacia-Commiphora bushlands and thickets.

South Sudan has a tropical climate, characterized by a rainy season of high humidity and large amounts of rainfall followed by a drier season. The temperature on average is always high with July being the coolest month with average temperatures falling between 20 and 30 °C (68 and 86 °F) and March being the warmest month with average temperatures ranging from 23 to 37 °C (73 to 98 °F).

Demographics

South Sudan has a population of approximately 11 million and a predominantly rural, subsistence economy. This region has been negatively affected by war for all but 10 of the years since 1956, resulting in serious neglect, lack of infrastructure development, and major destruction and displacement. More than 2 million people have died, and more than 4 million are internally displaced persons or became refugees as a result of the civil war and its impact.

Ethnic groups

The major ethnic groups present in South Sudan are the Dinka at more than 1 million (approximately 15 percent combined), the Nuer (approximately five percent), the Bari, and the Azande. The Shilluk constitute a historically influential state along the White Nile, and their language is fairly closely related to Dinka and Nuer. The traditional territories of the Shilluk and the Northeastern Dinka are adjacent. Currently, around 800,000 expatriates from the Horn of Africa are living in South Sudan.

Unlike the previous educational system of the regional Southern Sudan-which was modeled after the system used in the Republic of Sudan since 1990-the current educational system of the Republic of South Sudan follows the 8 + 4 + 4 system (similar to Kenya). Primary education consists of eight years, followed by four years of secondary education, and then four years of university instruction.

The primary language at all levels is English, as compared to the Republic of Sudan, where the language of instruction is Arabic. In 2007, South Sudan adopted English as the official language of communication. There is a severe shortage of English teachers and English-speaking teachers in the scientific and technical fields.

On 1 October 2019, The South Sudan Library Foundation opened South Sudan's first public library, the Juba Public Peace Library in Gudele 2. The library currently employs a staff of over 40 volunteers and maintains a collection of over 13,000 books. The South Sudan Library Foundation was co-founded by Yawusa Kintha and Kevin Lenahan.

The official language of South Sudan is English. All indigenous languages spoken in South Sudan are national languages of which Dinka, Nuer, Murle, Luo, Ma'di, Otuho, and Zande are the most widely spoken.

There are over 60 indigenous languages, most classified under the Nilo-Saharan Language family; collectively, they represent two of the first-order divisions of Nile Sudanic and Central Sudanic.

The government of the new independent state later removed Arabic as an official language and chose English as the sole official language.

The new transitional constitution of the Republic of South Sudan of 2011 declares in Part 1, Chapter 1, No. 6 (1) that "[a]ll indigenous languages of South Sudan are national languages and shall be respected, developed and promoted." In Part 1, Chapter 1, No. 6 (2), it is defined that "English shall be the official working language in the Republic of South Sudan, as well as the language of instruction at all levels of education."

In the border region between Western Bahr el Ghazal state and Sudan are an indeterminate number of people from West African countries who settled here on their way back from Mecca - who have assumed a traditionally nomadic life - that resides either seasonally or permanently. They primarily speak Chadian languages and their traditional territories are in the southern portions of the Sudanese regions of Northern Kurdufan and Darfur.

In the capital, Juba, there are several thousand people who use non-classical Arabic, usually a pidgin called Juba Arabic, but South Sudan's ambassador to Kenya said on 2 August 2011 that Swahili will be introduced in South Sudan with the goal of supplanting Arabic as a lingua franca, in keeping with the country's intention of orientation toward the East African Community rather than Sudan and the Arab League. Nevertheless, South Sudan submitted an application to join the Arab League as a member state on 25 March 2014, which is still pending. In an interview with the newspaper Asharq Al-Awsat, the Foreign Minister of South Sudan Deng Alor Kuol said: South Sudan is the closest African country to the Arab world, and we speak a special kind of Arabic known as Juba Arabic. Sudan supports South Sudan's request to join the Arab League. Juba Arabic is a lingua franca in South Sudan.

Population

2008 census

The "Fifth Population and Housing Census of Sudan", for Sudan as a whole, was conducted in April 2008. The census counted the Southern Sudan population at 8.26 million; However, Southern Sudanese officials rejected the census results of Southern Sudan because "the central bureau of statistics in Khartoum refused to share the national Sudan raw census data with the southern Sudan centre for census, statistics and evaluation."

2009 census

Religions followed by the South Sudanese include traditional indigenous religions, Christianity and Islam. The last census to mention the religion of southerners dates back to 1956 where a majority were classified as following traditional beliefs or were Christian while 18% were Muslim. Scholarly and some U.S. Department of State sources state that a majority of southern Sudanese maintain traditional indigenous (sometimes referred to as animist) beliefs with those following Christianity in a minority. However, according to the U.S. State Department's International Religious Freedom Report of 2012 the majority of the population adhere to Christianity, while reliable statistics on animist and Muslim belief are not available.

The Federal Research Division of the US Library of Congress states that "in the early 1990s possibly no more than 10% of southern Sudan's population was Christian". In the early 1990s, official records of Sudan claimed that the population of what was then included as South Sudan, 25% of people followed traditional religions and 5% were Christians. However, some news reports claim a Christian majority.

According to the World Christian Encyclopedia, the Catholic Church is the largest single Christian body in Sudan since 1995, with 2.7 million Catholics mainly concentrated in South Sudan. The US Episcopal Church claims the existence of large numbers of Anglican adherents from the Episcopal Church of the Sudan with 2 million members in 2005. The Presbyterian Church in Sudan is the third largest denomination in Southern Sudan. It has about one million members in 500 congregations in 2012.

Speaking at Saint Theresa Cathedral in Juba, South Sudanese President Kiir, a Roman Catholic, said that South Sudan would be a nation that respects freedom of religion. Amongst Christians, most are Catholic or Anglican, though other denominations are also active, and animist beliefs are often blended with Christian beliefs.

The South Sudanese diaspora consists of citizens of South Sudan residing abroad. The number of South Sudanese outside South Sudan has sharply increased since the beginning of the struggle for independence from the Sudan. Almost one and a half million South Sudanese have left the country as refugees, either permanently or as temporary workforce, leading to the establishment of the South Sudanese diaspora population.[citation needed ]

The largest communities of the South Sudanese diaspora are located in North America, Western Europe, and Oceania are in the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Australia, and small communities exist in France, Italy, Germany, Sweden, and New Zealand.

Due to the many years of civil war, South Sudan's culture is heavily influenced by its neighbours. Many South Sudanese fled to Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda where they interacted with the nationals and learned their languages and culture. Most of those who remained in Sudan until or after independence partially assimilated to Sudanese culture and speak Juba Arabic or Sudanese Arabic.

Most South Sudanese value knowing one's tribal origin, its traditional culture and dialect even while in exile and diaspora. Although the common languages spoken are Juba Arabic and English, Swahili might be introduced to the population to improve the country's relations with its East African neighbours.[citation needed ]

Many music artists from South Sudan use English, Swahili, Juba Arabic, their African language or a mix of all. Popular artists like Barbz, Yaba Angelosi, De Peace Child sing Afro-beat, R&B, and Zouk; Dynamq is popular for his reggae releases; and Emmanuel Kembe who sings folk, reggae and Afro-beat. Also hip hop artists like Emmanuel Jal, FTG Metro, Flizzame and Dugga Mulla (of FMG). Emmanuel being one of the South Sudaneses music artist's who have broken through on an international level with his unique form of hip hop and a positive message in his lyrics. Jal, a former child soldier turned musician, received good airplay and album reviews in the UK and has also been sought out for the lecture circuit with major talks at popular talkfests like TED.

Games and sports

Association football is also becoming popular in South Sudan, and there are many initiatives by the Government of South Sudan and other partners to promote the sport and improve the level of play. One of these initiatives is South Sudan Youth Sports Association (SSYSA). SSYSA is already holding football clinics in Konyokonyo and Muniki areas of Juba in which young boys are coached. In recognition of these efforts with youth football, the country recently hosted the CECAFA youth football competitions. Barely a month earlier, it had also hosted the larger East African Schools Sports tournaments.[citation needed ]

The South Sudan national association football team joined the Confederation of African Football in February 2012 and became a full FIFA member in May 2012. The team played its first match against Tusker FC of the Kenyan Premier League on 10 July 2011 in Juba as part of independence celebrations, scoring early but losing 1-3 to the more experienced team. Famous South Sudanese footballers are James Moga, Richard Justin, Athir Thomas, Goma Genaro Awad, Khamis Leyano, Khamis Martin, William Afani Clicks and Roy Gulwak.

The South Sudanese can boast links to top basketball players. Luol Deng was a National Basketball Association star in the United States; at the international level, he represented Great Britain. Other leading international basketball players from South Sudan include Manute Bol, Kueth Duany, Deng Gai, Ater Majok, Wenyen Gabriel, and Thon Maker. The South Sudan national basketball team played its first match against the Uganda national basketball team on 10 July 2011 in Juba.

One athlete from South Sudan, Guor Marial, competed in the 2012 Summer Olympics. Due to South Sudan not as yet possessing an official Olympics organization, and Marial not yet possessing American citizenship, he, along with three athletes from the former Netherlands Antilles, competed under the banner of Independent Olympic Athletes.

The economy of South Sudan is one of the world's most underdeveloped with South Sudan having little existing infrastructure and the highest maternal mortality and female illiteracy rates in the world as of 2011. South Sudan exports timber to the international market. The region also contains many natural resources such as petroleum, iron ore, copper, chromium ore, zinc, tungsten, mica, silver, gold, diamonds, hardwoods, limestone and hydropower. The country's economy, as in many other developing countries, is heavily dependent on agriculture.

Other than natural resources-based companies, other such organisations include Southern Sudan Beverages Limited, a subsidiary of SABMiller.

The oilfields in the south have been significant to the economy since the latter part of the 20th century. South Sudan has the third-largest oil reserves in Sub-Saharan Africa. However, after South Sudan became an independent nation in July 2011, southern and northern negotiators were not immediately able to reach an agreement on how to split the revenue from these southern oilfields.

It is estimated that South Sudan has around 4 times the oil deposits of Sudan. The oil revenues, according to the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA), were split equally for the duration of the agreement period. Since South Sudan relies on pipelines, refineries, and Port Sudan's facilities in Red Sea state in Sudan, the agreement stated that the government of Sudan in Khartoum would receive a 50% share of all oil revenues. This arrangement was maintained during the second period of autonomy from 2005 to 2011.

After independence, South Sudan objected to Sudan charging US$34 per barrel to transport oil through the pipeline to the oil terminal at Port Sudan. With production of around 30,000 barrels per day, this was costing over a million dollars per day. In January 2012, South Sudan suspended oil production, causing a dramatic reduction in revenue and food costs to rise by 120%. In 2017, Nile Drilling & Services became South Sudan's first locally owned and run petroleum drilling company.

China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) is a major investor in South Sudan's oil sector. South Sudan's economy is under pressure to diversify away from oil as oil reserves will likely halve by 2020 if no new finds are made, according to the International Monetary Fund (IMF).

In terms of South Sudan's external debt, Sudan and South Sudan maintain a shared debt of approximately US$38 billion, all of which has accumulated throughout the past five decades. Though a small portion of this debt is owed to such international institutions as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (approximately US$5.3 billion according to a 2009 report provided by the Bank of Sudan), the bulk of its debt load is actually owed to numerous foreign actors that have provided the nation with financial loans, including the Paris Club (over US$11 billion) and also non-Paris Club bilateral creditors (over US$13 billion).

East African Community membership

The presidents of Kenya and Rwanda invited the Autonomous Government of Southern Sudan to apply for membership to the East African Community upon the independence of South Sudan in 2011, and South Sudan was reportedly an applicant country as of mid-July 2011. Analysts suggested that South Sudan's early efforts to integrate infrastructure, including rail links and oil pipelines, with systems in Kenya and Uganda indicated intention on the part of Juba to pivot away from dependence on Sudan and toward the EAC.

On 17 September 2011, the Daily Nation quoted a South Sudanese MP as saying that while his government was eager to join the EAC, it would likely delay its membership over concerns that its economy was not sufficiently developed to compete with EAC member states and could become a "dumping ground" for Kenyan, Tanzanian, and Ugandan exports. This was contradicted by President Salva Kiir, who announced South Sudan had officially embarked on the application process one month later. The application was initially deferred by the EAC in December 2012, and incidents with Ugandan boda-boda operators in South Sudan created political tension.

South Sudan's Minister of Foreign Affairs, Barnaba Marial Benjamin, claimed publicly in October 2015 that, following unpublished evaluations and meetings of a special technical committee in May, June, August, September and October, the committee has recommended that South Sudan be allowed to join the East African Community.

South Sudan and the Commonwealth of Nations

South Sudan has applied to join the Commonwealth of Nations, considering that South Sudan was part of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and has 2 republics in the Commonwealth of Nations, Kenya and Uganda as neighbouring countries.

South Sudan has 248 km (154 mi) of single-track 1,067 mm () gauge railway line from the Sudanese border to Wau terminus. There are proposed extensions from Wau to Juba. There are also plans to link Juba with the Kenyan and Ugandan railway networks.

The busiest and most developed airport in South Sudan is Juba Airport, which has regular international connections to Asmara, Entebbe, Nairobi, Cairo, Addis Ababa, and Khartoum. Juba Airport was also the home base of Feeder Airlines Company and Southern Star Airlines.

Other international airports include Malakal, with international flights to Addis Ababa and Khartoum; Wau, with weekly service to Khartoum; and Rumbek, also with weekly flights to Khartoum. Southern Sudan Airlines also serves Nimule and Akobo, which have unpaved runways. Several smaller airports exist throughout South Sudan, the majority consisting of little more than dirt runways.

On 4 April 2012, plans were unveiled to launch a South Sudanese national airline, primarily for domestic service at first but eventually expanding to international service.

Humanitarian situation

According to the United Nations, there are 8.3 million people in need of humanitarian aid in South Sudan as of January 2021. South Sudan is acknowledged to have some of the worst health indicators in the world. The under-five infant mortality rate is 135.3 per 1,000, whilst maternal mortality is the highest in the world at 2,053.9 per 100,000 live births. In 2004, there were only three surgeons serving in southern Sudan, with three proper hospitals, and in some areas there was just one doctor for every 500,000 people.

The epidemiology of HIV/AIDS in the South Sudan is poorly documented but the prevalence is believed around 3.1%. According to a 2013 study, South Sudan "probably has the highest malaria burden in sub-Saharan Africa". South Sudan is one of the few countries where dracunculiasis still occurs.

Famine reportedly led to deaths in Northern Bahr el Ghazal and Warrap states in mid-2011, though the state governments of both denied hunger there was severe enough to cause fatalities.

In Pibor County located in the Jonglei State, in December 2011 and January 2012, cattle raids led to border clashes that eventually resulted in widespread ethnic violence, with thousands of deaths and tens of thousands of South Sudanese being displaced, and hundreds of Médecins Sans Frontières staff went missing. The government declared the area a disaster zone and took control from local authorities. South Sudan has a very high rate of child marriage. Violence against women is common in the country, and South Sudan's laws and policies have been criticized as inadequate in offering protection.

Water crisis

The water supply in South Sudan is faced with numerous challenges. Although the White Nile runs through the country, water is scarce during the dry season in areas that are not located on the river.

About half the population does not have access to an improved water source, defined as a protected well, standpipe or a handpump within one kilometre. The few existing piped water supply systems are often not well maintained and the water they provide is often not safe to drink. Displaced people returning home put a huge strain on infrastructure, and the government institutions in charge of the sector are weak. Substantial external funding from numerous government agencies and non-governmental organizations is available to improve water supply.

Numerous non-governmental organizations support water supply in Southern Sudan, such as Water is Basic, Water for South Sudan, the Obakki Foundation and Bridgton-Lake Region Rotary Club from North America.

As of February 2014, South Sudan was host to over 230,000 refugees, with the vast majority, over 209,000, having arrived recently from Sudan, because of the War in Darfur. Other African countries that contribute the most refugees to South Sudan are the Central African Republic, Ethiopia, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. As a result of the war that erupted in December 2013, more than 2.3 million people - one in every five people in South Sudan - have been forced to flee their homes, including 1.66 million internally displaced people (with 53.4 per cent estimated to be children) and nearly 644,900 refugees in neighbouring countries. Some 185,000 internally displaced people (IDPs) have sought refuge in UN Protection of Civilians (PoC) sites, while around 90 percent of IDPs are on the run or sheltering outside PoC sites. Consequently, UNHCR is stepping up its response through an inter-agency collaborative approach under the leadership of the Humanitarian Coordinator, and working with the International Organization for Migration (IOM). In early February 2013, UNHCR started distributing relief items outside the UN base in Malakal, South Sudan, which was expected to reach 10,000 people.

2017 famine

On 20 February 2017 South Sudan and the United Nations declared a famine in parts of former Unity State, with the warning that it could spread rapidly without further action. Over 100,000 people were affected. The UN World Food Programme said that 40% of the population of South Sudan, 4.9 million people, need food urgently. U.N. officials said that President Salva Kiir Mayardit was blocking food deliveries to some areas. Furthermore, UNICEF warned that more than 1 million children in South Sudan were subjected to malnutrition.

References

Further reading

This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Country Studies. Federal Research Division. - Sudan

Walter C. Soderlund, E. Donald Briggs, The Independence of South Sudan: The Role of Mass Media in the Responsibility to Prevent, Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2014. pp. $38.99 (paper), ISBN 978-1-77112-117-0

Mohamed Omer Beshir: The Southern Sudan. Background to Conflict. C. Hurst & Co., London 1968.

Biel, Melha Rout (2007). South Sudan after the Comprehensive Peace Agreement. Jena: Netzbandt Verlag. ISBN 978-3-937884-01-1.

Daly, M. W.; Rolandsen, Øystein H. (2016). A History of South Sudan: From Slavery to Independence. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-11631-2. OCLC 921821890.

Tvedt, Terje (2004). South Sudan. An Annotated Bibliography. (2 vols) (2nd ed.). London/New York: IB Tauris. ISBN 978-1-86064-987-5.

"Profile: Southern Sudan leader Salva Kiir". BBC Online. 5 January 2011.

"No One to Intervene: Gaps in Civilian Protection in Southern Sudan" (PDF). New York: Human Rights Watch. June 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 October 2011.

External links

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South Sudan (), officially the Republic of South Sudan, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia, Sudan, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda and Kenya. Its population was estimated as 12,778,250 in 2019. Juba is the capital and largest city.

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This article describes the struggles that many of the world's poorest people have because they do not have access to water.

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Newsela | For many of the world's poor, drinking water can kill

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Sipping water, brushing your teeth and taking a shower are all healthy habits, right? But what if doing any of those things could kill you?