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Lupe Vélez sings La Negra Consentida (1939)

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*The data collected to prove ALMO will be the most powerful president in Mexico

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*The data collected to prove ALMO will be the most powerful president in Mexico

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T HE SCRAPPERS and dreamers on Mexico's political left have waited more than three decades for national power. The inauguration on December 1st of Andrés Manuel López Obrador as Mexico's president ends the wait. The 65-year-old former mayor of Mexico City will be sworn in before a crowd that will include dignitaries from 28 countries. Mr López Obrador, or AMLO, as he is known, will don a tricolour presidential sash for a second time. The first was in 2006, when he refused to accept defeat in that year's presidential election.
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This time the sash is the real one. Voters gave AMLO the biggest democratic mandate in Mexico's history. He won with 53% of the vote, defeating his nearest rival by 30 percentage points. Angered by corruption, violence and economic torpor, they accepted his argument that the political system needs renewal, not technocratic tweaks.

As AMLO prepares for what he calls the "fourth transformation" of Mexico, a term suggesting that his election is as important as the revolution of 1910-20, his power and popularity have grown. He controls Morena, the party he founded in 2014. Along with its allies it has majorities in both houses of congress. Critics have gone quiet. Emboldened, he has dropped a promise not to change the constitution in the first half of his six-year term. Polls suggest that two-thirds of Mexicans support him.

In recent weeks, AMLO has retreated from the pragmatism he sometimes espoused in the campaign, which had reassured some middle-class Mexicans and investors. Instead, he has pursued a populist agenda that has shocked markets even as it consolidates his power. In October he said he would cancel a $13bn airport for Mexico City that is already one-third built. That decision came after 1% of Mexican voters took part in a consulta organised by Morena to answer a question AMLO himself wrote: do they prefer the airport now being built or his alternative scheme? The president-elect's allies in the new congress, which began in September, have introduced bills regulating banking, mining and pensions. The stockmarket has lost nearly a fifth of its value since early October.

AMLO sceptics had hoped that, in the absence of strong political checks and balances, financial markets would constrain him. That could happen. The central bank raised interest rates after the airport vote, which will slow the economy and oblige the government to pay more to bondholders. After November 26th, when the stockmarket fell by 4%, the government calmed investors somewhat by promoting two respected officials. The budget, due to be presented to congress by December 15th, will give the new government a chance to show that it is serious about fiscal stability, says Gabriel Lozano of J.P. Morgan, a bank.

But many of AMLO's allies see stability as the continuation of an unjust status quo. Ricardo Monreal, the leader of Morena in the senate, says that many firms' profits are too high and that regulations are needed to "disturb their accumulation of wealth". Markets will change their minds when they see how well AMLO governs, he says.

AMLO's crimebusting army

The new president is certainly energetic. He has assented to an updated version of the North American Free Trade Agreement with Canada and the United States. He has put forward 50 ideas for curbing corruption and promoting thrift in the public sector and is beginning to implement them. He will cut his own salary by 60% and cut the pay of senior civil servants to that level. He has unveiled a crime-fighting plan that includes creating a 50,000-strong National Guard under military command. Morena has proposed a bill to legalise cannabis. AMLO intends to give apprenticeships to jobless youths and higher pensions to the aged. His many projects include a tourist train through the south and a refinery in his home state of Tabasco.

AMLO is pursuing his goals through an unconventional combination of congressional deliberation and direct democracy. Congress passed the law that caps bureaucrats' pay. But AMLO plans to put most big decisions-and many small ones-directly to the people. The tourist train and refinery were approved in a vote on November 24th-25th, which attracted the same tiny fraction of the electorate that the airport consulta did. Voters approved eight other schemes, including a ballot proposal to "plant fruit and wood trees across 1m hectares, creating 400,000 permanent jobs".

In a third consulta next March, voters will probably approve the National Guard, which is contentious. Human-rights activists and the supreme court do not think the army should be involved in policing. AMLO agreed with them until recently. He plans to let people vote on whether to prosecute former presidents for corruption but says, confusingly, that he is against it. Midway through his term, voters are promised a chance to recall him from office.

What looks like extra accountability is, in fact, a way of amassing power. The referendums marginalise congress. But AMLO is prepared to go through the legislature, especially if he fears the people's verdict. A bill to undo education reforms, one of the few popular achievements of the outgoing government, will be introduced in mid-December. Congress passed a law that allows AMLO to name "super-delegates" to supervise each state's spending. That will tame governors who might oppose him.

Mexico is about to have "a strong president, like there hasn't been in the past 30 years", says Mr Monreal approvingly. AMLO will have no excuses for failure.

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AMLO will be the most powerful Mexican president in decades

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THE SCRAPPERS and dreamers on Mexico's political left have waited more than three decades for national power. The inauguration on December 1st of Andrés Manuel López Obrador as Mexico's president ends the wait. The 65-year-old former mayor of Mexico City will be sworn in before a crowd that will include dignitaries from 28 countries.

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MEXICO CITY - President Andrés Manuel López Obrador launched an ambitious plan Saturday to stimulate economic activity on the Mexican side of the U.S.-Mexico border, reinforcing his country's commitment to manufacturing and trade despite recent U.S. threats to close the border entirely.

Mexico will slash income and corporate taxes to 20 percent from 30 percent for 43 municipalities in six states just south of the U.S., while halving to 8 percent the value-added tax in the region. Business leaders and union representatives have also agreed to double the minimum wage along the border, to 176.2 pesos a day, the equivalent of $9.07 at current exchange rates.

López Obrador, who took office on Dec. 1, said the idea is to stoke wage and job growth via fiscal incentives and productivity gains. U.S. President Donald Trump has repeatedly complained that low wages in Mexico lure jobs from the U.S. Mexico committed to boost wages during last year's negotiations to retool its free trade agreement with the U.S. and Canada.

Speaking from Ciudad Juarez, a manufacturing hub south of El Paso, Texas, López Obrador said Saturday he agrees with Trump that Mexican wages "should improve." He decried, for instance, that Mexican auto workers earn a fraction of what their U.S. counterparts take home, topping out at just $3 an hour versus a typical wage of $23 an hour in the U.S.

Yet the economic plan comes at a delicate moment for the border region. Trump threatened as recently as last week to close the U.S.-Mexico border "entirely" if Democrats refuse to allot $5.6 billion to expand the wall that separates the two countries.

Economy Minister Graciela Marquez noted Saturday that the border region targeted for economic stimulus accounts for 7.5 percent of Mexico's gross domestic product. And in recent years, she said, the 43 municipalities included in the plan have boasted combined economic growth of 3.1 percent, above the national average of 2.6 percent for the six years through 2017.

Much of that robustness owes to trade and proximity with the U.S., the world's biggest economy.

"We have to take advantage of this locomotive that we have on the other side of the border," she said.

Marquez expressed optimism that the stimulus plan will direct more Mexican and foreign investment into the border region. The plan for the border region is part of what López Obrador calls "curtains of development" to shore up different corridors of the country so that Mexicans stay rather than migrating in search of better economic prospects.

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Mexico launches ambitious economic plan on the Mexican side of the border

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MEXICO CITY - President Andrés Manuel López Obrador launched an ambitious plan Saturday to stimulate economic activity on the Mexican side of the U.S.-Mexico border, reinforcing his country's commitment to manufacturing and trade despite recent U.S. threats to close the border entirely.

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Leftist Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador Claims Historic Win In Mexico Elections TIME

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AP Interview Leftist candidate says he's lost faith in electoral authorities

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Mexico’s first left-wing president in 70 years, 65-year-old Lopez, was sworn in on December 1 and advocated ending corruption, violence, and poverty. He gained a very high popularity. The first thing after taking office was the auction value. The US$100 million presidential plane, fulfilling the campaign promises, and reducing expenditures from its own, will only receive 40% of the salary during the term of office, and will not move into the luxurious presidential residence, vowing to flip Mexico in the next six years.

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El chapo's town and how his business has still been running 

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El chapo's town and how his business has still been running 

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El Chapo Inc | Inside the drug lord's cartel | Sunday Night

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traditional clothing in mexico is special due to the colorfulness of the dress and the dress for women has much more different dresses then man does and the dress are more fancy than men has

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traditional clothing in mexico is special due to the colorfulness of the dress and the dress for women has much more different dresses then man does and the dress are more fancy than men has

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the special religion in mexico it is a native american religion it is linked to Christianity they use a drug to heal them selves

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The Native American Church ( NAC), also known as Peyotism and Peyote Religion, is a Native American religion that teaches a combination of traditional Native American beliefs and Christianity, with sacramental use of the entheogen peyote. The religion originated in the U.S.

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this is an interview from El Chapo the drug king in mexico he explained that he became a drug dealer due to his family was very poor due to the economic problem in mexico thus he joind the gang and began to sell drugs when he is 15 years old

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Full chapo Guzman interviewentre vista completa

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El Chapo is a very popular name in mexico he was most famous ate leading the drug business he also leaded to drug war  he was putted into the jail but he tried several times to prison break but he still got caught, and getting put in the jail is not the end of his drug business he is the most powerful drug lord due to his globalization of his drug market.

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Joaquín Archivaldo Guzmán Loera (Spanish: [xoaˈkinaɾtʃiˈβaldoɣusˈmanloˈeɾa]; born 4 April 1957), commonly known as " El Chapo" (pronounced ) and " JGL", is a Mexican former drug lord and a former leader within the Sinaloa Cartel, an international crime syndicate. He is considered to have been one of the most powerful drug traffickers in the world.

Guzmán was born in Sinaloa and raised in a poor farming family. He endured much physical abuse at the hands of his father, through whom he also entered the drug trade, helping him grow marijuana for local dealers during his early adulthood. Guzmán began working with Héctor Luis Palma Salazar by the late 1970s, one of the nation's rising drug lords. He helped Salazar map routes to move drugs through Sinaloa and into the United States. He later supervised logistics for Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo, one of the nation's leading kingpins in the mid 1980s, but Guzmán founded his own cartel in 1988 after Félix's arrest.

Guzmán oversaw operations whereby mass cocaine, methamphetamine, marijuana, and heroin were produced, smuggled into, and distributed throughout the United States and Europe, the world's largest users. He achieved this by pioneering the use of distribution cells and long-range tunnels near borders, which enabled him to export more drugs to the United States than any other trafficker in history. Guzmán's leadership of the cartel also brought immense wealth and power; Forbes ranked him as one of the most powerful people in the world between 2009 and 2013, while the Drug Enforcement Administration estimated that he matched the influence and wealth of Pablo Escobar.

Guzmán was first captured in 1993 in Guatemala and then was extradited and sentenced to 20 years in prison in Mexico for murder and drug trafficking. He bribed multiple prison guards and escaped from a federal maximum-security prison in 2001. His status as a fugitive resulted in an $8.8 million combined reward from Mexico and the U.S. for information leading to his capture, and he was arrested in Mexico in 2014. He escaped prior to formal sentencing in 2015, through a tunnel dug by associates into his jail cell. Mexican authorities recaptured him following a shoot-out in January 2016, and extradited him to the U.S. a year later. In 2019, he was found guilty of a number of criminal charges related to his leadership of the Sinaloa Cartel, was sentenced to life imprisonment, and incarcerated in ADX Florence, Colorado, United States.

Joaquín Archivaldo Guzmán Loera was born on 4 April 1957 into a poor family in the rural community of La Tuna, Badiraguato, Sinaloa, Mexico. His parents were Emilio Guzmán Bustillos and María Consuelo Loera Pérez. His paternal grandparents were Juan Guzmán and Otilia Bustillos, and his maternal grandparents were Ovidio Loera Cobret and Pomposa Pérez Uriarte. For many generations, his family lived at La Tuna. His father was officially a cattle rancher, as were most in the area where he grew up; according to some sources, however, he might also have been a gomero, an opium poppy farmer. He has two younger sisters named Armida and Bernarda and four younger brothers named Miguel Ángel, Aureliano, Arturo, and Emilio. He had three unnamed older brothers who reportedly died of natural causes when he was very young.

Few details are known about Guzmán's upbringing. As a child, he sold oranges and dropped out of school in third grade to work with his father and as a result is functionally illiterate. He was known for being a practical joker and enjoyed playing pranks on his friends and family when he was young. He was regularly beaten, and he sometimes fled to his maternal grandmother's house to escape such treatment. However, he stood up to his father to protect his younger siblings from being beaten. It is possible that Guzmán incurred his father's wrath for trying to stop him from beating them. His mother was his "foundation of emotional support". The nearest school to his home was about 100 km (60 mi) away, and he was taught by traveling teachers during his early years. The teachers stayed for a few months before moving to other areas. With few opportunities for employment in his hometown, he turned to the cultivation of opium poppy, a common practice among local residents. During harvest season, Guzmán and his brothers hiked the hills of Badiraguato to cut the bud of the poppy. Once the plant was stacked in kilos, his father sold the harvest to other suppliers in Culiacán and Guamúchil. He sold marijuana at commercial centers near the area while accompanied by Guzmán. His father spent most of the profits on liquor and women and often returned home with no money. Tired of his mismanagement, Guzmán cultivated his own marijuana plantation at age 15 with cousins Arturo, Alfredo, Carlos, and Héctor Beltrán Leyva, and he supported his family with his marijuana production.

When he was a teenager, his father kicked him out of the house, and he went to live with his grandfather. It was during his adolescence that Guzmán gained the nickname "El Chapo", Mexican slang for "shorty", for his 1.68-metre (5 ft 6 in) stature and stocky physique. Most people in Badiraguato worked in the poppy fields of the Sierra Madre Occidental for most of their lives, but Guzmán left his hometown in search of greater opportunities through his uncle Pedro Avilés Pérez, one of the pioneers of Mexican drug trafficking. He left Badiraguato in his twenties and joined organized crime.

Early career

Juan José Esparragoza Moreno, Mexican drug lord of the Sinaloa Cartel

During the 1980s, the leading crime syndicate in Mexico was the Guadalajara Cartel, which was headed by Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo (alias "El Padrino" or "The Godfather"), Rafael Caro Quintero, Ernesto Fonseca Carrillo (alias "Don Neto"), Juan José Esparragoza Moreno (alias El Azul, "The Blue One") and others. In the 1970s, Guzmán first worked for the drug lord Héctor "El Güero" Palma by transporting drugs and overseeing their shipments from the Sierra Madre region to urban areas near the U.S.-Mexico border by aircraft. Since his initial steps in organized crime, Guzmán was ambitious and regularly pressed on his superiors to allow him to increase the share of narcotics that were smuggled across the border. He also favored a violent and serious approach when doing business; if any of his drug shipments were not on time, Guzmán would simply kill the smuggler himself by shooting him in the head. Those around him learned that cheating him or going with other competitors-even if they offered better prices-was unwise.[citation needed ] The leaders of the Guadalajara Cartel liked Guzmán's business acumen, and in the early 1980s introduced him to Félix Gallardo, one of the major drug lords in Mexico at that time. Guzmán worked as a chauffeur for Félix Gallardo, before being put in charge of logistics, where Guzmán coordinated drug shipments from Colombia to Mexico by land, air, and sea. Palma ensured the deliveries arrived in the United States. Guzmán earned enough standing and began working for Félix Gallardo directly.

Throughout most of the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Mexican drug traffickers were also middlemen for the Colombian trafficking groups, and transported cocaine through the U.S.-Mexico border. Mexico, however, remained a secondary route for the Colombians, given that most of the drugs trafficked by their cartels were smuggled through the Caribbean and the Florida corridor. Félix Gallardo was the leading drug baron in Mexico and friend of Juan Ramón Matta-Ballesteros, but his operations were still limited by his counterparts in South America. In the mid-1980s, however, the U.S. government increased law enforcement surveillance and put pressure on the Medellín and Cali cartels by effectively reducing the drug trafficking operations in the Caribbean corridor. Realizing it was more profitable to hand over the operations to their Mexican counterparts, the Colombian cartels gave Félix Gallardo more control over their drug shipments. This power shift gave the Mexican organized crime groups more leverage over their Central American and South American counterparts. During the 1980s, however, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) was conducting undercover groundwork in Mexico, where several of its agents worked as informants.

One DEA agent, Enrique Camarena Salazar, was working as an informant and grew close to many top drug barons, including Félix Gallardo. In November 1984, the Mexican military-acting on the intelligence information provided by Camarena-raided a large marijuana plantation owned by the Guadalajara Cartel and known as "Rancho Búfalo". Angered by the suspected betrayal, Félix Gallardo and his men exacted revenge when they kidnapped, tortured, and killed Camarena in February 1985. The death of Camarena outraged Washington, and Mexico responded by carrying out a massive manhunt to arrest those involved in the incident. Guzmán took advantage of the internal crisis to gain ground within the cartel and take over more drug trafficking operations. In 1989, Félix Gallardo was arrested; while in prison and through a number of envoys, the drug lord called for a summit in Acapulco, Guerrero. In the conclave, Guzmán and others discussed the future of Mexico's drug trafficking and agreed to divide the territories previously owned by the Guadalajara Cartel.[citation needed ] The Arellano Félix brothers formed the Tijuana Cartel, which controlled the Tijuana corridor and parts of Baja California; in Chihuahua state, a group controlled by Carrillo Fuentes family formed the Juárez Cartel; and the remaining faction left to Sinaloa and the Pacific Coast and formed the Sinaloa Cartel under the traffickers Ismael "El Mayo" Zambada, Palma, and Guzmán. Guzmán was specifically in charge of the drug corridors of Tecate, Baja California, and Mexicali and San Luis Río Colorado, two border crossings that connect the states of Sonora and Baja California with the U.S. states of Arizona and California.

When Félix Gallardo was arrested, Guzmán reportedly lived in Guadalajara, Jalisco for some time. One of his other centers of operation, however, was in the border city of Agua Prieta, Sonora, where he coordinated drug trafficking activities more closely. Guzmán had dozens of properties in various parts of the country. People he trusted purchased the properties for him and registered them under false names. Most of them were located in residential neighborhoods and served as stash houses for drugs, weapons, and cash. Guzmán also owned several ranches across Mexico, but most of them were located in the states of Sinaloa, Durango, Chihuahua, and Sonora, where locals working for the drug lord grew opium and marijuana. The first time Guzmán was detected by U.S. authorities for his involvement in organized crime was in 1987, when several protected witnesses testified in a U.S. court that Guzmán was in fact heading the Sinaloa Cartel. An indictment issued in the state of Arizona alleged that Guzmán had coordinated the shipment of 2,000 kg (4,400 lb) of marijuana and about 4,700 kg (10,400 lb) of cocaine from 19 October 1987 to 18 May 1990, and had received roughly US$1.5 million in drug proceeds that were shipped back to his home state. Another indictment alleged that Guzmán earned US$100,000 for trafficking 32,000 kg (70,000 lb) of cocaine and an unspecified amount of marijuana in a period of three years. In the border areas between Tecate and San Luis Río Colorado, Guzmán ordered his men to traffic most of the drugs overland, but also through a few aircraft. By using the so-called piecemeal strategy, in which traffickers kept drug quantities relatively low, risks were reduced. Guzmán also pioneered the use of sophisticated tunnels to move drugs across the border and into the United States. Aside from pioneering the tunnels, Palma and Guzmán packed cocaine into chili pepper cans under the brand "La Comadre" before they were shipped to the U.S. by train. In return, the drug lords were paid through large suitcases filled with millions of dollars in cash. These suitcases were flown from the U.S. to Mexico City, where corrupt customs agents at the airport made sure the deliveries were not inspected. Large sums of that money were reportedly used as bribes for members of the Attorney General's Office.

Tijuana Cartel conflict: 1989-1993

When Félix Gallardo was arrested, the Tijuana corridor was handed over to the Arellano Félix brothers, Jesús Labra Áviles ( alias "El Chuy"), and Javier Caro Payán ( alias "El Doctor"), cousin of the former Guadalajara Cartel leader Rafael Caro Quintero. In fears of a coup, however, Caro Payán fled to Canada and was later arrested. Guzmán and the rest of the Sinaloa Cartel leaders consequently grew angry at the Arellano Félix clan about this. In 1989, Guzmán sent Armando López (alias "El Rayo"), one of his most trusted men, to speak with the Arellano Félix clan in Tijuana. Before he had a chance to speak face-to-face with them, López was killed by Ramón Arellano Félix. The corpse was disposed of in the outskirts of the city and the Tijuana Cartel ordered a hit on the remaining members of the López family to prevent future reprisals. That same year, the Arellano Félix brothers sent the Venezuelan drug trafficker Enrique Rafael Clavel Moreno to infiltrate Palma's family and seduce his wife Guadalupe Leija Serrano. After convincing her to withdraw US$7 million from one of Palma's bank accounts in San Diego, California, Clavel beheaded her and sent her head to Palma in a box. It was known as the first beheading linked to the drug trade in Mexico. Two weeks later, Clavel killed Palma's children, Héctor (aged 5) and Nataly (aged 4), by throwing them off a bridge in Venezuela. Palma retaliated by sending his men to kill Clavel while he was in prison. In 1991, Ramón killed another Sinaloa Cartel associate, Rigoberto Campos Salcido ( alias "El Rigo"), and prompted bigger conflicts with Guzmán. In early 1992, a Tijuana Cartel-affiliated and San Diego-based gang known as Calle Treinta kidnapped six of Guzmán's men in Tijuana, tortured them to obtain information, and then shot them in the back of their heads. Their bodies were dumped on the outskirts of the city. Shortly after the attack, a car bomb exploded outside one of Guzmán's properties in Culiacán. No injuries were reported, but the drug lord became fully aware of the intended message.

Guzmán and Palma struck back against the Arellano Félix brothers (Tijuana Cartel) with nine killings on 3 September 1992 in Iguala; among the dead were lawyers and family members of Félix Gallardo, who was also believed to have orchestrated the attack against Palma's family. Mexico's Attorney General formed a special unit to look into the killings, but the investigation was called off after the unit found that Guzmán had paid off some of the top police officials in Mexico with $10 million, according to police reports and confessions of former police officers. In November 1992, gunmen of Arellano Félix attempted to kill Guzmán as he was traveling in a vehicle through the streets of Guadalajara. Ramón and at least four of his henchmen shot at the moving vehicle with AK-47 rifles, but the drug lord managed to escape unharmed. The attack forced Guzmán to leave Guadalajara and live under a false name under fears of future attacks. He and Palma, however, responded to the assassination attempt in a similar fashion; several days later, on 8 November 1992, a large number of Sinaloa Cartel men posing as policemen stormed the Christine discothèque in Puerto Vallarta, spotted Ramón, Francisco Javier Arellano Félix, David Barron Corona, and opened fire at them. The shooting lasted for at least eight minutes, and more than 1,000 rounds were fired by both Guzmán's and Arellano Félix's gunmen. Six people were killed in the shootout, but the Arellano Félix brothers were in the restroom when the raid started and reportedly escaped through an air-conditioning duct before leaving the scene in one of their vehicles. On 9 and 10 December 1992, four alleged associates of Félix Gallardo were killed. The antagonism between Guzmán's Sinaloa Cartel and the Arellano Félix clan left several more dead and was accompanied by more violent events in the states of Baja California, Sonora, Sinaloa, Durango, Jalisco, Guerrero, Michoacán and Oaxaca.

Cardinal Posadas Ocampo, killed in 1993 during an attempt at Guzmán's life

The war between both groups continued for six more months, yet none of their respective leaders were killed. In mid-1993, the Arellano Félix clan sent their top gunmen on a final mission to kill Guzmán in Guadalajara, where he moved around frequently to avoid any possible attacks. Having no success, the Tijuana Cartel hitmen decided to return to Baja California on 24 May 1993. As Francisco Javier was at the Guadalajara International Airport booking his flight to Tijuana, informant tips notified him that Guzmán was at the airport parking lot awaiting a flight to Puerto Vallarta. Having spotted the white Mercury Grand Marquis car where Guzmán was thought to be hiding, about 20 gunmen of the Tijuana Cartel descended from their vehicles and opened fire at around 4:10 p.m. However, the drug lord was inside a green Buick sedan a short distance from the target. Inside the Mercury Grand Marquis was the cardinal and archbishop of Guadalajara Juan Jesús Posadas Ocampo, who died at the scene from fourteen gunshot wounds. Six other people, including the cardinal's chauffeur, were caught in the crossfire and killed. Amidst the shootout and confusion, Guzmán escaped and headed to one of his safe houses in Bugambilias, a neighborhood 20 minutes away from the airport.

Flight and first arrest 1993

The night the cardinal was killed, Mexican President Carlos Salinas de Gortari flew to Guadalajara and condemned the attack, stating it was "a criminal act" that targeted innocent civilians, but he did not give any indications of the involvement of organized crime. The death of Cardinal Posadas Ocampo, a high-profile religious figure, outraged the Mexican public, the Catholic Church, and many politicians. The government responded by carrying out a massive manhunt to arrest the people involved in the shootout, and offered about US$5 million bounties for each of them. Pictures of Guzmán's face, previously unknown to the public, started to appear in newspapers and television across Mexico. Fearing his capture, Guzmán fled to Tonalá, Jalisco, where he reportedly owned a ranch. The drug lord then fled to Mexico City and stayed at a hotel for about ten days. He met with one of his associates in an unknown location and handed him US$200 million to provide for his family in case of his absence. He gave that same amount to another of his employees to make sure the Sinaloa Cartel ran its day-to-day activities smoothly in case he was gone for some time.

After obtaining a passport with the fake name of Jorge Ramos Pérez, Guzmán was transported to the southern state of Chiapas by one of his trusted associates before leaving the country and settling in Guatemala on 4 June 1993. His plan was to move across Guatemala with his girlfriend María del Rocío del Villar Becerra and several of his bodyguards and settle in El Salvador. During his travel, Mexican and Guatemalan authorities were tracking his movements. Guzmán paid a Guatemalan military official US$1.2 million to allow him to hide south of the Mexican border. The unnamed official, however, passed information about Guzmán's whereabouts to law enforcement. On 9 June 1993, Guzmán was arrested by the Guatemalan Army at a hotel near Tapachula, close to the Guatemala-Mexico border. He was extradited to Mexico two days later aboard a military airplane, where he was immediately taken to the Federal Social Readaptation Center No. 1 (often referred to simply as "La Palma" or "Altiplano"), a maximum-security prison in Almoloya de Juárez, State of Mexico. He was sentenced to 20 years, nine months in prison on charges of drug trafficking, criminal association and bribery. Initially jailed at Federal Social Readaptation Center No. 1, on 22 November 1995, he was transferred to another maximum security prison, Federal Center for Social Rehabilitation No. 2 (also known as "Puente Grande") in Jalisco, after being convicted of three crimes: possession of firearms, drug trafficking and the murder of Cardinal Ocampo (the charge would later be dismissed by another judge). He had been tried and sentenced inside the federal prison on the outskirts of Almoloya de Juárez, Mexico State.

While he was in prison, Guzmán's drug empire and cartel continued to operate unabated, run by his brother, Arturo Guzmán Loera, known as El Pollo, with Guzmán himself still considered a major international drug trafficker by Mexico and the U.S. even while he was behind bars. Associates brought him suitcases of cash to bribe prison workers and allow the drug lord to maintain his opulent lifestyle even in prison, with prison guards acting like his servants. He met his longtime mistress and later Sinaloa associate, former police officer Zulema Hernández, while in prison, where she was serving time for armed robbery. Hernández later controlled Sinaloa's expansion into Mexico City, but in 2008 her body was found in a trunk, carved with multiple Zs, signifying Los Zetas, Sinaloa's archrivals.

Drug empire

Map of Mexican drug cartels presence in Mexico based on a May 2010 Stratfor report

Guzmán's Sinaloa Cartel, at the time of his arrest, was the wealthiest and most powerful of Mexico's drug cartels. It smuggled multi-ton cocaine shipments from Colombia through Mexico to the United States by air, sea and road, and had distribution cells throughout the U.S. The organization has also been involved in the production, smuggling and distribution of Mexican methamphetamine, marijuana, and heroin from Southeast Asia.

After Guzmán's prison escape nearly a decade after his initial arrest, he and close associate Ismael Zambada García became Mexico's undisputed top drug kingpins after the 2003 arrest of their rival Osiel Cárdenas of the Gulf Cartel. Until Guzmán's arrest in 2014, he was considered the "most powerful drug trafficker in the world" by the U.S. Department of the Treasury. Guzmán also had another close associate, his trusted friend Ignacio "Nacho" Coronel Villarreal.

A U.S. indictment states that from 2012, Guzmán and the Sinaloa Cartel bribed Juan Orlando Hernández with millions of dollars that helped him become President of Honduras in 2013. This influence helped the Cartel and its allies control and protect vital maritime and air transshipment destinations between the United States and South America.

His drug empire made Guzmán a billionaire, and he was ranked the 10th richest man in Mexico and 1,140th in the world in 2011, with a net worth of roughly US$1 billion. To assist his drug trafficking, the Sinaloa Cartel also built a shipping and transport empire. Guzmán has been referred to as the "biggest drug lord of all time", and the U.S. DEA considered him "the godfather of the drug world" and strongly estimates he surpassed the influence and reach of Pablo Escobar. In 2013, the Chicago Crime Commission named Guzmán "Public Enemy Number One" for the influence of his criminal network in Chicago (however, there is no evidence Guzmán has ever visited the city). The last person to receive such notoriety was Al Capone in 1930.

Methamphetamine production

After the fall of the Amezcua brothers - founders of the Colima Cartel - in 1999 on methamphetamine trafficking charges, there was a demand for leadership throughout Mexico to coordinate methamphetamine shipments north. Guzmán saw an opportunity and seized it. Easily arranging precursor shipments, Guzmán and Ismael Zambada García ("El Mayo") made use of their previous contacts on Mexico's Pacific coast. Importantly, for the first time, the Colombians would not have to be paid - they simply joined methamphetamine with cocaine shipments. This fact meant no additional money was needed for airplanes, pilots, boats and bribes; they used the existing infrastructure to pipeline the new product.

Until this point, the Sinaloa Cartel had been a joint venture between Guzmán and Ismael Zambada García; the methamphetamine business would be Guzmán's alone. He cultivated his own ties to China, Thailand and India to import the necessary precursor chemicals. Throughout the mountains of the states of Sinaloa, Durango, Jalisco, Michoacán and Nayarit, Guzmán constructed large methamphetamine laboratories and rapidly expanded his organization.

His nomadic existence allowed him to nurture contacts throughout the country. He was now operating in 17 of the 31 Mexican states. With his business expanding, he placed his trusted friend Ignacio Coronel Villarreal in charge of methamphetamine production; this way Guzmán could continue being the boss of bosses. Coronel Villarreal proved so reliable in the Guzmán business that he became known as the "Crystal King".

First escape and second arrest

First escape: 2001

While still in prison in Mexico, Guzmán was indicted in San Diego on U.S. charges of money laundering and importing tons of cocaine into California, along with his Sinaloa attorney Humberto Loya-Castro, or Licenciado Perez ("Lawyer Perez"), who was charged with bribing Mexican officials on Sinaloa's behalf and making sure that any cartel members arrested were released from custody. After a ruling by the Supreme Court of Mexico made extradition between Mexico and the United States easier, Guzmán bribed guards to aid his escape. On 19 January 2001, Francisco "El Chito" Camberos Rivera, a prison guard, opened Guzmán's electronically operated cell door, and Guzmán got into a laundry cart that maintenance worker Javier Camberos rolled through several doors and eventually out the front door. He was then transported in the trunk of a car driven by Camberos out of the town. At a petrol station, Camberos went inside, but when he came back, Guzmán was gone on foot into the night. According to officials, 78 people have been implicated in his escape plan. Camberos is in prison for his assistance in the escape.

The police say Guzmán carefully masterminded his escape plan, wielding influence over almost everyone in the prison, including the facility's director, who is now in prison for aiding in the escape. One prison guard who came forward to report the situation at the prison disappeared 7 years later, and was presumed to have been killed on the orders of Guzmán. Guzmán allegedly had the prison guards on his payroll, smuggled contraband into the prison and received preferential treatment from the staff. In addition to the prison-employee accomplices, police in Jalisco were paid off to ensure he had at least 24 hours to get out of the state and stay ahead of the military manhunt. The story told to the guards being bribed not to search the laundry cart was that Guzmán was smuggling gold, ostensibly extracted from rock at the inmate workshop, out of the prison. The escape allegedly cost Guzmán $2.5 million.

Manhunt: 2001-2014

Mexican cartel wars

Drug-war related murders in Mexico, 2006-2011

Since his 2001 escape from prison, Guzmán had wanted to control the Ciudad Juárez crossing points, which were in the hands of the Carrillo Fuentes family of the Juárez Cartel. Despite a high degree of mistrust between the two organizations, the Sinaloa and Juárez cartels had a working agreement at the time. Guzmán convened a meeting in Monterrey with Ismael Zambada García ("El Mayo"), Juan José Esparragoza Moreno ("El Azul") and Arturo Beltrán Leyva. In this meeting, they discussed killing Rodolfo Carrillo Fuentes, who was in charge of the Juárez Cartel at the time. On 11 September 2004, Rodolfo, his wife and two young children were visiting a Culiacán shopping mall. While leaving the mall, escorted by police commander Pedro Pérez López, the family was ambushed by members of Los Negros, assassins for the Sinaloa Cartel. Rodolfo and his wife were killed; the policeman survived.

The city was no longer controlled only by the Carrillo Fuentes family. Instead, the city found itself as the front line in the Mexican Drug War and would see homicides skyrocket as rival cartels fought for control. With this act, Guzmán was the first to break the nonaggression "pact" the major cartels had agreed to, setting in motion the fighting between cartels for drug routes that has claimed more than 60,000 lives since December 2006.

When Mexican President Felipe Calderón took office in December 2006, he announced a crackdown on cartels by the Mexican military to stem the increasing violence. After four years, the additional efforts had not slowed the flow of drugs or the killings tied to the drug war. Of the 53,000 arrests made as of 2010, only 1,000 involved associates of the Sinaloa Cartel, which led to suspicions that Calderón was intentionally allowing Sinaloa to win the drug war, a charge Calderón denied in advertisements in Mexican newspapers, pointing to his administration's killing of top Sinaloa deputy "Nacho" Coronel as evidence. Sinaloa's rival cartels saw their leaders killed and syndicates dismantled by the crackdown, but the Sinaloa gang was relatively unaffected and took over the rival gangs' territories, including the coveted Ciudad Juárez-El Paso corridor, in the wake of the power shifts.

Conflict with Beltrán Leyva Cartel

Guzmán's lieutenant Alfredo Beltrán Leyva (arrested)

A investigation alleges that one of Guzmán's techniques for maintaining his dominance among cartels included giving information to the DEA and U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement that led to the arrests of his enemies in the Juárez Cartel, in addition to information that led to the arrests of some of the top Sinaloa leaders. The arrests were speculated by some to have been part of a deal Guzmán struck with Calderón and the DEA, in which he intentionally gave up some of his purported Sinaloa colleagues to U.S. agents in exchange for immunity from prosecution, while perpetuating the idea that the Calderón government was heavily pursuing his organization during the cartel crackdown.

This became a key factor influencing the break between the Sinaloa Cartel and the Beltrán Leyva brothers, five brothers who served as Guzmán's top lieutenants, primarily working for the cartel in the northern region of Sinaloa. Sinaloa lawyer Loya-Castro, who like Guzmán had been wanted on federal charges in the United States since 1993, voluntarily approached the DEA offering them information in 1998, eventually signing paperwork as a formal informant in 2005, and his U.S. indictment was thrown out in 2008. Loya-Castro's leaks to the DEA led to the dismantling of the Tijuana Cartel, as well as the Mexican Army's arrest of Guzmán's lieutenant and the top commander of the Beltrán Leyva organization, Alfredo Beltrán Leyva (also known as El Mochomo, or "Desert Ant"), in Culiacán in January 2008, with Guzmán believed to have given up El Mochomo for various reasons. Guzmán had expressed concerns with Alfredo Beltrán's lifestyle and high-profile actions for some time before his arrest. After El Mochomo's arrest, authorities said he was in charge of two hit squads, money laundering, transporting drugs and bribing officials.

That high-profile arrest was followed by the arrest of 11 Beltrán Leyva hit squad members in Mexico City, with police noting that the arrests were the first evidence that Sinaloa had expanded into the capital city. U.S. Ambassador to Mexico Tony Garza called the arrests a "significant victory" in the drug war. With Alfredo in custody, his brother Arturo Beltrán Leyva took over as the brothers' top commander, but he was killed in a shootout with Mexican marines the next year.

Whether Guzmán was responsible for Alfredo Beltrán's arrest is not known. However, the Beltrán Leyvas and their allies suspected he was behind it, and after Alfredo Beltrán's arrest, a formal "war" was declared. An attempt on the life of cartel head Zambada's son Vicente Zambada Niebla ( El Vincentillo) was made only hours after the declaration. Dozens of killings followed in retaliation for that attempt. The Beltrán Leyva brothers ordered the assassination of Guzmán's son, Édgar Guzmán López, on 8 May 2008, in Culiacán, which brought massive retaliation from Guzmán. They were also in conflict over the allegiance of the Flores brothers, Margarito and Pedro, leaders of a major, highly lucrative cell in Chicago responsible for distributing over two tons of cocaine every month. The Mexican military claims that Guzmán and the Beltrán Leyva brothers were at odds over Guzmán's relationship with the Valencia brothers in Michoacán.

Following the killing of Guzmán's son Édgar, violence increased. From 8 May through the end of the month, over 116 people were murdered in Culiacán, 26 of them police officers. In June 2008, over 128 were killed; in July, 143 were slain. An additional deployment of 2,000 troops to the area failed to stop the turf war. The wave of violence spread to other cities such as Guamúchil, Guasave and Mazatlán.

However, the Beltrán Leyva brothers were involved in some double-dealing of their own. Arturo and Alfredo had met with leading members of Los Zetas in Cuernavaca, where they agreed to form an alliance to fill the power vacuum. They would not necessarily go after the main strongholds, such as the Sinaloa and Gulf Cartel; instead, they would seek control of southern states like Guerrero (where the Beltrán Leyvas already had a big stake), Oaxaca, Yucatán and Quintana Roo. They worked their way into the center of the country, where no single group had control. The Beltrán Leyva organization allied with the Gulf Cartel and its hit squad Los Zetas against Sinaloa.

The split was officially recognized by the U.S. government on 30 May 2008. On that day, it recognized the Beltrán Leyva brothers as leaders of their own cartel. President George W. Bush designated Marcos Arturo Beltrán Leyva and the Beltrán Leyva Organization as subject to sanction under the Foreign Narcotics Kingpin Designation Act ("Kingpin Act"), which prohibits people and corporations in the U.S. from conducting businesses with them and freezes their U.S. assets.

First manhunt

Guzmán was known among drug lords for his longevity and evasion of authorities, assisted by alleged bribes to federal, state and local Mexican officials. Despite the progress made in arresting others in the aftermath of Guzmán's escape, including a handful of his foremost logistics and security men, the huge military and federal police manhunt failed to capture Guzmán for years. In the years between his escape and capture, he was Mexico's most-wanted man. His elusiveness from law enforcement made him a near-legendary figure in Mexico's narcotics folklore; stories abounded that Guzmán sometimes strolled into restaurants, his bodyguards confiscating peoples' cellphones, he ate his meal, and then left after paying everyone's tab. Rumors circulated of Guzmán being seen in different parts of Mexico and abroad. For more than thirteen years, Mexican security forces coordinated many operations to re-arrest him, but their efforts were largely in vain as Guzmán appeared to be steps ahead from his captors.

Although his whereabouts were unknown, the authorities thought that he was likely hiding in the "Golden Triangle" (Spanish: Triángulo Dorado), an area that encompasses parts of Sinaloa, Durango, and Chihuahua in the Sierra Madre region. The region is a major producer of marijuana and opium poppies in Mexico, and its remoteness from the urban areas makes it an attractive territory for the production of synthetic drugs in clandestine laboratories and for its mountains that offer potential hideouts. Guzmán reportedly commanded a sophisticated security circle of at least 300 informants and gunmen resembling the manpower equivalent to those of a head of state. His inner circle would help him move around through several isolated ranches in the mountainous area to avoid capture. He usually escaped from law enforcement using armored cars, aircraft, and all-terrain vehicles, and was known to employ sophisticated communications gadgetry and counterespionage practices. Since many of these locations in the Golden Triangle are only accessible via single-track dirt roads, local residents easily detected the arrival of law enforcement or any outsiders. Their distrust towards non-residents and their aversion towards the government, alongside a combination of bribery and intimidation, helped keep the locals loyal to Guzmán and the Sinaloa Cartel in the area. According to law enforcement intelligence, attempting to have launched an attack to capture Guzmán by air would have had similar results; his security circle would have warned him of the presence of an aircraft 10 minutes away from Guzmán's location, giving him ample time to escape the scene and avoid arrest. In addition, his gunmen reportedly carried surface-to-air missiles that may bring down aircraft in the area.

Second arrest: 2014

Although Guzmán had hidden for long periods in remote areas of the Sierra Madre mountains without being captured, the arrested members of his security team told the military he had begun venturing out to Culiacán and the beach town of Mazatlán. A week before he was caught, Guzmán and Zambada were reported to have attended a family reunion in Sinaloa. On 16 February 2014, the Mexican military followed the bodyguards' tips to Guzmán's former wife's house, but they had trouble ramming the steel-reinforced front door, which allowed Guzmán to escape through a system of secret tunnels that connected six houses, eventually moving south to Mazatlán. He had planned to stay a few days in Mazatlán to see his twin baby daughters before retreating to the mountains.

On 22 February 2014, at around 6:40 AM, Mexican authorities arrested Guzmán at a hotel in a beachfront area on Mazatlán malecon, following an operation by the Mexican Navy, with joint intelligence from the DEA and the U.S. Marshals Service. A few days before his capture, Mexican authorities had been raiding several properties owned by members of the Sinaloa Cartel who were close to Guzmán throughout the state of Sinaloa. The operation leading to his capture began at 3:45 AM, when ten pickup trucks of the Mexican Navy carrying over 65 Marines made their way to the resort area. Guzmán was hiding at the Miramar condominiums, located at #608 on Avenida del Mar. Mexican and U.S. federal agents had leads that the drug lord had been at that location for at least two days, and that he was staying on the condominium's fourth floor, in Room 401. When the Mexican authorities arrived at the location, they quickly subdued Carlos Manuel Hoo Ramírez, one of Guzmán's bodyguards, before quietly making their way to the fourth floor by the elevators and stairs. Once they were at Guzmán's front door, they broke into the apartment and stormed its two rooms. In one of the rooms was Guzmán, lying in bed with his wife (former beauty queen Emma Coronel Aispuro). Their two daughters were reported to have been at the condominium during the arrest. Guzmán tried to resist arrest physically, but he did not attempt to grab a rifle he had close to him. Amid the quarrel with the marines, the drug lord was hit four times. By 6:40 AM, he was arrested, taken to the ground floor, and walked to the condominium's parking lot, where the first photos of his capture were taken. His identity was confirmed through a fingerprint examination immediately following his capture. He was then flown to Mexico City for formal identification. According to the Mexican government, no shots were fired during the operation.

Guzmán was presented in front of cameras during a press conference at the Mexico City International Airport that afternoon, and then he was transferred to the Federal Social Readaptation Center No. 1, a maximum-security prison in Almoloya de Juárez, State of Mexico, on a Federal Police Black Hawk helicopter. The helicopter was escorted by two Navy helicopters and one from the Mexican Air Force. Surveillance inside the penitentiary and surrounding areas was increased by a large contingent of law enforcement.

Mexican President Enrique Peña Nieto confirmed the arrest through Twitter and congratulated the Secretariat of National Defense (SEDENA), Secretariat of the Navy (SEMAR), Office of the General Prosecutor (PGR), the Federal Police, and the Centro de Investigación y Seguridad Nacional (CISEN) for Guzmán's capture. In the United States, Attorney General Eric Holder said Guzmán had caused "death and destruction of millions of lives across the globe" and called the arrest "a landmark achievement, and a victory for the citizens of both Mexico and the United States". Colombia's President Juan Manuel Santos telephoned Peña Nieto and congratulated him for the arrest of Guzmán, highlighting its importance in the international efforts against drug trafficking. Colombia's Defense Minister, Juan Carlos Pinzón, congratulated Mexico on Guzmán's arrest and stated that his capture "contributes to eradicate this crime ( drug trafficking) in the region". The Guatemalan President Otto Pérez Molina congratulated the Mexican government for the arrest. Costa Rica's President Laura Chinchilla congratulated the Mexican government through Twitter for the capture too. The French government extended its congratulations on 24 February and supported the Mexican security forces in their combat against organized crime. News of Guzmán's capture made it to the headlines of many media outlets across the U.S., Latin America, and Europe. On Twitter, Mexico and Guzmán's capture were trending topics throughout most of 22 February 2014.

Bob Nardoza, a spokesman for the U.S. attorney's office for the District Court for the Eastern District of New York, announced that U.S. authorities plan to seek the extradition of Guzmán for several cases pending against him in New York and other United States jurisdictions.

Charges and imprisonment

Guzmán was imprisoned at Federal Social Readaptation Center No. 1, area #20, Hallway #1, on the same day of his capture on 22 February 2014. The area where he lived was highly restricted; the cells are without windows, inmates are not allowed to interact with each other, and they are not permitted to contact their family members. His cell was close to those of José Jorge Balderas ( alias "El JJ"), former lieutenant of the Beltrán Leyva Cartel, and Jaime González Durán ( alias "El Hummer"), a former leader of Los Zetas drug cartel. Miguel Ángel Guzmán Loera, one of his brothers, was in one of the other units. Guzmán was alone in his cell, and had one bed, one shower, and a single toilet. His lawyer was Óscar Quirarte. Guzmán was allowed to receive visits from members of his family every nine days from 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. (if approved by a judge), and was granted by law the right to receive MXN$638 (about US$48) every month to buy products for personal hygiene. He lived under 23 hours of solitary confinement with one hour of outdoor exposure. He was only allowed to speak with people during his judicial hearings (the prison guards that secured his cell were not allowed to speak with him). Unlike the other inmates, Guzmán was prohibited from practicing sport or cultural activities. These conditions were court-approved and could only be changed if a federal judge decided to amend them.

On 24 February, the Mexican government formally charged Guzmán for drug trafficking, a process that slowed down his possible extradition to the U.S. The decision to initially file only one charge against him showed that the Mexican government was working on preparing more formal charges against Guzmán, and possibly including the charges he faced before his escape from prison in 2001. The kingpin also faced charges in at least seven U.S. jurisdictions, and U.S. officials filed for his extradition. Guzmán was initially granted an injunction preventing immediate extradition to the United States. On 25 February, a Mexican federal judge set the trial in motion for drug-related and organized crime charges, On 4 March 2014, a Mexican federal court issued a formal charge against Guzmán for his involvement in organized crime.

On 5 March 2014, a Mexico City federal court rejected Guzmán's injunction against extradition to the U.S. on the grounds that the U.S. officials had not formally requested his extradition from Mexico. The court said that if the U.S. files a request in the future, Guzmán can petition for another injunction. The court had until 9 April 2014 to issue a formal declaration of the injunction's rejection, and Guzmán's lawyers could appeal the court's decision in the meantime. The same day that the injunction was rejected, another federal court issued formal charges against Guzmán, totaling up to five different Mexican federal courts where he was wanted for drug trafficking and organized crime charges. The court explained that although Guzmán faces charges in several different courts, he cannot be sentenced for the same crime twice because that would violate Article 23 of the Constitution of Mexico.

On 17 April 2014, the Attorney General of Mexico, Jesús Murillo Karam, said that Mexico had no intention of extraditing Guzmán to the U.S. even if a formal request were to be presented. He said he wished to see Guzmán face charges in Mexico, and expressed his disagreement with how the U.S. cuts deals with extradited Mexican criminals by reducing their sentences (as in Vicente Zambada Niebla's case) in exchange for information.

On 16 July 2014, Guzmán reportedly helped organize a five-day hunger strike in the prison in cooperation with inmate and former drug lord Edgar Valdez Villarreal ( alias "La Barbie"). Over 1,000 prisoners reportedly participated in the protest and complained of the prison's poor hygiene, food, and medical treatment. The Mexican government confirmed that the strike took place and that the prisoners' demands were satisfied, but denied that Guzmán or Valdez Villarreal were involved in it given their status as prisoners in solitary confinement.

On 25 September 2014, Guzmán and his former business partner Zambada were indicted by the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York in Brooklyn. According to the court documents, both of them conspired to kill Mexican law enforcement officers, government officials, and members of the Mexican Armed Forces. Among the people killed under the alleged orders of Guzmán were Roberto Velasco Bravo (2008), the chief of Mexico's organized crime investigatory division; Rafael Ramírez Jaime (2008), the chief of the arrest division of the Attorney General's Office; Rodolfo Carrillo Fuentes (2004), former leader of the Juárez Cartel, among other criminals from the Tijuana, Los Zetas, Beltrán Leyva, and Juárez crime syndicates. The court alleged that Guzmán used professional assassins to carry out "hundreds of acts of violence, including murders, assaults, kidnappings, assassinations and acts of torture". In addition, it alleged that he oversaw a drug-trafficking empire that transported multi-ton shipments of narcotics from South America, through Central America and Mexico, and then to the U.S., and that his network was facilitated by corrupt law enforcement and public officials. It also alleged that Guzmán laundered more than US$14 billion in drug proceeds along with several other high-ranking drug lords.

On 11 November 2014, a federal court in Sinaloa granted Guzmán an injunction for weaponry charges after the judge determined that the arrest was not carried out the way the Mexican Navy reported it. According to law enforcement, the Navy apprehended Guzmán after they received an anonymous tip on an armed individual in the hotel where he was staying. However, no evidence of the anonymous tip was provided. The judge also determined that the investigations leading to his arrest were not presented in court. He determined that law enforcement's version of the arrest had several irregularities because the Navy did not have a raid warrant when they entered the premises and arrested Guzmán (when he was not the subject matter of the anonymous tip in the first place).

On 20 January 2015, Guzmán requested another injunction through his lawyer Andrés Granados Flores to prevent his extradition to the U.S. His defense argued that if he were to be extradited and judged in a foreign court, his constitutional rights expressed in Articles 1, 14, 16, 17, 18 and 20 of the Constitution of Mexico would be violated. The decision of his defense was made after Attorney General Murillo Karam said at a press conference that the U.S. was pushing to formally request his extradition. The PGR and Mexico's Secretariat of Foreign Affairs stated that Guzmán had a provisional arrest with extradition purposes from the U.S. government since 17 February 2001, but that the formal proceedings to officiate the extradition were not realized because investigators considered that the request was outdated and believed it would have been difficult to gather potential witnesses. Murillo Karam said that the Mexican government would process the request when they deemed it appropriate. He asked for a second injunction preventing his extradition on 26 January. Mexico City federal judge Fabricio Villegas asked federal authorities to confirm in 24 hours if there was a pending extradition request against Guzmán. In a press conference the following day, Murillo Karam said that he was expecting a request from Washington, but said that they would not extradite him until he faces charges and completes his sentences in Mexico. If all the charges are added up, Guzmán may receive a sentence between 300 and 400 years.

Second escape and third arrest

Second escape: 2015

On 11 July 2015, Guzmán escaped from Federal Social Readaptation Center No. 1. Guzmán was last seen by security cameras at 20:52 hours near the shower area in his cell. The shower area was the only part of his cell that was not visible through the security camera. After the guards did not see him for twenty-five minutes on surveillance video, personnel went looking for him. When they reached his cell, Guzmán was gone. It was discovered he had escaped through a tunnel leading from the shower area to a house construction site 1.5 km (0.93 mi) away in a Santa Juanita neighborhood. The tunnel lay 10 m (33 ft) deep underground, and Guzmán used a ladder to climb to the bottom. The tunnel was 1.7 m (5 ft 7 in) tall and 75 cm (30 in) in width. It was equipped with artificial light, air ducts, and high-quality construction materials. In addition, a motorcycle was found in the tunnel, which authorities think was used to transport materials and possibly Guzmán himself.

Second manhunt: 2015-2016

The escape of Guzmán triggered a wide-range manhunt. According to Mexico's National Security Commissioner Monte Alejandro Rubido García, the manhunt was instituted immediately in the surrounding area by putting up several checkpoints and air searches by helicopter. The entire prison was put on lockdown and no one was allowed to enter or leave. The search was then extended to other federal entities: Mexico City, the State of Mexico, Morelos, Puebla, Guerrero, Michoacán, Querétaro, Hidalgo and Tlaxcala. However, most of the military officers involved in the search were sent to the State of Mexico. The Mexican government also issued an international warning to prevent Guzmán from escaping the country through airports, border checkpoints, or ports. Interpol and other security organizations were alerted to the possibility of him escaping into another country. Flights at the Toluca International Airport were cancelled, while soldiers occupied parts of Mexico City International Airport. Out of the 120 employees that were working at the prison that night, eighteen that worked in the area of Guzmán's cell were initially detained for questioning. By the afternoon, a total of 31 people had been called in for questioning. The director of the prison, Valentín Cárdenas Lerma, was among those detained.

When the news of the escape broke, President Peña Nieto was heading to a state visit in France along with several top officials from his cabinet and many others. The Secretary of the Interior Miguel Ángel Osorio Chong, who was already in France waiting for them, returned to Mexico after learning of Guzmán's prison break. Peña Nieto returned to Mexico on 17 July. In a press conference, Peña Nieto said he was shocked by Guzmán's escape, and promised that the government would carry out an intensive investigation to see if officials had collaborated in the prison break. In addition, he claimed that Guzmán's escape was an "affront" to the Mexican government, and that they would not spare any resources in trying to recapture him. Peña Nieto, however, was severely criticized for the incident, and media outlets pointed out that this incident was among the administration's most embarrassing episodes. Critics stated that Guzmán's escape highlighted the high levels of corruption within the government, and questioned the government's ability to combat the country's organized crime groups.

On 13 July 2015, Osorio Chong met with members of the cabinet that specialize in security and law enforcement intelligence to discuss the escape of Guzmán, and scheduled a press conference that day. The objective of the meeting and the conference was to analyze the actions the government employed to recapture him. Among them were Rubido García, Arely Gómez González, the Attorney General of Mexico and Eugenio Imaz Gispert, head of the Center for Research and National Security. At the press conference, the government placed a $60 million MXN bounty (approximately US$3.8 million) for information that leads to Guzmán's arrest.

A number of officials were indicted; of these, three were police officers employed within the Division of Intelligence, and another two were employed by CISEN.

Colombian assistance

Officials of the Mexican government appealed to three Colombian Police retired generals for assistance in the closure of issues relating to Guzmán, according to a report dated to 1 August 2015. Among them is Rosso José Serrano, a decorated officer and one of the masterminds behind the dismantling of the Cali Cartel and Medellín Cartel and Luis Enrique Montenegro, protagonist in the arrests of Miguel and Gilberto Rodríguez Orejuela. They suggested particular Colombian strategies like creation of special search units ("Bloques de Búsqueda" or Search Blocs), specialized investigation and intelligence units, like DIJIN (Directorate of Criminal Investigation and Interpol) and DIPOL (Directorate of Police Intelligence) and new laws about money laundering and asset forfeiture. After the third capture of Guzmán, it was revealed that the Government of Colombia had sent a team of 12 officials to assist the Mexican authorities on tracking down Guzmán.

Kate del Castillo meeting

Mexican actress Kate del Castillo was first approached by Guzmán's lawyers in 2014, after having published an open letter to Guzmán in 2012 in which she expressed her sympathy and requested him to "traffic in love" instead of in drugs; Guzmán reached out again to del Castillo after his 2015 escape, and allegedly sought to cooperate with her in making a film about his life. American actor Sean Penn heard about the connection with Ms. del Castillo through a mutual acquaintance, and asked if he might come along to do an interview.

On 2 October, del Castillo and Penn visited Guzmán for seven hours at his hideout in the mountains, with Penn interviewing the fugitive for Rolling Stone magazine. Guzmán, who had never before acknowledged his drug trafficking to a journalist, told Penn he had a "fleet of narco-submarines, airplanes, trucks and boats" and that he supplied "more heroin, methamphetamine, cocaine and marijuana than anybody else in the world".

Guzmán had a close call in early October 2015, several days after the meeting with Penn and Kate del Castillo. An unnamed Mexican official confirmed that the meeting helped authorities locate Guzmán, with cell phone interceptions and information from American authorities directing Mexican Marines to a ranch near Tamazula, Durango, in the Sierra Madre mountains in western Mexico. The raid on the ranch was met with heavy gunfire and Guzmán was able to flee. The Attorney General of México declared that "El Chapo ran away through a gully and, although he was found by a helicopter, he was with two women and a girl and it was decided not to shoot". The two women were later revealed to be Guzmán's personal chefs, who had traveled with him to multiple safe houses. At one point, Guzmán reportedly carried a child on his arms "obscuring himself as a target".

Third arrest: 2016

President Enrique Peña Nieto, accompanied by Cabinet members, holds a press conference in the Palacio Nacional announcing the capture of Joaquín Guzmán

According to the official report published by the Mexican Navy, citizens reported "armed people" in a house at the coastal city of Los Mochis in northern Sinaloa, which was then placed under surveillance for one month. Monitored communications indicated the home was being prepared for the arrival of "Grandma" or "Aunt", which authorities suspected was code for a high-priority potential target. After the gunmen returned to the house, placing a large order for tacos at a nearby restaurant and picking up the order in a white van after midnight, the residence was raided in the early hours of 8 January 2016, in Operation Black Swan, by 17 marines from the Mexican Navy's Special Forces with support from the Mexican Army and the Federal Police - but Guzmán and a lieutenant escaped through a secret tunnel, emerging 1.5 km away and stealing a vehicle at gunpoint.

A statewide alert was issued for the stolen vehicle, and the Federal Police located and intercepted it about 20 km south of Los Mochis near the town of Juan José Ríos. Guzmán attempted to bribe the officers with offers of cash, properties, and offers of jobs. When the officers refused, Guzmán told them "you are all going to die". The four police officers sent pictures of Guzmán to their superiors, who were tipped that 40 assassins were on their way to free Guzmán. To avoid this counter-attack by cartel members, the policemen were told to take their prisoners to a motel on the outskirts of town to wait for reinforcements, and later, hand over the prisoners to the marines. They were subsequently taken to Los Mochis airport for transport to Mexico City, where Guzmán was presented to the press at the Mexico City airport and then flown by a Navy helicopter to the same maximum-security prison from which he escaped in July 2015.

During the raid, five gunmen were killed, six others arrested, and one Marine was wounded. The Mexican Navy said that they found two armored cars, eight assault rifles, including two Barrett M82 sniper rifles, two M16 rifles with grenade launchers and a loaded rocket-propelled grenade launcher.

Secretary of the Interior Miguel Ángel Osorio Chong was hosting a reunion with Mexico's ambassadors and consuls when he received a notice from the President on Guzmán's capture. He returned a few moments later with Secretary of National Defense Salvador Cienfuegos Zepeda, Secretary of Navy Vidal Francisco Soberón Sanz and Secretary of Foreign Affairs Claudia Ruiz Massieu. Osorio Chong then announced the capture to the diplomats by reading the President's tweet which resulted in applause and chants of Viva México, Viva el Presidente Peña and Viva las Fuerzas Armadas (Long live Mexico, Long live President Peña, Long live our Military Forces). This was followed by a spontaneous rendition of the National Anthem by the crowd.

Colombian President Juan Manuel Santos congratulated Mexican President Enrique Peña Nieto for the capture of Guzmán. Santos stated that "Guzmán's capture is a success, a great blow against organized crime, and drug trafficking", adding that "finally, this individual (Guzmán), like all criminals, will find what he deserves in the eyes of justice, and we celebrate that the Mexican authorities have recaptured this criminal". Loretta Lynch, United States Attorney General, praised Mexican authorities "who have worked tirelessly in recent months to bring Guzmán to justice".

Arrest of Emma Coronel Aispuro

Emma Coronel Aispuro, 31, the wife of Joaquín Guzmán, was arrested at Dulles International Airport on 22 February 2021, accused of helping her husband run his cartel and plot his escape from prison in 2015. Coronel was charged with conspiracy to distribute cocaine, methamphetamine, heroin and marijuana in the U.S. She has not been charged with any crimes in Mexico, although her father, Inés Coronel Barreras, and her brother, Édgar Coronel, were arrested on drug charges and allegations of helping Guzman′s first prison escape. Inés Coronel was arrested in 2013 and sentenced to ten years, 3 months in prison in 2017. Édgar Coronel Aispuru was arrested in 2015 and is imprisoned in Aguaruto prison, Sinaloa.

In 2019 Emma Coronel launched a clothing line and appeared on U.S. reality television.

United States extradition and prosecution

Guzmán in U.S. custody when extradited on 19 January 2017.

Mugshot taken shortly after Guzmán was extradited.

Mexico formally launched a renewed process of extradition to the United States two days after Guzmán was recaptured on 8 January 2016 after his second prison escape. Guzmán's lawyers mounted "numerous and creative injunctions" to prevent extradition. Vicente Antonio Bermúdez Zacarías was a federal judge involved in Guzmán's extradition proceedings, and he was assassinated on 17 October 2016 while jogging near Mexico City.

Guzmán was wanted in Chicago, San Diego, New York City, New Hampshire, Miami, and Texas, in addition to having indictments in at least seven different U.S. federal courts. Charges in the United States include drug trafficking with intent to distribute, conspiracy association, organized crime against health, money laundering, homicide, illegal possession of firearms, kidnapping, and murder in Chicago, Miami, New York, and other cities. A critical requirement for extradition was that the U.S. must guarantee that they would not sentence Guzmán to death if he were found guilty of homicide charges.

On 19 January 2017, Guzmán was extradited to the U.S. to face the charges and turned over to the custody of HSI and DEA agents. He was housed at the maximum-security wing of the Metropolitan Correctional Center, New York located in Manhattan. He pled not guilty on 20 January to a 17-count indictment in the United States District Court in New York. U.S. District Judge Brian Cogan scheduled his trial for 5 November 2018, when jury selection began. According to the prosecutors, juror anonymity and an armed escort were necessary, even if Guzmán is in isolation, due to his history of having jurors and witnesses murdered. The judge agreed to keep jurors anonymous and to have Guzmán transported to and from the courthouse by U.S. Marshals and sequestered from the public while in the courthouse. Opening arguments began Tuesday 13 November, and closing arguments took place on 31 January 2019. Guzmán was found guilty of all counts on 12 February 2019, and was sentenced on 17 July 2019 to life in prison plus 30 years and ordered to forfeit more than $12.6 billion. He was imprisoned in ADX Florence, the most secure US supermax prison, under Federal Register Number 89914-053.

Personal and family criminal activities

Guzmán's family is heavily involved in drug trafficking. Several members of his family, including his brother, one of his sons, and a nephew were killed by Sinaloa's archrival cartels, Los Zetas and the Beltrán Leyva Organization.

In 1977, Guzmán married Alejandrina María Salazar Hernández in a small ceremony in the town of Jesús María, Sinaloa. The couple had four children: César, Ivan Archivaldo, Jesús Alfredo and Alejandrina Gisselle. He set them up in a ranch home in Jesús María.

When he was 30 years old, El Chapo fell in love with a bank clerk, Estela Peña of Nayarit, whom he kidnapped and with whom he had sexual relations. They later married.

In the mid-1980s, Guzmán married once more, to Griselda López Pérez, with whom he had four more children: Édgar, Joaquín Jr., Ovidio, and Griselda Guadalupe.

Guzmán's sons followed him into the drug business, and his third wife, López Pérez, was arrested in 2010, in Culiacán.

In November 2007, Guzmán married an 18-year-old American beauty queen, Emma Coronel Aispuro, the daughter of one of his top deputies, Inés Coronel Barreras (a man), in Canelas, Durango. In August 2011, she gave birth to twin girls, Maria Joaquina and Emali Guadalupe, in Los Angeles County Hospital, in California. Emma Coronel Aispuro pleaded guilty on 6 June 2021, to charges in the U.S. and admitted that she helped her husband run his multibillion-dollar criminal empire.

On 1 May 2013, Guzmán's father-in-law, Inés Coronel Barreras, was captured by Mexican authorities in Agua Prieta, Sonora, with no gunfire exchanged. U.S. authorities believe Coronel Barreras was a "key operative" of the Sinaloa Cartel who grew and smuggled marijuana through the Arizona border area.

Another of Guzmán's sons, Jesús Alfredo Guzmán Salazar, known as "El Gordo" ("The Fat One"), then 23 years old, was suspected of being a member of the cartel and was indicted on federal charges of drug trafficking in 2009 with Guzmán, by the U.S. District Court of Northern Illinois, which oversees Chicago. Authorities described Guzmán Salazar as a growing force within his father's organization and directly responsible for Sinaloa's drug trade between the U.S. and Mexico and for managing his billionaire father's growing list of properties. Guzmán Salazar and his mother, Guzmán's former wife María Alejandrina Salazar Hernández, were both described as key operatives in the Sinaloa Cartel and added to the U.S.'s financial sanction list under the Kingpin Act on 7 June 2012.

In 2012, Alejandrina Gisselle Guzmán Salazar, a 31-year-old pregnant physician and Mexican citizen from Guadalajara, was said to have claimed she was Guzmán's daughter as she crossed the U.S. border into San Diego. She was arrested on fraud charges for entering the country with a false visa. Unnamed officials said the woman was the daughter of María Alejandrina Salazar Hernández but did not appear to be a major figure in the cartel. She had planned to meet the father of her child in Los Angeles and give birth in the United States.

On the night of 17 June 2012, Obied Cano Zepeda, a nephew of Guzmán's, was gunned down by unknown assailants at his home in the state capital of Culiacán, while hosting a Father's Day celebration. The gunmen, who were reportedly carrying AK-47 rifles, also killed two other guests and left another seriously injured.

Obied was a brother of Luis Alberto Cano Zepeda ( alias "El Blanco")'s, another nephew of Guzmán's who worked as a pilot drug transporter for the Sinaloa cartel. The latter was arrested by the Mexican military in August 2006. InSight Crime notes that Obied's murder may have been either a retaliation attack by Los Zetas, for Guzmán's incursions into their territory, or a brutal campaign heralding Los Zetas' presence in Sinaloa.

Even after Guzman's arrest, the Sinaloa Cartel remained the primary drug distributor (in 2018) in the U.S. among Mexican cartels, according to the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration.

In popular culture

Literature

Martin Corona, the chief assassin for a rival cartel of Sinaloa's who mistakenly killed a priest when aiming at Guzmán, published a tell-all memoir titled Confessions of a Cartel Hit Man in 2017.

Television

In 2017, Netflix and Univision began co-producing the series about the life of Guzmán. The series premiered on Sunday, 23 April 2017 and was followed by a 20-minute Facebook Live after-show titled "El Chapo Ilimitado".

Guzmán is also portrayed by Alejandro Edda in the Netflix television series Narcos: Mexico.

References

1. ^ "Federal Bureau of Prisons Inmate Locator". Federal Bureau of Prisons. United States Department of Justice. Archived from the original on 5 February 2012. BOP Register Number: 89914-053

2. ^ Santiago Wills (18 April 2013). "Mexican Cartel Presence Threatens European Security, Europol Says". Fusion. Archived from the original on 17 March 2014.

3. ^

4. "El Chapo sentenced to life in prison." Archived 17 July 2019 at the Wayback Machine BBC News 17 July 2019.

5. ^ "Mexican drug lord 'El Chapo' begins life term in Colorado 'Supermax' prison". Reuters. 21 July 2019. Archived from the original on 21 July 2019. "We can confirm that Joaquin Guzman is in the custody of the Federal Bureau of Prisons at United States Penitentiary (USP) Administrative Maximum (ADX) Florence, located in Florence, Colorado," the U.S. Bureau of Prisons said in a statement.

6. ^ "Narcotics Rewards Program: Joaquin Guzmán-Loera". Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs at the United States Department of State. Archived from the original on 30 May 2019.

7. ^ Feuer, Alan (17 January 2019). "How El Chapo Escaped in a Sewer, Naked With His Mistress". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 21 January 2019.

8. Vorobyov, Niko (2019) ^ Dopeworld. Hodder, UK. p. 228

9. (subscription required) ^ Reynoso, Raymundo (12 June 1993). "Guerra de narcos mexicanos se hace tambien a esta parte". La Opinión (in Spanish). Los Angeles, California. ImpreMedia. ProQuest 368275091.

10. ^ (subscription required)

11. ^ Goodman, Michael (1997). "Muerto, Inc". PBS, by PBS, by Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 4 June 2009.

12. ^ Bailey, John J.; Roy Godson (2000). Organized Crime and Democratic Governability: Mexico and the U.S.-Mexican Borderlands. Univ of Pittsburgh Press. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-8229-5758-4.

13. ^ Oppenheimer, Andres (1996). Bordering on Chaos: Guerrillas, Stockbrokers, Politicians, and Mexico's Road to Prosperity. Little Brown & Co. pp. 202, 298, 300. ISBN 978-0-316-65095-3.

14. ^ "Califica EU a "El Chapo" como el narco más poderoso del mundo". Percepcion. 10 January 2012.[permanent dead link ]

15. ^ Crosthwaite, Luis Humberto (2002). Puro Border: Dispatches, Snapshots & Graffiti from La Frontera. Cinco Puntos Press. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-938317-59-3.

16. ^ "Superseding Indictment #7" (PDF), United States of America v. Juan Orlando Hernandez (Court Filing), no. 1:15-cr-00379, Docket 423, S.D.N.Y., 27 January 2022 - via Recap (PACER current docket view )

17. ^ Grayson, George W. (2010). Mexico: Narco-Violence and a Failed State?. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. p. 68. ISBN 978-1-4128-1151-4. LCCN 2009029164. OCLC 351324700.

18. ^ "Guzmán Escapes". Archived from the original on 25 October 2012.

19. Payan, Tony (17 October 2013). A War that Can't Be Won: Binational Perspectives on the War on Drugs. University of Arizona Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-8165-3034-2.

20. ^

21. ^

22. ^

23. ^

24. ^ Mendoza, Veneranda (12 July 2015). ""El Chapo" tuvo dos horas para escapar; sobrevoló la zona un "helicóptero pequeño"". Proceso (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 14 July 2015.

25. Business Insider - ^ news Archived 16 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine published by msn 30 July 2015 [Retrieved 1 August 2015]

26. A. Dawber - Article:Manhunters tasked with capture Archived 14 February 2019 at the Wayback Machine published by The Independent via msn [Retrieved 1 August 2015]

27. ^ "'El Chapo' en el momento de la detención: "¡Pinches federales, ya nos atraparon!"". El Mundo. 9 January 2016. Archived from the original on 9 January 2016.

28. ^ News (20 January 2017). "Chapo-Mayo Superseding Infictment" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 January 2017.

29. ^ Judge delays start of 'El Chapo' trial by two months Archived 24 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Daniel Uria, UPI. 16 July 2018.

30. ^

31. ^ Revista Proceso, Mexico DF, 2007

32. ^ Allen, Nick (21 June 2012). "Son of Sinaloa drug cartel's Joaquin 'El Chapo' Guzmán captured". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022.

33. ^ Connelly, Sherryl (15 July 2017). "Executioner for Sinaloa rival details how he almost took out El Capo in 'Confessions of a Cartel Hit Man'". New York Daily News.

Works cited

External links

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Joaquín Archivaldo Guzmán Loera (Spanish: [xoaˈkinaɾtʃiˈβaldoɣusˈmanloˈeɾa]; born 4 April 1957), commonly known as " El Chapo" (pronounced ) and " JGL", is a Mexican former drug lord and a former leader within the Sinaloa Cartel, an international crime syndicate. He is considered to have been one of the most powerful drug traffickers in the world.

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the drug war had been caused by El Chapo and over 200,000 people has been killed in the incidence and mexico is very famous with the drugs they are selling

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Mexico's brutal drug war claims thousands of lives every year, as powerful trafficking groups battle it out for territory and influence.

These cartels control vast areas of the country and are also responsible for political corruption, assassinations and kidnappings.

But which groups are the most powerful?

The Sinaloa Cartel

Territory: Much of the north-west.

The US government has described the Sinaloa Cartel as one of the largest drug-trafficking organisations in the world.

Founded in the late 1980s, it was for many years headed by the notorious drug lord Joaquín "El Chapo" Guzmán. "El Chapo" - or "Shorty" - was once ranked as one of the world's richest men. His life and vast drug-trafficking empire have been the subject of numerous books and TV series.

Under his leadership, the cartel garnered a fierce reputation for violence and outfought several rival groups. Mexican cartels often clash with one another, but it's also worth noting that they can form strategic alliances as well.

The Sinaloa became the biggest supplier of illegal drugs to the US during Guzmán's long reign as leader, officials say.

The cartel kidnapped, tortured and slaughtered members of rival criminal gangs. It also had access to a huge arsenal of weapons, including a rocket-propelled grenade launcher and Guzmán's own gold plated AK-47.

But in July 2019, the drug lord was sentenced to life in prison following one of the most high-profile trials in recent US history.

Prosecutors said Guzmán had trafficked cocaine, heroin and marijuana, and kept a network of dealers, kidnappers and assassins on his payroll.

His jailing led to an increase of violence in the region as other groups sought to take advantage. Despite this, the Sinaloa Cartel remains hugely powerful. It still dominates north-west Mexico and is reported to have a presence in cities ranging from Buenos Aires to New York.

It also continues to make billions of dollars from trafficking illicit narcotics to the US, Europe and Asia, experts say. With its long-time leader now behind bars, the cartel is said to be partially controlled by Mr Guzmán's son, Ovidio Guzmán Lopez.

When the younger Guzmán was arrested by the security forces in October 2019, Sinaloa Cartel gunmen were quick to demonstrate the group's serious military might.

They fought street battles with the army in broad daylight, set fire to vehicles, and even staged a prison break before their leader was eventually freed. It was a sign the group remains an immensely powerful force.

The Jalisco New Generation (CJNG)

Territory: The west, mainly the Tierra Caliente region.

Formed in about 2010, the Jalisco cartel is the strongest and most aggressive competitor to the Sinaloa.

The group has expanded rapidly across Mexico and is now one of the country's most dominant organised crime groups. Its assets are thought to be worth more than $20bn (£15.5bn).

The cartel is led by Ruben Oseguera, known as "El Mencho", a former police officer who is Mexico's most wanted man. The bounty for his capture? A cool $10m.

The Jalisco cartel is one of the main distributors of synthetic drugs on the continent, according to the US government. It is a key player in the illegal amphetamine market in the US and Europe and is also thought to have links to the drug market in Asia.

It has grown much more powerful in recent years and its rise has been fuelled by its use of extreme violence.

"It remains the most aggressive cartel in Mexico," according to the US-based geopolitical analysis firm Stratfor. "Its efforts to expand its area of control are largely responsible for the persistent wave of violence racking Tijuana, Juarez, Guanajuato and Mexico City."

Indeed, the cartel has gained notoriety for a series of attacks on security forces and public officials.

It has downed an army helicopter with a rocket-propelled grenade, killed dozens of state officials, and has even been known to hang the bodies of its victims from bridges to intimidate its rivals.

And, according to experts in the region, it is set to expand further.

The Gulf Cartel

Territory: The north-east, centred around the border state of Tamaulipas.

This is one of Mexico's oldest criminal groups and its roots can be traced back to the 1980s.

It became known around this time for trafficking cocaine and marijuana into the US. It is also thought to have smuggled heroin and amphetamines, and it worked closely with cartels in Colombia.

By the 1990s, the Gulf Cartel's drug trafficking operation was reportedly bringing in billions of dollars every year. It maintained this network by engaging in political corruption and bribery as a means to keep officials on side.

The cartel was initially led by Juan García Abrego, the first Mexican drug lord to be included in the FBI's 10 most wanted list. He was captured in 1996 and jailed for life in the US.

His heir, Osiel Cardenas Guillen, built up the cartel's military wing. He recruited a number of corrupt special forces soldiers and pushed an even more violent approach. Those soldiers would eventually go rogue and form a rival cartel of their own (more on this later).

Cardenas was arrested in 2003 and is currently serving 25 years in jail in the US. His brother and top leader of the cartel, Ezequiel Cardenas Guillen, was killed in a shootout with Mexican troops in 2010.

The cartel then split into multiple factions with different leaders. It has been weakened as a result, and is engaged in a vicious turf war with the...

... Los Zetas Cartel

Territory: Also the north-east.

This group was founded by corrupt members of an elite unit of Mexico's special forces.

More than 30 ex-soldiers were hired by the leader of the Gulf Cartel in the 1990s but, as mentioned above, they broke away and formed their own operation in 2010.

The two cartels then clashed violently, particularly in Mexico's north-east. The Zetas became particularly well-known for their brutality, often torturing and decapitating their victims.

By 2012, the Zetas had reached the peak of their powers. The were named as the country's biggest drug gang, overtaking their bitter rivals the Sinaloa, and were thought to operate in more than half of the Mexican states.

They moved beyond drugs and turned their hand to any crime that brought them money, from cigarette smuggling to human trafficking.

But, later in 2012, one of their leaders was killed in a shootout with the Mexican Navy. His replacement, Miguel Ángel Treviño Morales, was captured. His younger brother, Omar Treviño Morales, took over but was also caught in 2015.

This marked the beginning of the cartel's decline. A lack of leadership caused the Zetas to splinter and allowed rival groups to assert dominance, according to analysis from Insight Crime, which monitors organised crime in the Americas.

The Zetas lost ground as others, notably the Jalisco cartel, expanded to take their east coast territory. Internal divisions have also served to weaken the group, but it remains a dangerous force.

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Mexico cartels: Which are the biggest and most powerful?

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After a wave of violence rocks the country, we profile the most notorious organised crime groups.

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this article shows that it isn't just one people involves in the drug industry there are still a lot of cartels world wide that hasn't been caught yet

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2 PPT slideshows / 2 photo galleries with appropriate captions / 2 audio files (one of which should be spoken (interview)) /2 video files / 2 text based files (poetry, literature, news or feature stories etc.) / 2 relevant biographies of notable cultural figures /

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*Agustín de Iturbide (Emperor Agustín I) biography 

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*Agustín de Iturbide (Emperor Agustín I) biography 

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Mexican military chief, he was born in mexico, he became the leader of the Mexican Independence

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Agustín de Iturbide, also called (1822-23) Agustín I, (born September 27, 1783, Valladolid, Viceroyalty of New Spain [now Morelia, Mexico]-died July 19, 1824, Padilla, Mexico), Mexican caudillo (military chieftain) who became the leader of the conservative factions in the Mexican independence movement and, as Agustín I, briefly emperor of Mexico.

Like many young men of the upper classes in Spanish America, Iturbide entered the royalist army, becoming an officer in the provincial regiment of his native city in 1797. In 1810 Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla offered him a post with his revolutionary army, but Iturbide refused and pledged himself to the Spanish cause instead. His defense of Valladolid against the revolutionary forces of José María Morelos dealt a crushing blow to the insurgents, and for this victory Iturbide was given command of the military district of Guanajuato and Michoacán. In 1816, however, grave charges of extortion and violence caused his removal.

By 1820 the radical independence movement was almost entirely extinguished. Both Hidalgo and Morelos had been captured and executed; only guerrilla bands (under the command of General Vicente Guerrero) prevented the complete victory of the royalists. The Mexican independence movement then performed a curious about-face. In reaction to a liberal coup d'état in Spain, the conservatives in Mexico (formerly staunch royalists) advocated immediate independence. Iturbide assumed command of the army and, at Iguala, allied his reactionary force with Guerrero's radical insurgents. Iturbide's Plan de Iguala, published on February 24, 1821, proclaimed three guarantees: (1) immediate independence from Spain, (2) equality for Spaniards and Creoles, and (3) the supremacy of Roman Catholicism and a ban on all other religions. The Army of the Three Guarantees quickly subjugated the country; on August 24, 1821, Juan O'Donojú, the new representative of the Spanish king, signed the Treaty of Córdoba, recognizing the independence of Mexico.

The revolutionary coalition quickly fell apart as Iturbide removed Guerrero and his insurgent following from influence. On May 19, 1822, Iturbide placed the crown upon his own head and became Agustín I, emperor of Mexico. An arbitrary and extravagant ruler, he proved unable to bring order and stability to his country, and all parties soon turned against him. Opposition solidified behind Antonio López de Santa Anna, whose own plan called for Iturbide's overthrow and exile. On March 19, 1823, Iturbide abdicated and went first to Italy and then to England. In 1824, however, he returned to Mexico, unaware that the congress had decreed his death. Captured on July 15, he was executed four days later. Although regarded by most scholars as a self-serving military adventurer, he has remained for the Roman Catholic church and for the conservative classes the great hero of Mexican independence.

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Agustín de Iturbide | Mexican Emperor, Independence Leader

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Agustín de Iturbide, Mexican caudillo (military chieftain) who became the leader of the conservative factions in the Mexican independence movement and, as Agustín I, briefly emperor of Mexico. Like many young men of the upper classes in Spanish America, Iturbide entered the royalist army, becoming

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Most famous Latin America Modern art artist 

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Most famous Latin America Modern art artist 

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The national flag of Mexico ( Spanish: Bandera de México) is a vertical tricolor of green, white, and red with the national coat of arms charged in the center of the white stripe. While the meaning of the colors has changed over time, these three colors were adopted by Mexico following independence from Spain during the country's War of Independence, and subsequent First Mexican Empire.

Red, white, and green are the colors of the national army in Mexico. The central emblem is the Mexican coat of arms, based on the Aztec symbol for Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City), the center of the Aztec Empire. It recalls the legend of an eagle sitting on a cactus while devouring a serpent that signaled to the Aztecs where to found their city, Tenochtitlan.

The Twin Flags of Allende, a pair of flags that were made expressly by the then captain of the Army of New Spain, Ignacio Allende for the armed struggle that would begin on October 1, 1810, but since the date of the armed uprising was brought forward due to the discovery of the conspiracy, the flags had to be used without further preparation

Flag display at the Mexican History Museum of Monterrey, Nuevo León

Before the adoption of the first national flag, various flags were used during the War of Independence from Spain. Though it was never adopted as an official flag, many historians consider the first Mexican flag to be the Standard of the Virgin of Guadalupe, which was carried by Miguel Hidalgo after the Grito de Dolores on September 16, 1810. The Standard became the initial symbol of the rebel army during the Mexican War of Independence. Various other Standards were used during the war. José María Morelos used a flag with an image of the Virgin to which was added a blue and white insignia with a crowned eagle on a cactus over a three-arched bridge and the letters V.V.M. ( Viva la Virgen María - "long live the Virgin Mary"). The Revolutionary Army also used a flag featuring the colors white, blue and red in vertical stripes. The first use of the modern colors-green, white and red-was in the flag of the unified Army of the Three Guarantees (pictured above) after independence from Spain was won.[dubious ]

While similar to the national flag that is used today, the eagle in these arms is not holding a serpent in his talons and a crown has been affixed to the head of the eagle to signify the Empire. Variants of this flag that appeared in this period also included a naval flag that had the tricolor pattern, but it only contained the eagle with the crown above its head. The military also used a similar square flag, but the eagle was larger than the one on the national flag. The national flag was officially decreed by Agustín de Iturbide in November 1821 and first officially used in July 1822. This flag was no longer used upon the abolishment of the empire.

The first national flag was established in 1821, the first year of Mexican recognized sovereignty. The imperial government that was set up chose a tricolor flag of green, white, and red and charged with the national coat of arms. The official decree stated that

Sole article:... the national flag and flags of the army shall be tricolor, adopting forever the colors green, white and "encarnado" [flesh-colored red] arranged vertically, with the crowned eagle in the center of the white stripe, according to the following design

Mexican flags of different sizes.

Flag of Mexico flying on outdoor flagpole.

The second national flag was adopted after the establishment of the first federal republic in 1823. The new flag was chosen for the republic in April of that year, the only difference being the appearance of the central emblem. The crown was removed from the eagle's head and a serpent was placed in the eagle's right talon. Another addition to the flag is a branch of oak and laurel branches, a tradition that was carried over to the current flag. This flag was discontinued in 1864 upon the dissolution of the first federal republic.

The third national flag was that of the Second Mexican Empire. Once again, the national flag used the green, white, and red tricolor pattern with the white stripe charged with the national arms. However, the ratio of the flag was changed from 4:7 to 1:2 and four eagles, which had crowns above their heads, were placed at each corner of the flag. The design, which was ordered by the Emperor Maximilian, gave the arms a look similar to the French Imperial arms, but he decided to add a bit of "Mexican flavor" to the flag. The coat of arms was described in a decree issued in November 1865 as:

oval in shape in blue; in the center is depicted the eagle of Anahuac, in profile and passant, supported by a cactus, supported, in turn, by a rock sunk on water, and ripping a snake. The border is gold charged by a garland of encino and laurel. The crest is the Imperial Crown. As supporters, two griffins from our elders' arms, their upper half in black and the lower in gold; behind the scepter and sword in saltire. The shield is surrounded by the collar of the Order of the Águila Mexicana, and the motto: "Equidad en la Justicia" [Equity in Justice]

Reverse side of the flag

The current national flag was adopted on September 16, 1968, and was confirmed by law on February 24, 1984. The current version is an adaptation of the design approved by presidential decree in 1916 by Venustiano Carranza, where the eagle was changed from a front-facing to a side-facing position. Before adopting the current national flag, the government used official flags. All of these flags used the tricolor pattern, with the only difference being the changes in the coat of arms, which was still charged in the center of the white stripe. One possible reason for the 1968 flag and arms change was that Mexico City was the host of the 1968 Summer Olympic Games. Around this same period, the plain tricolor flag that Mexico used as its merchant ensign was also legally abandoned. The reasoning is that without the coat of arms, the flag would become nearly identical to the Italian flag.

There was also debate in 1984 about how the coat of arms would be depicted on the reverse of the flag. To solve this problem, a PAN deputy proposed a change to the Law of the National Arms, Flag, and Anthem that same year to allow for the eagle to face to the right when the reverse of the flag is displayed. In 1995, the law was changed to include the following:

When the National Arms is reproduced on the reverse side of the National Flag, the Mexican Eagle will appear standing on its right talon, holding with the left one and the beak the curved serpent.

Official construction sheet

The official design of the Mexican flag can be found in Article 3 of the Law on the National Arms, Flag, and Anthem, passed in 1984. While the exact shades of the flag have not been defined by law, in 2001 it was reported, through personal communication, to Flags of the World that the Interior Ministry ( Secretaría de Gobernación) has suggested the following tones in the Pantone system; nevertheless, the ministry has not officially ruled on the matter. So far, there are no official printed documents or statements on the color shades. The Pantone colors listed below were employed by the London Organising Committee of the Olympic Games and Paralympic Games Limited in its "Flag Manual". while 2008 Beijing Olympic Games Flag Manual proposed others.

The article dictates what must be featured on the flag and also its proportions. Copies of the national flag which are made according to this law are kept in two locations: the General National Archive ( Archivo General de la Nación) and the National Museum of History (Museo Nacional de Historia).

Art. 3: The Bandera Nacional is a rectangle divided into three vertical stripes of identical measures, with the colors placed in the following order from hoist to fly: green, white, and red. Centered in the white stripe, the National Coat of Arms has a diameter of three-fourths the width of the white stripe. The proportion of the flag is four to seven (Ratio 4:7). It could carry a rope or tie of the same colors below the truck.

The Mexican tricolor (green, white, red) has been continuously used for a longer time than the Italian one. At the time of the Mexican flag's adoption, the similarly toned Italian tricolor had already been used briefly in Europe, for example by the Cisalpine Republic in 1797, but it had different proportions from the modern Italian flag.

Due to the common arrangement of the colors, at first sight, it seems that the only difference between the Italian and the Mexican flag is only the coat of arms of Mexico present in the latter. Both flags use the same colors (green, white, and red), but the Mexican flag has darker shades of green and red (particularly green). Additionally, these flags present a different aspect ratio (proportions): the Italian flag aspect ratio is 2:3 (1 to 1.5), more squarish in shape, while the Mexican flag aspect ratio is 4:7 (1 to 1.75), a longer shape.

The similarity between the two flags posed a serious problem in maritime transport, given that originally the Mexican mercantile flag was devoid of arms and therefore was consequently identical to the Italian Republican tricolor of 1946; to obviate the inconvenience, at the request of the International Maritime Organization, both Italy and Mexico adopted naval flags with different crests.

When the flag is paraded in front of a crowd, those in military uniform must present a salute according to military regulations. Civilians who are present give the following salute to the national flag: standing at attention ( firms), they raise their right arms and place their right hands on their chests, in front of the heart. The hand is flat and the palm of the hand is facing the ground. This salute is known as the El saludo civil a la Bandera Nacional ("The Civil Salute to the National Flag"). When the President is acting in the capacity of the Head of the Armed Forces, he salutes the national flag with a military salute. When the national anthem is played on television to open or close daily programming, the national flag will be shown at the same time. During certain times of the year, the flag is flown by both civilians and government personnel. Mostly, these events coincide with national holidays and days of significance to the country. During some of these occasions, the flag will be flown at half-mast to honor the death of important Mexicans. These dates are listed in Article 18 of the Law of the National Flag, Arms, and Anthem. The national Día de la Bandera (Flag Day) celebration occurs on February 24. On this day in 1821, all the factions fighting in the War of Independence joined to form the Army of the Three Guarantees in response to the Plan de Iguala, which was signed by Vicente Guerrero and Agustín de Iturbide, declaring Mexico officially an independent country. General Vicente Guerrero was the first military official who swore allegiance to the national flag. Another flag tradition is that before every Olympics in which Mexico is a participant, the President hands a flag over to the flag bearer, chosen by their peers, to carry with them to the host city.

The flag songs are dedicated to the flag day, it is a national holiday in Mexico. Flag Day is celebrated every year on February 24 since its implementation in 1937. The songs were established by President of Mexico General Lázaro Cárdenas before the monument to General Vicente Guerrero, first to pledge allegiance to the Mexican flag and Agustin de Iturbide:

Pledge of Fidelity

The following pledge of fidelity is taken every February 22 and any day whenever new flags are given to institutions in accordance with the form established by Article 3 of the Law on the National Arms, Flag, and Anthem:

Summons:
Ciudadanos: Vengo en nombre de México, a encomendar a vuestro patriotismo, esta bandera que simboliza su independencia, su honor, sus instituciones y la integridad de su territorio. ¿Protestáis honrarla y defenderla con lealtad, patriotismo y constancia?

Challenge: Al concederos el honor de ponerla en vuestras/sus manos, la Patria confía en que, como buenos y leales mexicanos, sabréis cumplir vuestra/su protesta.

Summons:
Citizens: In the name of Mexico, to confide to your patriotism I now present this flag that symbolizes its independence, its honour, its institutions and the integrity of its territory. Do you pledge to honour and defend it with loyalty, patriotism and constance?

Challenge: As you receive this flag in your hands, the Fatherland confides that you, as good and loyal Mexicans, will know to fulfill your pledge.

The pledge taking is taken on this day in a presentation of colours ceremony to units of the Armed Forces, National Guard, law enforcement and emergency organizations, as well as public schools and colleges of the Secretariat of Education.

Presidential Standard of Mexico

Use

State flag

Proportion

4:7

Variant of the Presidential Standard

Use

State flag

Cravat

There are two variants of the national flag that are mostly used by the state and federal governments, the difference between the national flag and the variants are the designs of the coat of arms. In the first variant, which is used by the President of Mexico and secretaries of federal bodies, the entire coat of arms is coloured gold, with the exception of the tricolour ribbon, which is green, white and red, and with the stone, lake and talons of the eagle coloured in silver. In the second variant, the entire coat of arms is coloured gold, even the ribbon, lake, stone and talons. The second variant is used mostly by the state governments and federal bodies who are not able to use the first variant.

In Article 3 of the Law on the National Arms, Flag and Anthem (Ley sobre el Escudo, la Bandera y el Himno Nacionales) also describes that the national flag can be decorated with a special tie called a corbata (cravat). The corbata is composed of a bow, two ribbons of different length and both ribbons are attached with a golden tassel called fringe. The corbata is placed on the top of the flag at the point where the truck is, and the colours of the corbata match that of the national flag. Organizations and political parties can adopt their own corbatas, such as the National Action Party (PAN), which uses a white corbata with blue fringes.[29]

In Article 3 of the Flag Law does not give an official symbolism to the colors, other meanings may be given to them. Other groups have used the national colors as part of their own logos or symbols. For example, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) political party has adopted the national colors as part of their logo. Another political party, the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD), also had the national colors as part of their logo, but changed them in the 1990s after a controversy surrounding impartiality issues, while the PRI did not.[30] Several states, such as Querétaro and Hidalgo have incorporated either elements of the national flag, or even the entire flag, into their coat of arms.

Flag of Mexico on television.

The image of the flag is protected under law. A special permit is needed to broadcast its image. In February 2010, MTV Mexico controversially canceled a much-publicized broadcast of an episode of , called " Pinewood Derby", featuring the flag, because it claimed that the permit had not been issued.

In 2008, Mexican pop singer Paulina Rubio was fined for posing nude wrapped in the flag in a photo shoot for a Spanish magazine.

Other flags were flown as Mexican flags, either designed to intimidate the enemy or to act as identification. These flags were considered without subsequent formal documentation as national flag and temporally situated; Flag of Francisco I. Madero (February 9, 1913), Flag of Doliente Hidalgo (January 2, 1812), Flag of José María Morelos y Pavón, Flag of Francisco Villa, Flag of Siera Battalion, Flag of Jalisco Battalion, Libres de Puebla Battalion, Artillería Mina Battalion, Oaxaca Battalion, Toluca Battalion, Flag of Chihuahua Battalion, Flag of Durango Battalion, Flag of San Lorenzo Battalion, Flag of Lanceros Battalion, Flag of San Luis Potosí Battalion, Flag of Aguascalientes Battalion, Flag of Galeana Battalion (May 22, 1864), Flag of San Blas Battalion (September 24, 1846), Flag of Tres Villas Battalion, Flag of Milicias Battalion, Flag of Remixto Battalion, Flag of Quautla Battalion, Flag of 201 Squadron, Etc.

In 1999, President of Mexico Ernesto Zedillo started a program erecting giant flags across the country. Directed by the Secretariat of National Defense, the banderas monumentales (monumental flags) were placed in various cities and spots, most of which are of great significance to the nation. In a decree issued on July 1, 1999, by Zedillo, the flags were to be placed in Mexico City, Tijuana, Ciudad Juárez, and Veracruz. The decree also stipulated for the flags to measure 14.3 by 25 meters (47 by 82 ft), which are raised on flag poles that are 50 meters (160 ft) high. After these initial monumental flags were created, cities such as Ensenada, Nuevo Laredo and Cancún were reported to have their own monumental flags. Smaller flags, called banderas semi-monumentales, have been erected in smaller towns and at various educational institutes.

As of December 22, 2010, the biggest Mexican flag in the world is now located in Piedras Negras, Coahuila. Located at the Gran Plaza (Great Plaza) right across from International Bridge I connecting Piedras Negras with Eagle Pass, Texas. The pole is 120 meters (390 ft) in height and weighs 160 tonnes (180 short tons) making it the tallest one in Latin America and one of the tallest in the world. The flag measures 60 by 34 meters (197 by 112 ft) and weighs 420 kilograms (930 lb).

Mexico's first largest monumental flag was the one located at the Mirador del Obispado in Monterrey (northeast) with a pole of 120 tonnes (130 short tons) and 100.6 meters (330 ft) in height. The flag measures 50 by 28.6 meters (164 by 94 ft) and weighs 230 kilograms (510 lb), four times the size of most other monumental flags at the time. It is located at the top of the Cerro del Obispado (Bishopric Hill) at an altitude of 775 meters (2,543 ft) above the sea level (city's altitude 538 meters or 1,765 feet).

Example locations:

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The national flag of Mexico ( Spanish: Bandera de México) is a vertical tricolor of green, white, and red with the national coat of arms charged in the center of the white stripe. While the meaning of the colors has changed over time, these three colors were adopted by Mexico following independence from Spain during the country's War of Independence, and subsequent First Mexican Empire.

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They created their own calendar and logosyllabic writing system, using words to pronounce different sound. Also, Zapotec and Mixtec are creating jewels for the dominator of Aztec, they used twenty five pieces of jade and some shells to create a mosaic mask to represent a Bat God. It was found in Tomb of MonteAlbán.

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The capital of their city in MonteAlbán

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The Maya left carving on the rock wall. They are recording their life for later generation to know. Using hieroglyphics to symbolize their life events. This was the only evidence left in modern days. Because in columbia era, Spain come to their place and destroy all the books and documentary record. Therefore, this carving has been so important for us to understand the stories of Maya.

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They live in the southern Mexico

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They left the great building, Templo Mayor. The special culture they do, is on the stairs of the Templo Mayor. They mostly sacrifice soldiers or slaves, they will have some ceremony to make the sacrificer get extremely tired and without any strength to revolt. Then they will put you on the table and take the knife stab into your body and take the heart out. After they get the heart, they kick your body down the stairs and the blood will

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The people of Aztec are all believe in these three gods, Tlaloc, the god of the rain. Quetzalcoatl, god of civilization and order. Tezcatlipoca, the god of destiny, wealth, war, and witchery. Also, they believe that there are thirteen layers in the heaven and nine layers under the hell(underworld). Every layer will connect to a different star.

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The Aztec are mostly live in Tenochca, Texcoco, and Tracopan.

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Mexicans festivals are mixed withe different cultures thus it is special to see what is the result of the mixture of different culture from aboriginals and other countries 

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Mexicans festivals are mixed withe different cultures thus it is special to see what is the result of the mixture of different culture from aboriginals and other countries 

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mexico languages are heavily impacted by the aboriginals thus there are over 

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mexico languages are heavily impacted by the aboriginals thus there are over 

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Mexican national clothing is very bright and beautiful. Actually, there are many different designs of traditional costume. Some of them are used for celebrations and holidays, some - for ceremonies, some - for festivals. The main characteristics of Mexican national attire are: sun protection (that's why sombrero has such a wide brims and the clothing itself is made of natural materials), brightness (the fabric for garments is mostly colorful and heavily embroidered; a lot of colorful ribbons are used), and moderate modesty (the clothing is elegant, not shameless or vulgar at all; skirts are long, blouses are delicate; flowers are often used to beautify the costume, hairdo and headdress).

Traditional Mexican men's costume has changed very little during centuries. But we can't say the same about women's clothing. Most of costumes were formed by mixing the culture of Native Americans and European people (mostly Spanish new settlers).

Mexican traditional attire. Photo from Mexican-clothing-co.com

The national clothing of Mexico is made of various fabrics: wool, cotton, silk, agave, and bark. Usually the colors of traditional dress are red, brown, green and yellow. Mexicans used to dye their clothes with natural components, but today they don't have to do that.

Traditional men's pieces of clothing

The most popular and well-known men's pieces of clothing in Mexico are sarape, charro suit, sombrero, guayabero, baja jacket, and poncho.

Sarape is a vibrantly colored garment with a fringe. It is used as a shawl-like coat and also as a blanket.
Read also:
Mexican wedding traditions. Sponsors, pinata, and gold coins as a gift

Charro suit is a special beautifully embroidered suit which is worn on the Day of the Dead.

Sombrero is a Mexican hat with a wide brim. This hat is made of straw or heavy felt. It protects the body from the sun. This part of clothing is the most recognizable around the world.

Guayabero is a lightweight shirt or suit which is used both as a casual and formal dress. It is made of cotton and very often is decorated with heavy embroidery. Guayabero is perfect attire for Mexican heat.

Baja jacket is a Mexican hooded shirt which is very popular among Mexican and American youth. Mostly men wear it, but women sometimes also do. It is loved by hippies. Baja jacket usually is rather warm, it has a hood and a large pocket situated on the belly. Baja jacket is often colorful, with striped pattern and looks very youthful.

Poncho is one of the typical Mexican pieces of clothing that is well-known and loved all around the world. It is a warm outerwear. There are many different variations of poncho. For example, classical poncho is a simple piece of cloth with a hole for the head; it doesn't have sleeves, but sometimes has a hood. Rainproof poncho is fitted with fasteners for the sides or has openings for the arms. It is more typical for men to wear poncho, but some women use it too.

We could dedicate the whole chapter to Mexican shoes, but we'll make it short and tell you only the main information. There are several types of traditional Mexican men's shoes: huaraches, Mexican pointy boots and Mexican cowboy boots.

Mexican cowboy boots look pretty much like American ones. They were used by cowboys in Mexico from 1800s. They are made of leather (often exotic animal skin is used - armadillo, bull, ostrich, lizard), they can be high-heeled or flat-heeled, with high or low boot-top. Mexican cowboy boots usually have narrow pointed toes. Huaraches are the most common shoes in Mexico. They are sandals, rather simple to make. There is a great variety of huaraches. Usually they are made of leather (modern huaraches can be made of synthetic materials). Huaraches are always handmade. Mexican pointy boots are very unusual and astonishing. They have narrow and elongated toe. Sometimes their toe is up to 1.5 meter (5 feet) long and curved up to the knees of a man. Usually Mexican pointy boots are very colorful, often decorated with such elements as flashing LED lights, disco balls and even mirrors. They are often worn by bands, singers and dancers.

Traditional women's pieces of clothing

The most popular and well-known women's pieces of clothing in Mexico are huipil, quechquémitl, rebozo, Mexican skirts (they have various names in different regions - enredo, chincuete, posahuanco, refajo, enagua).

Huipil is a sleeveless tunic, made from cotton or wool. It is worn with a skirt. The design of this piece depends on a region, beliefs, marital status and so on. Huipil is one of the most popular women's clothing in Mexico.

Quechquémitl is a festive kind of poncho. It is worn for parties, holidays and festivals. Quechquémitl should be handmade from handwoven cloth. Also it is often heavily embroidered. It is very colorful and beautiful.

Rebozo is a shawl/scarf made from cotton, wool, or silk. The color and pattern of rebozo represent the region and community. This piece of Mexican traditional costume is used not only as clothes, but also to carry products and goods, even babies.

Mexican skirts can be ankle-long or knee-long. They are made from cotton, wool, silk and lace. Very often they are wide, bright and embroidered.

Mexican women also like blouses very much. There is a great variety of blouses. But usually they are beautifully decorated with lace, beads, colorful patterns, and embroidery.

Traditional Mexican dress designs

Every corner of Mexico has its own traditional dress design. Mexican women wear very beautiful and feminine dresses. For example.

Jalisco Traditional Dress

It is also called Escaramuza dress. It consists of a cotton blouse with a high collar, and stripes of embroidery; and a wide skirt. The skirt is very nice-looking, its waves are decorated with stripes and form a star of stripes on hips.

Jalisco Traditional Dress

Michoacan Traditional Dress

Dresses of this style are very sophisticated. They consist of a long skirt with ribbons or patterns; a long blouse embroidered at the bottom and around the neck; a belt; and rebozo. Embroidered aprons are also used.

Tabasco Traditional Dress

This dress is very feminine and delicate. Women in this region like floral embroidery, bright ribbons and hair decorations with flowers. Tabasco dress consists of a white blouse with embroidery around the neck and on sleeves; black or colorful skirt with floral pattern. Accessories are welcomed.

Campeche Traditional Dress

This dress design was formed under the Spanish influence. It consists of a long wide skirt made of Spanish print fabric, often decorated with lace; a white blouse with a square collar and black embroidery; and rebozo.

Chiapas Traditional Dress

These dresses are really unique and extraordinary. They are handmade; women from the town Chiapa de Corzo make these dresses. They consist of a wide skirt and a blouse (or dress), very heavily embroidered and decorated with ribbons. The background is black, and the embroidery is colorful and bright. Usually flower patterns are used.

Traditional Mexican accessories

There are a lot of accessories which go with the national Mexican costume. Accessories for women are: ribbons, ritual necklaces, amulets, tehuana headdress, and tzutes (woven piece of cloth - shawl or scarf). Women in this country like ribbons very much. They often wear ribbons around the neck, as a necklace. Also they use unusual materials as accessories. For example, seashells and fishbones are used.

Accessories for men are: cowboy hats and boots, sombreros and other wide hats made of straw and palm leaves, moral, and faja. Moral is a typical bag with shoulder strap, it is very popular in Mexico. Faja is a kind of sash which is worn with pants and capixay (pullover), and function as a belt.

Mexican people are very religious and superstitious. So they often wear different amulets and guardians which are believed to defend people from evil. Amulets are popular among both men and women.

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Traditional Mexican costume. Typical pieces of clothing in Mexico - Nationalclothing.org

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Mexican national clothing is very bright and beautiful. Actually, there are many different designs of traditional costume. Some of them are used for celebrations and holidays, some - for ceremonies, some - for festivals.

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The country Mexico includes lots of culture, but nowadays the culture from Spanish almost take over the country. Early sixteen century, the Spain invade Mexico. Then after they take over Mexico and Mexico had been colonized since then. Finally, in 1810, independence was declared, and it was officially recognized in 1821. The First Empire of Mexico was established, but was later overthrown and established into the United States of Mexico. Therefore, we need to protect these, the domination from countries bring cultures into the Mexico, it causes culture endangered, that is why we need to protect this traditional.

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Peyote is a kind of cactus, people drink Peyote juice.  It has the ability to heal human in one side, but on the other side peyote poisoning cause a big problem in California.

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As we can see, the time period is 1939. The 39th year in Twenty-Century, In twenty to thirty century, this is the most popular time period for the style Mariachi creations(L)

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This is the famous song performed by Lupe Vélez in 1939, using traditional folk music with a traditional Mexico band behind her.(L)

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Lupe Vélez sings Chiapanecas (Traditional Mexican Folk Song) (1939)

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Mariachis is a famous type of Mexico traditional folk music.  They had a distinctive instrumentation, musical genre, performance and singing styles, and clothing. This kind of style involve through the time, it is created by a group of people who perform on stage that wear Charro style outfits. (L)

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A famous singer from Mexico who sings traditional for performance(L)

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On your Padlet, you must each make 10 separate and varied cultural threads (with specific examples) to illustrate the uniqueness of the culture of your chosen country. Use a “cause and effect” approach to illustrate the influence that each thread has had upon the national culture.

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2019 November 2nd

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This multi-day festival is gathering family members and friends to pray for people who have died, helping them to have a spiritual journey. this festival begins at October 31 to November 2nd people in mexico believes that the gates of heavan

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3rd most popular language in mexico Mixtec it is from the religion of La Mixteca it is the aboriginals form mexico 

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3rd most popular language in mexico Mixtec it is from the religion of La Mixteca it is the aboriginals form mexico 

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The term Mixtec ( Mixteco in Spanish) comes from the Nahuatl word mixtecah [miʃˈtekaʔ], "cloud people". There are many names that the Mixtecs have for naming themselves: ñuù savi, nayívi savi, ñuù davi, nayivi davi.[pronunciation? ] etc. All these denominations can be translated as 'people of the rain'.

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2nd most popular language in mexico Yucatec Maya this is a language that is originated from the Mayan language 

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2nd most popular language in mexico Yucatec Maya this is a language that is originated from the Mayan language 

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A Yucatec Maya speaker singing with a guitar.

Yucatec Maya (; referred to by its speakers simply as Maya or as maaya t'aan [màːjaʔˈtʼàːn]) is a Mayan language spoken in the Yucatán Peninsula, including part of northern Belize. There is also a significant diasporic community of Yucatec Maya speakers in San Francisco, though most Maya Americans are speakers of other Mayan languages from Guatemala and Chiapas.

According to the Hocabá dictionary, compiled by American anthropologist Victoria Bricker, there is a variant name mayab tʼàan [majabˈtʼàːn], literally "flat speech"). A popular, yet false, alternative etymology of Mayab is "ma ya'ab" or "not many," "the few" which derives from New Age spiritualist interpretations of the Maya. The use of "Mayab" as the name of the language seems to be unique to the town of Hocabá, as indicated by the Hocabá dictionary and is not employed elsewhere in the region or in Mexico, by either Spanish or Maya speakers. As used in Hocabá, "Mayab" is not the recognized name of the language, but instead a "nickname" derived from a common nickname for the region, the Mayab ("Mayab, the land of pheasant and deer"), the use of which emerged in the colonial period. This use may also derive from the title of a self-published book by a Yucatec scholar, Santiago Pacheco Cruz (1969). The meaning and origins of "Maya" as the name of the language (versus Mayab) and as the ethnic identity (ethnonym) are complex questions (see etymology and social history of the word as ethnic identity and name of the language in Restall (2004) and Restall and Gabbert (2017).

Linguists have added Yucatec to the name in order to clearly distinguish it from the rest of languages (such as Kʼicheʼ and Itzaʼ). Thus the use of the term Yucatec Maya to refer to the language is scholarly or scientific nomenclature. Native speakers do not qualify the language as Yucatec, calling it "Maaya," "maayaʼ tʼàan," or "maasewal t'aan" (commoner language) in their language and simply (el) maya when speaking Spanish.

In the Mexican states of Yucatán, some parts of Campeche, Tabasco, Chiapas, and Quintana Roo, Yucatec Maya is still the mother tongue of a large segment of the population in the early 21st century. It has approximately 800,000 speakers in this region. There were an additional 2,518 speakers of Yucatec Maya in Belize as of the 2010 national census.

Recently, scholars in the fields of history and anthropology have raised ethical and political questions about the continued use of the label "Yucatec Maya" to the language that is known and named by native speakers as simply "Maya" (see Castañeda (2021), Castillo Cocom (2021), Hernandez Reyna and Castillo Cocom (2021), Restall (2004), Restall and Gabbert (2017). These scholars argue, both explicitly and implicitly, that the use of "Yucatec Maya" manifests a continuation and propagation of neocolonial relationships, specifically the scientific imperialism of linguistics and the cultural hegemony of anglophone academia. The term "Yucatec Maya" was invented in the early-mid 20th century by linguists so as to not confuse themselves with the use of word "Maya" (the actual name of the language) when this was used to reference the source language of all the languages; this source language is now no longer called "Proto-Maya" but is instead called Proto-Mayan. The designation "Yucatec Maya" has been understood by generations of US scholars to refer to the Yucatan Peninsula. However, "Yucateco" amongst Mexicans, especially non-academics, has always primarily referenced the state of Yucatan (located in the northwestern corner of the Peninsula with the same name) and, in particular, the ethnic-national identity and culture of this state. Thus, Maya linguists from Quintana Roo, for example Jaime Chi and Edber Dzidz Yam, have identified that the term actually introduces confusion, given that in common understanding among Mexicans the name Maya refers to the peoples and language living throughout the Peninsula while the phrase "Yucatec Maya" would seem to denote a dialect of the Maya language that is spoken in the state of Yucatan, Mexico, in contrast to other regional dialects of Maya such as spoken in the states of Quintana Roo, or Campeche and in northern Belize. Thus, the above scholars argue, to continue to use the phrase "Yucatec Maya" to refer to either the people or the language instead of the proper name, that is, Maya, used by the speakers of this language would be an injustice. On the new politics of using Maya and not Mayan as an ethnic label see:

Yucatán Peninsula

Yucatec Maya forms part of the Yucatecan branch of the Mayan language family. The Yucatecan branch is divided by linguists into the subgroups Mopan-itza and Yucatec-Lacandon. These are made up by four languages:

All the languages in the Mayan language family are thought to originate from an ancestral language that was spoken some 5,000 years ago, known as Proto-Mayan.

The Maya had been in a stable decline when Spanish conquistadors arrived in 1517 AD. From 200 to 800 AD the Maya were thriving and making great technological advances. They created a system for recording numerals and hieroglyphs that was more complex and efficient than what had come before. They migrated northward and eastward to the Yucatán peninsula from Palenque, Jaina, and Bonampak. In the 12th and 13th centuries, a coalition emerged in the Yucatán peninsula among three important centers, Uxmal, Chichen Itza, and Mayapan. The society grew and the people were able to practice intellectual and artistic achievement during a period of peace. When war broke out, such progress was stalled. By the 15th century, the city of Tula had collapsed and was abandoned.

The Genoese explorer Christopher Columbus traded with Maya merchants off the coast of Yucatán during his expedition for the Spanish Crown in 1502, but he never made landfall. During the decade following Columbus's first contact with the Maya, the first Spaniards to set foot on Yucatán soil did so by chance, as survivors of a shipwreck in the Caribbean. The Maya ritually sacrificed most of these men, leaving just two survivors, Gerónimo de Aguilar and Gonzalo Guerrero, who somehow rejoined other Spaniards.

In 1519, Aguilar accompanied Hernán Cortés to the Yucatán island of Cozumel, and also took part in the conquest of central Mexico. Guerrero became a Mexican legend as father of the first Mestizo: by Aguilar's account, Guerrero "went native". He married native women, wore traditional native apparel, and fought against the Spanish.[page needed ]

Francisco de Montejo's military incursion of Yucatán took three generations and three wars with extended fighting, which lasted a total of 24 years.[clarification needed ]

As the Spanish colonists settled more areas, in the 18th century they developed the lands for large maize plantations and cattle farms. The elite lived in haciendas and exported natural resources as commodities. The Maya were subjects of the Spanish Empire from 1542 to 1821.

Language tree

During the colonization of the Yucatán peninsula, the Spanish believed that in order to evangelize and govern the Maya, they needed to reform Yucatec Maya. They wanted to shape it to serve their ends of religious conversion and social control.

Spanish religious missionaries undertook a project of linguistic and social transformation known as reducción (from Spanish reducir). The missionaries translated Catholic Christian religious texts from Spanish into Yucatec Maya and created neologisms to express Catholic religious concepts. The result of this process of reducción was Maya reducido, a semantically transformed version of Yucatec Maya. Missionaries attempted to end Maya religious practices and destroy associated written works. By their translations, they also shaped a language that was used to convert, subjugate, and govern the Maya population of the Yucatán peninsula. But Maya speakers appropriated Maya reducido for their own purposes, resisting colonial domination. The oldest written records in Maya reducido (which used the Roman alphabet) were written by Maya notaries between 1557 and 1851. These works can now be found in the United States, Mexico, and Spain in libraries and archives.

A characteristic feature of Yucatec Maya, like other Mayan languages, is the use of ejective consonants: /pʼ/,/tʼ/,/kʼ/. Often referred to as glottalized consonants, they are produced at the same place of oral articulation as their non-ejective stop counterparts: /p/,/t/,/k/. However, the release of the lingual closure is preceded by a raising of the closed glottis to increase the air pressure in the space between the glottis and the point of closure, resulting in a release with a characteristic popping sound. The sounds are written using an apostrophe after the letter to distinguish them from the plain consonants ( tʼàan "speech" vs. táan "forehead"). The apostrophes indicating the sounds were not common in written Maya until the 20th century but are now becoming more common. The Mayan b is also glottalized, an implosive /ɓ/, and is sometimes written bʼ, but that is becoming less common.

Yucatec Maya is one of only three Mayan languages to have developed tone, the others being Uspantek and one dialect of Tzotzil. Yucatec distinguishes short vowels and long vowels, indicated by single versus double letters (ii ee aa oo uu), and between high- and low-tone long vowels. High-tone vowels begin on a high pitch and fall in phrase-final position but rise elsewhere, sometimes without much vowel length. It is indicated in writing by an acute accent (íi ée áa óo úu). Low-tone vowels begin on a low pitch and are sustained in length; they are sometimes indicated in writing by a grave accent (ìi èe àa òo ùu).

Also, Yucatec has contrastive laryngealization ( creaky voice) on long vowels, sometimes realized by means of a full intervocalic glottal stop and written as a long vowel with an apostrophe in the middle, as in the plural suffix -oʼob.

Some sources describe the plain consonants as aspirated, but Victoria Bricker states "[s]tops that are not glottalized are articulated with lung air without aspiration as in English spill, skill, still."

In terms of vowel quality, Yucatec Maya has a straightforward five vowel system:

For each of these five vowel qualities, the language contrasts four distinct vowel "shapes", i.e. combinations of vowel length, tone, and phonation. In the standard orthography first adopted in 1984, vowel length is indicated by digraphs (e.g. "aa" for IPA [aː]).

Short, neutral tone

Long, low tone

Long, high tone

Creaky voiced ('glottalized,
rearticulated'), long, high tone

In fast-paced speech, the glottalized long vowels may be pronounced the same as the plain long high vowels, so in such contexts ka'an [ká̰ːn] 'sky' sounds the same as káan [káːn] 'when?'.

Mayan words are typically stressed on the earliest syllable with a long vowel. If there is no long vowel, then the last syllable is stressed. Borrowings from other languages such as Spanish or Nahuatl are often stressed as in the original languages.

An important morphophonological process in Yucatec Maya is the dissimilation of identical consonants next to each other by debuccalizing to avoid geminate consonants. If a word ends in one of the glottalized plosives /pʼ tʼ kʼ ɓ/ and is followed by an identical consonant, the final consonant may dispose of its point of articulation and become the glottal stop /ʔ/. This may also happen before another plosive inside a common idiomatic phrase or compound word. Examples: [majaɓˈtʼàːn] ~ [majaʔˈtʼàːn] 'Yucatec Maya' (literally, "flat speech"), and náak'- [náːkʼ-] (a prefix meaning 'nearby') + káan [ká̰ːn] 'sky' gives [ˈnáːʔká̰ːn] 'palate, roof the mouth' (so literally "nearby-sky").

Meanwhile, if the final consonant is one of the other consonants, it debuccalizes to /h/: nak [nak] 'to stop sth' + -kúuns [-kúːns] (a causative suffix) gives nahkúuns [nahˈkúːns] 'to support sb/sth' (cf. the homophones nah, possessed form nahil, 'house'; and nah, possessed form nah, 'obligation'), náach' [náːtʃ] 'far' + -chah [-tʃah] (an inchoative suffix) gives náahchah [ˈnáːhtʃah] 'to become distant'.

This change in the final consonant is often reflected in orthographies, so [majaʔˈtʼàːn] can appear as maya' t'àan, maya t'aan, etc.

Phonology acquisition is received idiosyncratically. If a child seems to have severe difficulties with affricates and sibilants, another might have no difficulties with them while having significant problems with sensitivity to semantic content, unlike the former child.

There seems to be no incremental development in phonology patterns. Monolingual children learning the language have shown acquisition of aspiration and deobstruentization but difficulty with sibilants and affricates, and other children show the reverse. Also, some children have been observed fronting palatoalveolars, others retract lamino-alveolars, and still others retract both.

Glottalization was not found to be any more difficult than aspiration. That is significant with the Yucatec Mayan use of ejectives. Glottal constriction is high in the developmental hierarchy, and features like [fricative], [apical], or [fortis] are found to be later acquired.

Like almost all Mayan languages, Yucatec Maya is verb-initial. Word order varies between VOS and VSO, with VOS being the most common. Many sentences may appear to be SVO, but this order is due to a topic-comment system similar to that of Japanese. One of the most widely studied areas of Yucatec is the semantics of time in the language. Yucatec, like many other languages of the world ( Chinese, Kalaallisut, arguably Guaraní and others) does not have the grammatical category of tense. Temporal information is encoded by a combination of aspect, inherent lexical aspect (aktionsart), and pragmatically governed conversational inferences. Yucatec is unusual in lacking temporal connectives such as 'before' and 'after'. Another aspect of the language is the core-argument marking strategy, which is a ' fluid S system' in the typology of Dixon (1994) where intransitive subjects are encoded like agents or patients based upon a number of semantic properties as well as the perfectivity of the event.

The Maya were literate in pre-Columbian times, when the language was written using Maya script. The language itself can be traced back to proto-Yucatecan, the ancestor of modern Yucatec Maya, Itza, Lacandon and Mopan. Even further back, the language is ultimately related to all other Maya languages through proto-Mayan itself.

Yucatec Maya is now written in the Latin script. This was introduced during the Spanish Conquest of Yucatán which began in the early 16th century, and the now-antiquated conventions of Spanish orthography of that period ("Colonial orthography") were adapted to transcribe Yucatec Maya. This included the use of ⟨x⟩ for the postalveolar fricative sound (which is often written in English as ⟨sh⟩).

In colonial times a "reversed c" ⟨ɔ⟩ was often used to represent /t͡sʼ/ (the alveolar ejective affricate). This sound is now represented by ⟨tzʼ⟩ in the revised ALMG orthography and ⟨tsʼ⟩ in the INALI orthography.

Yucatec-language programming is carried by the CDI's radio stations XEXPUJ-AM ( Xpujil, Campeche), XENKA-AM ( Felipe Carrillo Puerto, Quintana Roo) and XEPET-AM ( Peto, Yucatán).

The 2006 film Apocalypto, directed by Mel Gibson, was filmed entirely in Yucatec Maya. The script was translated into Maya by Hilario Chi Canul of the Maya community of Felipe Carrillo Puerto, who also worked as a language coach on the production.

In the video game Civilization V: Gods & Kings, Pacal, leader of the Maya, speaks in Yucatec Maya.[citation needed ]

In August 2012, the Mozilla Translathon 2012 event brought over 20 Yucatec Mayan speakers together in a localization effort for the Google Endangered Languages Project, the Mozilla browser, and the MediaWiki software used by Wikipedia and other Wikimedia projects.

Jesús Pat Chablé is often credited with being one of the first Maya-language rappers and producers.

In the 2018 video game Shadow of the Tomb Raider, the inhabitants of the game's Paititi region speak in Yucatec Maya (while immersion mode is on).[citation needed ]

The modern bible edition, the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures was released in the Maya language in 2019. It's distributed without charge, both printed and online editions.

On December 4, 2019, the Congress of Yucatán unanimously approved a measure requiring the teaching of the Maya language in schools in the state.

Yucatec Maya is spoken by the fictional underwater kingdom of Talokan and its king Kukulkan in the 2022 film Black Panther: Wakanda Forever.

1. ^ Yucatec Maya at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022)

2. ^ "Ley General de Derechos Lingüisticos Indígenas". Archived from the original on February 8, 2007.

3. Bricker, Victoria (1998). Dictionary Of The Maya Language: As Spoken in Hocabá Yucatan. University of Utah Press. p. 181. ISBN 978-0874805697.

4. ^ PACHECO CRUZ, SANTIAGO 1969 Hahil Tzolbichunil Pan Mayab. Merida: the author.

5. Restall, Matthew, 2004. "Maya Ethnogenesis" Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Anthropology, vol. 9 (1): 64-8.

6. Restall, Matthew and Wolfgang Gabbert, 2017. " Maya Ethnogenesis and Group Identity in Yucatan, 1500-1900." In "The Only True People" Linking Maya Identities Past and Present. Edited by Bethany J. Beyyette and Lisa J. LeCount. Boulder: University Press of Colorado, pp.91-130.

7. ^ The Statistical Institute of Belize (2013). Belize Population and Housing Census Country Report (PDF) (Report). The Statistical Institute of Belize. p. 82.

8. ^ Castañeda, Quetzil E. 2021. "Spiritual Seeking Maya: Toward a Decolonial Approach to New Age Maya Spiritualities." Revista Ciencias Sociales y Religion, vol. 21, forthcoming.

9. ^ Castillo Cocom, Juan A. with Quetzil E. Castañeda. 2021. "Visión etnográfica: Imaginar el iknal maya." Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Anthropology, vol. 26 (1): 10-24.

10. ^ Hernandez Reyna, Miriam and Juan A. Castillo Cocom. 2021. ""Ser o no ser indígena": Oscilaciones identitarias dentro de la interculturalidad de Estado en México." Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Anthropology, vol. 26 (1): 147-171.

11. ^ Restall, Matthew (1999). The Maya World Yucatec Culture and Society, 1550-1850. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-3658-8.

12. Hanks, William F. (2012-01-01). "BIRTH OF A LANGUAGE: The Formation and Spread of Colonial Yucatec Maya". Journal of Anthropological Research. 68 (4): 449-471. doi:10.3998/jar.0521004.0068.401. JSTOR 24394197. S2CID 163746525.

13. ^ Bricker, Victoria (1998). Dictionary Of The Maya Language: As Spoken in Hocabá Yucatan. University of Utah Press. p. XII. ISBN 978-0874805697.

14. ^ [1][dead link ]

15. Straight, Henry Stephen (1976) "The Acquisition of Maya Phonology Variation in Yucatec Child Language" in Garland Studies in American Indian Linguistics. pp.207-18

16. ^ Straight, Henry Stephen 1976

17. ^ Dixon, Robert M. W. (1994). Ergativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-44898-0.

18. ^ Tozzer, Alfred M. (1977). A Maya Grammar. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-23465-7.

19. ^ Alexis Santos (2013-08-13). "Google, Mozilla and Wikimedia projects get Maya language translations at one-day 'translathon'". Engadget.

20. ^ Agren, David (30 September 2014). "Mayan MCs transform a lost culture into pop culture".

21. ^ "The New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures Released in Maya". Jw.org. November 1, 2019.

22. ^ "New World Translation Released in Maya, Telugu, and Tzotzil". jw.org. October 28, 2019.

23. ^ "Congreso de Yucatán aprueba enseñanza obligatoria de lengua maya" [Congress of Yucatan approves obligatory instruction in the Maya language], La Jornada (in Spanish), Dec 4, 2019

Barrera Vásquez, Alfredo (2001). Diccionario maya : maya-español, español-maya (4 ed.). México: Porrúa. ISBN 970-07-2741-6. OCLC 48778496.

Blair, Robert W.; Refugio Vermont Salas; Norman A. McQuown (rev.) (1995) [1966]. Spoken Yucatec Maya (Book I + Audio, Lessons I-VI; Book II + Audio, Lessons VII-XII). Program in Latin American Studies. Chapel Hill, NC: Duke University-University of North Carolina.

Bolles, David (1997). "Combined Dictionary-Concordance of the Yucatecan Mayan Language". Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc. (FAMSI) (revised 2003).

Bolles, David; Alejandra Bolles (2004). "A Grammar of the Yucatecan Mayan Language". Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc. (FAMSI) (revised online edition, 1996 Lee, New Hampshire). The Foundation Research Department.

Bricker, Victoria; Eleuterio Poʼot Yah; Ofelia Dzul de Poʼot (1998). A Dictionary of the Maya Language as Spoken in Hocabá, Yucatán. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. ISBN 0-87480-569-4.

Brody, Michal (2004). The fixed word, the moving tongue: variation in written Yucatec Maya and the meandering evolution toward unified norms (Thesis) (PhD thesis, UT Electronic Theses and Dissertations, Digital Repository ed.). Austin: University of Texas. hdl:2152/1882. OCLC 74908453.

Curl, John (2005). Ancient American Poets - The Songs of Dzitbalche. Tempe: Bilingual Press. ISBN 1-931010-21-8.

McQuown, Norman A. (1968). "Classical Yucatec (Maya)". In Norman A. McQuown (Volume ed.) (ed.). Handbook of Middle American Indians, Vol. 5: Linguistics. R. Wauchope (General Editor). Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 201-248. ISBN 0-292-73665-7. OCLC 277126.

Tozzer, Alfred M. (1977) [1921]. A Maya Grammar (unabridged republication ed.). New York: Dover. ISBN 0-486-23465-7. OCLC 3152525.

Chamberlain, Robert S. The Conquest and Colonization of Yucatan, 1517-1550. Washington: Carnegie Institute, 1948.

Clendinnen, Inga. Ambivalent Conquests: Maya and Spaniard in Yucatan, 1517-1570, Sec. ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

Clendinnen, Inga. "Landscape and World View: The Survival of Yucatec Maya Culture Under Spanish Conquest," Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 22, No. 3 (Cambridge University Press, 1980), 374-393.

Díaz del Castillo, Bernal. The History of the Conquest of New Spain. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2008. Ed. and Trans. David Carrasco.

Farriss, Nancy M. Maya Society Under Colonial Rule: The Collective Enterprise of Survival. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984.

Farriss, Nancy M. "Sacred Power in Colonial Mexico: The Case of Sixteenth Century Yucatan," The Meeting of Two Worlds: Europe and the Americas 1492-1650, Warwick Bray, Ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.

Garcia Bernal, Manuela Cristina. La Sociedad de Yucatán, 1700-1750. Seville: Escuela Estudios Hispano-Americanos, 1972.

Gibson, Charles. The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule: A History of the Indians of the Valley of Mexico, 1519-1810. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1964.

Hanks, William F. "Authenticity and Ambivalence in the Text: A Colonial Maya Case," American Ethnologist Vol. 13, No. 4 (Blackwell, 1986), 721-744.

Hunt, Martha Espejo-Ponce. "Colonial Yucatan: Town and Region in the Seventeenth Century," Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of History, University of California, Los Angeles, 1974.

Jones, Grant D. Maya Resistance to Colonial Rule: Time and History on a Colonial Frontier. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1989.

Landa, friar Diego de. Yucatan: Before and After the Conquest. New York: Dover, 1978. Ed. and Trans. William Gates.

Las Casas, Bartolomé de. In Defense of the Indians. Dekalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1992. Trans. Stafford Poole.

Lockhart, James. The Nahuas After the Conquest: A Social and Cultural History of the Indians of Central Mexico, Sixteenth Through Eighteenth Centuries. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992.

Lockhart, James, Ed. and Trans. We People Here: Nahuatl Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico, Vol. 1. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock, 1993.

Restall, Matthew. The Black Middle: Africans, Mayas, and Spaniards in Colonial Yucatan. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2009.

Restall, Matthew. "A History of the New Philology and the New Philology in History," Latin American Research Review, Vol. 38, No. 1 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2003), 113-134.

Restall, Matthew. "Intercultural and Indigenous Testaments," Dead Giveaways: Indigenous Testaments of Colonial Mesoamerica and the Andes, Susan Kellogg and Matthew Restall, Eds. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1998.

Restall, Matthew. Maya Conquistador. Boston: Beacon Press, 1998.

Restall, Matthew. The Maya World: Yucatec Culture and Society, 1550-1850. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997.

Restall, Matthew, Lisa Sousa, and Kevin Terraciano, Eds. Mesoamerican Voices: Native Language Writings from Colonial Mexico, Oaxaca, Yucatan, and Guatemala. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.

Restall, Matthew and John F. Chuchiak IV. "A Reevaluation of the Authenticity of Fray Diego de Landa's Relación de las cosas de Yucatán" Ethnohistory: Journal of the American Society for Ethnohistory, Vol. 49, No. 3 (2002), 651-670.

Restall, Matthew. Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquistadors. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Ricard, Robert. The Spiritual Conquest of Mexico: An Essay on the Apostolate and the Evangelizing Methods of the Mendicant Orders in New Spain, 1523-1572. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966. Trans. Lesley Byrd Simpson.

Scholes, France V. and Ralph L. Roys. "Fray Diego de Landa and the Problem of Idolatry in the Yucatan," Cooperation in Research. Washington: Carnegie Institution, 1938.

Scholes, France V. and Ralph L. Roys. The Maya Chontal Indians of Acalan-Tixchel: A Contribution to the History and Ethnography of the Yucatan Peninsula, Sec. ed. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1968.

Sharer, Robert J. and Loa P. Traxler. The Ancient Maya, Sixth ed. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2006.

Thompson, J. Eric S. Maya Hieroglyphic Writing: Introduction. Washington: Carnegie Institution, 1950.

Trouillot, Michel-Rolph. Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History. Boston: Beacon Press, 1995.

Vogt, Evon Z. "The Maintenance of Maya Distinctiveness," The Indian in Latin American History: Resistance, Resilience, and Acculturation, John E. Kizca, Ed. Wilmington, Delaware: Scholarly Resources, 1993.

In addition to universities and private institutions in Mexico, (Yucatec) Maya is also taught at:

Free online dictionary, grammar and texts:

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Yucatec Maya (; referred to by its speakers simply as Maya or as maaya t'aan [màːjaʔˈtʼàːn]) is a Mayan language spoken in the Yucatán Peninsula, including part of northern Belize. There is also a significant diasporic community of Yucatec Maya speakers in San Francisco, though most Maya Americans are speakers of other Mayan languages from Guatemala and Chiapas.

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1st most popular language in mexico nahuati is has been spoken in central mexico for centuries is a language or group of languages of the Uta-Aztecan family language spoken in about 1.7 million 

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1st most popular language in mexico nahuati is has been spoken in central mexico for centuries is a language or group of languages of the Uta-Aztecan family language spoken in about 1.7 million 

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this is a festival who Latins an Spanish celebrate an it is originally a  Spanish festival that was brought in by immigrants after over 400 years and it has become one of the traditions of the  country.

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Children smashing a traditional star-shaped piñata in a pre-posada party in Mexico City.

Las Posadas is a novenario (an extended devotional prayer). It is celebrated chiefly in Latin America, Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, and by Latin Americans in the United States. It is typically celebrated each year between December 16 and December 24. Latin American countries have continued to celebrate the holiday, with very few changes to the tradition.

Las Posadas derives from the Spanish word posada (, or accommodation) which, in this case, refers to the inn from the Nativity story. It uses the plural form as the celebration lasts for a nine-day interval (called the ) during the Christmas season, which represents the nine-month pregnancy of Mary, the mother of Jesus Christ.

Children in Oaxaca, Mexico, celebrating Las Posadas.

This celebration has been a Mexican tradition for over 400 years, starting in 1586. Many Mexican holidays include dramatizations of original events, a tradition which has its roots in the ritual of Bible plays used to teach religious doctrine to a largely illiterate population in 10th- and 11th-century Europe. The plays lost favor with the Church and were eventually banned as they became popular through the addition of folk music and other non-religious elements; they were reintroduced in the 16th century by two Spanish saints[who? ] as the Christmas pageant - a new kind of religious ceremony to accompany the Christmas holiday.

In Mexico, the winter solstice festival was one of the most important celebrations of the year that came on December 12 according to the Julian calendar used by the Spanish until 1582. According to the Aztec calendar, Tonantzin (the mother of the gods) was celebrated on the winter solstice, and she is still feted on December 12, while their most important deity, the sun god Huitzilopochtli, was born during the month of December (panquetzaliztli). The parallel in time between this native celebration and the celebration of Christmas lent itself to an almost-seamless merging of the two holidays. Seeing the opportunity to proselytize, Spanish missionaries brought the reinvented religious pageant to Mexico where they used it to teach the story of Jesus' birth. In 1586, Friar Diego de Soria obtained a Papal bull from Pope Sixtus V, stating that a Christmas mass should be observed throughout Mexico on the nine days preceding Christmas Day.[citation needed ]

While its roots are in Catholicism, Protestant Latinos also follow the tradition.

Two people dress up as Mary and Joseph and certain houses are designated to be "inns"; the head of the procession carries a candle inside a paper shade. The actors travel to one house each night for nine nights. At each house, the resident responds by singing a song and the pair are recognized and allowed to enter; the group of guests come into the home and kneel around the Nativity scene to pray (typically, the Rosary). The final location may be a church instead of a home.

Individuals may play the various parts of Mary (María) and Joseph (José), with the expectant mother riding a real donkey, attendants such as angels and shepherds joining along the way, or pilgrims who may carry images of the holy personages instead, while children may carry poinsettias. The procession is followed by musicians, with the entire procession singing posadas such as pedir posada. At the end of each night, Christmas carols are sung, children break open star-shaped piñatas and everyone sits for a feast. The piñatas used during the holiday are traditionally made out of clay.

One event in Portland, Oregon, finishes with Santa Claus and Christmas gifts donated to needy children.

A large procession has been held since 1966 along the San Antonio River Walk. It traverses large landmarks in San Antonio, Texas, including the Arneson River Theater, Museo Alameda, and the Spanish Governor's Palace, ending at the Cathedral of San Fernando.

In the Philippines, the tradition of Las Posadas is illustrated by the Panunulúyan pageant; sometimes it is performed immediately before the Misa de Gallo (Midnight Mass) and sometimes on each of the nine nights. The main difference, compared to Mexico, is that actors are used for Mary and Joseph instead of statues and sing the requests for accommodation. The lines of the "innkeepers" are also often sung, but sometimes these respond without singing. Another difference is that the lyrics are not in Spanish but in a Philippine language.

In Nicaragua, the older generations grew up celebrating posadas, but the tradition fell out of fashion in cities by the 1960s;[citation needed ] however, another major holiday called La Gritería (The Shoutings), on 7 December in honor of La Purísima Virgen (The Purest Virgin). La Purísima originated in León in the 1600s with Franciscan friars, and the celebration spread quickly throughout the country. By the 1800s, it became a national holiday and has since become a tradition in the Nicaraguan diaspora. La Purísima starts at noon on December 7 with major fireworks. Around 6:00 PM more fireworks announce the time when adults and children go out around their neighborhoods or towns with burlap sacks in hand visiting different altars while caroling the Virgin Mary. In exchange for singing, people receive sweets, fruit and toys. The celebration goes on into the night. At midnight, fireworks in the shape of Mary, stars and angels begin, typically lasting half an hour.

Cuba has a similar tradition called Parrandas; though, its atmosphere is more similar to Carnaval. The tradition began in the 19th century by Father Francisco Vigil de Quiñones, the priest of the Grand Cathedral of Remedios, in order to get the people to go to midnight masses the week before Christmas; he had the idea to put together groups of children and provide them with jars, plates, and spoons so they could run around the village making noise and singing verses. The idea persisted over the years and gained a street party ending.

In Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador, families and friends gather from the 16th to the 24th of December to pray the Novena de Aguinaldos.

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Las Posadas is a novenario (an extended devotional prayer). It is celebrated chiefly in Latin America, Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, and by Latin Americans in the United States. It is typically celebrated each year between December 16 and December 24. Latin American countries have continued to celebrate the holiday, with very few changes to the tradition.

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The eagle on mexico flag represent Aztec legend，perched on a cactus, devouring a snake.(L)

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The red stripe represents the Spaniards that joined in the quest for Independence and the blood of the national heroes.(L)

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The white stripe represents the purity of the Catholic faith.(L)

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The green strip represents the Independence Movement.(L)

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This kind of architecture is created by the Mayas, produce by pre-Columbian cultures and civilizations of Mesoamerica,(L)

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One interesting and widely researched topic is the relation between cosmovision, religion, geography, and architecture in Mesoamerica. Much seems to suggest that many traits of Mesoamerican architecture were governed by religious and mythological ideas. For example, the layout of most Mesoamerican cities seem to be influenced by the cardinal directions and their mythological and symbolic meanings in Mesoamerican culture.

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Top rank most spoken languages in mexico

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Top rank most spoken languages in mexico

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Origin Of Mexican Languages

Although today the vast majority of the Mexican population speaks Spanish, the original languages of the country are Amerindian, or indigenous. The origin of many of these indigenous languages is in Mesoamerican, with linguistic data dating back to around 5,000 years ago. Prior to 2,000 BC, Mesoamerica was in the Archaic period which produced 3 major language families: Mayan, Mixe-Zoquean, and Oto-Manguean. With the rise of the Olmec civilization beginning around 2,000 BC, many people began migrating across the region and taking their languages with them. The Olmec borrowed from the Mixe-Zoquean family, the Oto-Manguean language dispersed into central Mexico, and the Mayan language began to diversify as its speakers migrated north. With the decline of the Olmec civilization came the rise of other civilizations, bringing with them their language families, like Uto-Aztecan, and further developing the other languages. Certain civilizations, like the Aztec, Mixtec, and Zapotec, remained in power and influenced the spoken language within their region of power. Some of those languages continue to be spoken today.

Indigenous Languages Of Mexico

The most widely spoken indigenous language of Mexico is Nahuatl. This language belongs to the Uto-Aztecan family which researchers believe originated in the southwestern region of the US. Around 500 AD, speakers of the language migrated to Central Mexico. Nearly 100 years later, Nahuatl became the most powerful language of the region, used by the Aztec Empire. With the arrival of the Spanish colonizers, Nahuatl gradually lost its position as the dominant language. Today, 1,376,026 continue to speak the language, 14.9% of them are monolingual. Women make up the majority of the monolingual population. The language can be heard in the states of Hidalgo, Guerrero, San Luis Potosí, Puebla, and Veracruz.

The Yucatec Maya language, referred to as Maya, belongs to the Mayan language and is principally spoken in the Yucatan Peninsula. It originates from a 5,000-year old language family, Proto-Mayan. These speakers migrated to the Yucatan Peninsula around 1,400 BC. Over time, they became a powerful civilization, co-existing with other major civilizations like the Olmec. Around the 9th century, the empire began to collapse although, a large Maya population continued to exist in the Yucatan region. Today, approximately 759,000 people continue to speak the language particularly in the states of Yucatán, Quintana Roo, and Campeche.

The third most widely spoken indigenous language is Mixtec which belongs to the previously mentioned Oto-Manguean family. This language grew in and around the region of present-day Oaxaca, Puebla, and Guerrero, also referred to as La Mixteca. The Mixtec culture has existed since pre-Columbian times and was a main competitor of the Zapotec culture. The Mixtec rose to power in the 11th century, but fell with the arrival of the Spanish. Today, 423,216 people speak the language.

Foreign Languages In Mexico

Mexico has been a major immigrant destination country for hundreds of years. Immigrants have mainly come from Europe, the US, Latin America, and Asia. Many are foreign-born and many others are descendants of immigrants. They have brought with them, and many continue speaking, their native languages. These include: English, German, Greek, Italian, Arabic, French, Portuguese, Chinese, and Japanese.

Endangered Languages In Mexico

Although the government uses Spanish almost exclusively, it is not technically the official language of Mexico. In fact, the Constitution of the country defines the country as multilingual, recognizes the right of indigenous people to use and preserve their languages, and promotes bilingual education. Additionally, the government enacted the Law of Linguistic Rights, recognizing 62 indigenous languages as co-official national languages. Despite this effort to preserve and promote indigenous languages, many of them are endangered today. Spanish continues to dominate the society with younger generations discarding the language of their ancestors. This is indirectly encouraged through classist attitudes, pressures to assimilate into "modern culture," and the lower socioeconomic situation of many indigenous peoples. Today, at least 21 languages are listed as critically endangered, 38 are definitely endangered, 32 are severely endangered, and 52 are considered vulnerable.

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Although today the vast majority of the Mexican population speaks Spanish, the original languages of the country are Amerindian, or indigenous. The origin of many of these indigenous languages is in Mesoamerican, with linguistic data dating back to around 5,000 years ago.

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The pottery was from the valley of Oaxaca. It is an important way to expression in notable handicrafts(L)

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The traditional folk art was used on paper creations.(L)

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The traditional folk art point on fiber(L)

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the traditional folk art paint on pottery(L)

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*languages dying out in mexico (requires to open in a new tab)

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*languages dying out in mexico (requires to open in a new tab)

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the article shows that there are 143 different native language dying in mexico and it shows the reason of the language endangered due to the economic problem in mexico they have to abandon their own language to learn international language such as English and Spanish in order to gain economic wealth

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Of the 143 native languages in Mexico, 60 are at risk of being silenced forever, linguists say.

One language, Ayapenaco, is spoken fluently by just two elderly men who aren't even on speaking terms. Another indigenous language, Kiliwa, is spoken by only 36 people.

While 60 of Mexico's native tongues are at risk, 21 are critically endangered, with only a few elderly speakers left, according to a statement released recently by Mexico's Centre of Research and Higher Studies in Social Anthropology (CIESAS). ( Read about vanishing languages in National Geographic magazine.)

The languages most at risk in Mexico-including the Zapotec, the Chatino, and the Seri tongues-are undergoing "rapid change" for a number of reasons, says Lourdes de León Pasquel, a linguist at CIESAS. Among them are "migration, social instability, [and] economic and ideological factors that push speakers to adopt Spanish."

Mexico isn't the only country losing its voices: If nothing is done, about half of the 6,000-plus languages spoken today will disappear by the end of this century, according to UNESCO's Endangered Languages Programme website.

It's vital to save languages because they "are the primary conduit for human culture," says K. David Harrison, a linguist and co-leader of National Geographic's Enduring Voices project.

Mexico is a good example of that, Harrison said in an email interview: "Each of the Mexican indigenous languages contains millennia of human experience, wisdom, and practical knowledge about the natural environment."

León Pasquel argues that to preserve Mexico's threatened languages, "there should be an integrated policy to keep them alive: bilingual education [and] design of school curricula and bilingual materials. But more importantly, teacher training is basic to achieve this goal and that is what we lack."

Because Spanish is the dominant language in the workplace and Mexicans are typically taught Spanish in school, many Mexicans may have less interest in their region's native tongue, she said. But in her view, "Everybody should learn an indigenous language apart from Spanish."

Losing languages is "neither inevitable nor irreversible," according to UNESCO's Endangered Languages website. There are many efforts under way worldwide to boost learning and speaking of languages in decline, especially for younger generations.

"Mexico is indeed home to many endangered languages, but also to many language-revitalization efforts-for example, among the Zapotec and Chatino communities in Oaxaca, and the Seri," Harrison said.

For instance, Harrison has been working with a team of linguists, partially sponsored by National Geographic, to build a talking dictionary for Zapotec speakers in the Tlacolula Valley.

"The Tlacolula Zapotec are a rural, agrarian community, but they are quickly crossing the digital divide, and eager to create digital tools and resources for their language," Harrison said. (See "' English Goes in One Ear and Out Another': An Endangered Language Perspective.")

Harrison said he considers the Zapotec speakers "a great example of how endangered language communities are leveraging new technologies-especially smartphones-to maintain their heritage languages."

León Pasquel agreed that new communication technology can help keep languages going. For instance, adding language-specific buttons to keypads on cell phones and computers would be a "great support" to people who speak these endangered tongues, she said.

Linguistic anthropologist Susan D. Penfield works with the Endangered Languages Project, an online resource for vanishing languages. Because the world is interconnected like never before, she says, more people are exposed to and speaking the globe's dominant languages: Mandarin Chinese, English, and Spanish.

"Of the 2,000 or so African languages, most are endangered," she said in an email interview. "Mexico is no more susceptible than anywhere else impacted by globalization."

Penfield is convinced that "in most communities, there is a desire to slow the process of loss, and revitalize" threatened native languages. "There has been some remarkable success with this," she said. "But it is an uphill battle."
Follow Christine Dell'Amore on Twitter and Google+.

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Sixty Languages at Risk of Extinction in Mexico-Can They Be Kept Alive?

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Of the 143 native languages in Mexico, 60 are at risk of being silenced forever, linguists say. One language, Ayapenaco, is spoken fluently by just two elderly men who aren't even on speaking terms. Another indigenous language, Kiliwa, is spoken by only 36 people.

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Made by Angular, liner patterns, three dimensional ceramics. From 1800 BC to 1500 A.D

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Mexican art culture(L)