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Classic Evidence: Evaluation - Ethical issues and social implications

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Classic Evidence: Evaluation - Ethical issues and social implications

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Behaviour was not being manipulated therefore there is minimal risk of harm to participants
Psychological Harm

Some people who are unhappy may not like being asked about their happiness

May make them feel more depressed when asked about their well being.

Researchers need to debrief participants fully and be sensitive to specific needs

Adhearing to Ethical guidlines

Myers and Diener had to practice within the bounds of their competence

Eg. They should not try to help anyone who starts to discuss their mental health/wellbeing in debriefing- they should instead recommend psychological professional help

Social Implications

It might make us more likely to think about a certain group of people in a specific way (positively or negatively). Eg. Assuming that everyone form a certain country is happy

Need to be conscious whether statistics are representative of a complete country

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Classic Evidence : Evaluation - Alternative Evidence

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Classic Evidence : Evaluation - Alternative Evidence

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Happiness stays at a fairly steady level through life, with occasional highs and lows - called happiness set point - could be partly due to genetics

Schinka et al (2004) - 5-HTT gene linked to happiness - controls levels of neurotransmitter sertatonin - people with this gene report higher instances of life satisfaction

Sonja Lyubomirsky (2013) - happiness is due to 50% genetics, 10% circumstance and 40% self control - factors the individuals have influence over- found evidence when questioning twins/families (genetics) and people who have had ‘easy’ lives/ ‘hard’ lives (circumstance)

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Classic Evidence: Evaluation - Methodology and Procedures

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Classic Evidence: Evaluation - Methodology and Procedures

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Self Report Methods
Advantages

When friends are asked to rate the happiness of the person, the rating correlate with the individuals social desirability scores - confirming the validity

If we ask closed questions, we collect quantative data which is easy to analyse

Disadvantages

The data collected about SWB is subjective- there us no way of confirming or challenging a persons happiness

Social desirability- people often give socially desired answers to appear in a good light

People may only think that they are happy because they are repressing their unhappiness- unlikely.

Correlations
Advantages

A good place to start when looking for a relationship between variables- if a relationship is found, further research can be carried out

Disadvantages

Can’t assume that a particular factor is a clause of happiness

May have intervening variables- a variable that comes between the two main variables and can be used to explain the association.

Sample

Advantages

Large sample- allows us to generalise our findings to the wider population

Disadvantages

Culture bias- a lot of data is based on western samples as the researchers are from the USA - roots of happiness may be different in other cultures.

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Conclusion 1: There are 3 elements to happiness

1. Adaptation - Only events that took place in the last 3 months influence subjective wellbeing because human’s are above to adapt to life’s circumstances. Effects of positive and negative circumstances don’t last, therefore an individual’s ability to adapt to the circumstance determines their SWB

2. Cultural world View- People are programmed to view life events in a certain way based on their culture which can impact their SWB. Eg. Some see the world as controllable where as others emphasise negative emotions

3. Values and Goals - People with high SWB have goals and other factors, such as money, only matter if they are a part of these goals.

Conclusion 2 - The future

The understanding of what makes a person happy and what qualities happy people posses can help psychologists to build a world that emphasises well being.

Example - happy people have close relationships with others - this would be emphasised by society in order to minimise unhappiness

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Is happiness related to age?

Inglehart (1990) - No difference between 170,000 people in 16 different countries - people of all ages were equally happy- 80% satisfaction with life

Herzog et al (1982) - At different ages, different factors contribute to happiness - eg. Social relations and health get more important

McCrae and Costa (1990) - People experience crises at various ages - not restricted to a particular age

Is happiness related to gender?

Inglehart’s survey - 80% of men and 80% of women are fairly satisfied with life

Hearing et al (1984) - gender accounted for 1% of global wellbeing

Robins and Regier (1991) - women are twice as vulnerable as men to depression

Is happiness related to race or culture?

Diener et al (1993) - African Americans reported 2x happiness as European american

Inglehart (1990) - notable differences between countries - Portugal = 10% happy where as the Netherlands = 40% happy

Individual culture= greater SWB that those in collectivist cultures

Individualist culture = more concerned with individual need/happiness

Collectivist culture= focus on the needs of the group

Is happiness related to money?

Austin et al (1987) - In 1993 75% of American college students selected ‘being well off financially’ as a life goal - 39% in 1970.

Not everyone agrees that money buys happiness but most agree that having more money would make them happier

Correlation between money and happiness is modest

Diener et al (1993) - found correlation of +0.12 between income and happiness

Diener et al (1985) - 37% of people on Forbes’ Rich List  were less happy than an average american

Argyle (1986) - lottery winners had only a brief increase in happiness

In poor countries, people with money have higher SWB

Affluence increases happiness up to a certain level of comfort where it makes little difference

What are the traits of happy people like?

Some people are happier than others no matter what happens in their lives

Costa et al (1987) - people that reported being happy in 1973 were happy a decade later

Traits - High self esteem, sense of personal control, optimism, extraversion

What are the relationships of happy people like?

For some people, relationships cause more stress and unhappiness

For most, the benefits of a relationship outweigh the issues

Burt (1986)- people that can name close friends are happier an healthier than those who can’t

Lee et al (1991) - 39% of married people are happy compared to 24% of people who aren’t married

Wood et al (1989) - meta analysis of 93 studies - similar levels of happiness in married/non-married people

What is the work of happy people like?

Work satisfaction affects happiness - people who are out of work are less happy than those in employment

Work provides a sense of community, personal identity and a sense  that life matters

However work can be unsatisfying/stressful which is linked to unhappiness

Mihaly Csikszentmihaly - found that people were happiest when they were engaged in mindful challenge and experiencing flow

What are the faith of happy people?

Poloma and Pendleton (1990) - In North America and Europe, people who are religious report higher levels of happiness

People with a high spiritual commitment were twice as likely to say that they were very happy

Witter et al (1985) - happiness is associated with strength of religious affiliation and frequency of worship attendance.

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THere aren’t any of the usually procedures - researchers just searched for articles relating to their aim f finding out who is happy

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Research Method.  - Meta analysis about happiness
Meta analysis - A method of research that analyses and combines the results of similar studies - Allows researchers to look at overall trends and identify possible relationships.
Research was found in 3 ways:
Self- Report Methods (interviews/questionnaires)

A way to assess happiness is to consider a persons sense of their own happiness - SWB (subjective wellbeing)

In interview - ‘How satisfied are you with your life as a whole these days?’

Questionnaire (Multi item scale) - includes many questions related to happiness

A quantative measure is produced to represent happiness (numerical data)

Observations

Asking people to report what they are doing at selected times

Beepers are used to remind participants to send a message about what they are doing/thinking at that time

A method of sampling people’s behaviour

Correlations

Considers what factors vary with happiness

Some factors may contribute to happiness whereas others are a consequence of being happy - not always clear which is cause and which effect

Example - High SWB = positive appraisal of life or Positive Appraisal of life = High SWB (can be seen either way)

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Mindfulness: Evaluation - Ethical Issues

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Mindfulness: Evaluation - Ethical Issues

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A positive approach to therapy

Doesn’t involve the past (experiences) to offer explanations about our present behaviour therefore client anxiety is avoided

Lack of deterministic approach is positive for the individual

Doesn’t focus on changing the thought processes therefore it is less frustrating for clients

Other therapies can leave clients feeling guilty about how they think, however mindfulness teaches them about acceptance.

Mindfulness and Morality

Mindfulness is seen as an essential to mention moral and ethical standards

It is being taught is various organisations enhance leadership skills/improve decision making

Ruedy and Schweitzer (2010) - demonstrated how individuals who practiced mindfulness were less likely to cheat on a test in order to maintain their ethical standrards

Improving our menatl state will make us make decisions that are morally and ethical correct.

Strenghts

Mindfulness is accessible for anyone. Anyone can attend mindfulness classes where they can be taught the basics.

Many websites run online courses - this may help people who don’t want to talk about their issues to a stranger.

Useful as a way of promoting llbeing in mentally healthy people.

Weaknesses

Mindfulness is being delivered by untrained practitioners - many practitioners only have a week of training- This is a particularly concern for people who use mindfulness as a way of treating mental health.

It wasn’t’t designed to cure the symptoms of mental illness. - grew out of Buddhist meditation to help people control their thoughts and experience the ‘here and now’  Limited usefulness when used as a therapy to treat mental disorders.

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Mindfulness can be incorporated into other therapies such as CBT as it can help a patient to change the process of thinking rather than just the content of the thoughts.
Teasdale et al (2000)

145 recurrently depressed patients were randomly allocated to receive normal treatment (TAU) or TAU + 8 weeks of mindfulness based cognitive therapy.

Relapse to major depression was assessed over 6 weeks

Reported that MBCT gave more help to patients that had had sufferers the most previous episodes.

Did not have an effect on those who had ohad only two previous episodes

REdiced the risk of relapse for those who had 3+ previous episodes

Mindfulness- Based Stress Reduction
MBSR was developed for use in general hospitals with patients suffering from painful, chronic, disabling or terminal conditions
Reibel et al (2001)

Repoted that MBSR decreased anxiety and depression in 136 patients that participated in an 8-week mindfulness program which involved 20 mins of meditation each day

Results were seen over 1 year after

Mantzios & Giannou (2014)

Investigated group v individual mindfulness with participants that were trying to lose weight.

170 participants were randomly assigned to practice meditation for 6 weeks within a group or individually

Participants in the group setting lost more wight and lowered their levels of cognitive behavioural avoidance (avoiding social situations)

The benefits of individual mindfulness need to be viewed with caution

Mindfulness is adaptable enough to be used in all aspen acts of life.
Mindfulness was introduced in schools in 2007 and is now used in 12 different countries. It’s being used too improve students wellbeing  by dealing with exam stress, bullying or by improving study skills over a nine-week period.
Weare (2013)

Schemes have had positive outcomes when reducing anxiety and improving behaviours

Kuyken (2013)

Children who use mindfulness reported higher wellbeing and lower stress

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Gaining Control of Thoughts

Mindfulness makes us focus on our present emotions/feelings/thoughts. When we focus on the present we are aware of and can accept all incoming thoughts and feelings.

We gain greater awareness of negative thoughts which allows us to control and minimise them.

We can recognise the negative thought and alter our response to them.

There is more than one way to practice mindfulness however all methods help us reach a state of focused relaxation where incoming thought and feelings are accepted without judgment.

Meditation and Mindful Breathing

Meditation is the best way to focus on the present however it takes practice and formal training to be able to meditate properly.

Through breathing excercises and body posture, you are learning to focus on the sensations of your body rather than getting distracted. You acknowledge incoming thoughts and feeling but let them pass. You will realise that they aren’t permanent and will pass.

Mindful breathing

Informal Practces of Mindfulness

Mindfulness can be practiced informally during everyday life when we make the mind focus on one single task rather than trying to multi-task.

When the mind starts to wonder, you should bring it back to the sensations you are experiencing.

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Authenticity of Goodness and Excellence
Mike fullness aims to enhance a persons positive characteristics through acceptance based methods
Encourages to develop core virtues eg. Gratitude and optimism
Free Will
Main idea- to become consciously aware of present thoughts and feelings- self regulation of attention
Mindfulness enhance self regulation - encourages people to gain control of their thoughts/ feelings and to develop a more productive attitude/limit negative thinking
Taking control of ou feelings increases life satisfaction and contentment.

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To allow people to be in control of their own mind by acknowledging their current thoughts and emotions, allowing them to control them and focus them on building a happier life.

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Authenticity of goodness and excellence

Feelings of love, kindness, generosity and forgiveness are authentic and this can explain why relationships are formed.

Entering into a relationship allows individuals to develops and express their signature strengths because it allows them to practice these qualities

We are socially programmed to work had to find and build relationships with others, and this will contribute to happiness

The good life

We strive towards the good life which involves happiness, good relationships and work.

One of the elements of a good life is positive connections to others- this encompasses our ability to love, trust, enjoy happiness and forgive as these are ingredients in healthy relationship formation and maintenance.

Social, romantic relationships, as well as those with our family, can help us do activities that absorb and engage us.

For example, when you first enter a relationship you become totally absorbed in th other person. This absorption and engagements may lead them to feel that they are experiencing the good life.

Pew Research Centre (2005) - 43% of married participants reported to be ‘very happy’ compared to 24% of unmarried participants.

Example: Explaining the Formation of friendships
We seek friendships because:

It encourages the expressions of authentic emotions such as kindness and generosity from both parties

Rewards from friendships help prevent negative states such as depression and anxiety from developing

Positive psychology would see friendships as one of the key ingredients to happiness

Howell et al (2009)- people feel happier when engaging in activities which increase their connnection to a friend

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Seligman (2003) - the best way to happiness and to experience the best life is to develop our strengths and virtues (signature strengths)

By bettering ourselves, we can live a ‘good life’

Seligman argues that we should achieve a pleasant life, then a good life, and then finally the meaningful life

The three can be broken down

The Pleasant Life - Positive emotions and daily satisfaction

The Good Life - Discovering our strengths and enhancing our lives

The meaningful life - using our strengths for a greater purpose

Seligman aregies that the way to a good life is to develop positive connections with others, to have positive individual traits and develop life regulation qualities

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Assumption: Autheniticity of Goodness and Excellence

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Assumption: Autheniticity of Goodness and Excellence

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Focussing purely on the negative aspects of life (mental health, stress etc) could give us an unbalanced view of human behaviour.

Seligman (2002) - positive traits have been neglected and are seen as less genuine  than the negatve traits. Positive emotions and experiences are just as authentic as negative ones.

Positive approach focuses on positives - celebrating the good things and improving wellbeing and fulfillment rather than fixing wrongs. By bettering the individual and a focus on self-improvement (developing a person’s positive traits), mental illness can be treated in a mor positive way.

Example of a theory that focuses on the positives of human behaviour - Seligman’s theory of signature strengths. Refers to the character strengths that are most essential to who we are. Seligman found that the most satisfied people were those who had discovered and use their signature strengths in their own lives. Signature strengths include a love of learning, bravery, humour and persistence.

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Assumption: The acknowledgement of free will 

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Assumption: The acknowledgement of free will 

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States that the only think that’s controls our behaviour is our own free will - we are in charge of our own psychological and emotional wellbeing.

Happiness is accessible to all if we use our strengths and virtues

Argues that being too deterministic can have angeative impact as it leaves us feeling helpless/powerless

Happiness happens when we feel that we are in control of our lives and having the chance to make changes gives us both psychological and physiological benefits

Research has found that feeling that we control our lives gives high job satisfaction and performance

Langer and Rodin (1976) - a sense of control over our lives is related to better health. Residents of a nursing home that were encouraged to take control of their lives lived longer and reported better health than those that weren’t.

Diener and Seligman (2002)  - students who had stronger ties to friends/ family and spent more time with them had lower levels of depression and higher levels of happiness - suggests that emotional state is in our own control.