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Being born to parents on the island of Sri Lanka, I was raised speaking both English and Sinhala. What I found interesting growing up was that even when we moved to Canada in 2002, my parents did not have a hard time picking up the English language. My mother and father are both writers of their own, and have published a variety of English works. My parents both point to colonialism as the main root of this. As Sri Lanka was colonized by the English, their lasting teachings have dominated the country. Education in Sri Lanka focuses on British English, and both of my parents have similar talking behavior as a person from London. Personally, I can communicate fluently in both languages, however my brother cannot. Being born in Canada, my brother assimilated into the culture, with no real desire to connect with our native language. His connection with our mother culture is much more distant when compared to mine, and I think that language has a lot to do with this.

Hirumal

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Colonialism is defined as the practice of partially or fully acquiring political control over another region outside of a nation's sovereignty and beyond their territory (Kohn & Reddy, 2017). It is characterized by the occupation of said region with settlers and the exploitation of both the land and people economically and physically all while imposing its own language, cultural, and religious values, on the indigenous peoples (Kohn & Reddy, 2017). By 1914, the majority of the world had been colonized by European monarchies (Blakemore, 2019). The roots of colonialism can be traced back to ancient civilizations including Greece, Egypt, Rome, and Phoenicia (Blakemore, 2019). These ancient superpowers all practiced extending their borders and broadening their nations into surrounding areas from approximately 1550 BC. and onwards (Blakemore, 2019). They established colonies that were built on the foundations of the population and physical resources of the conquered, native individuals in order to capitalize on the area and increase their power (Blakemore, 2019). Modern colonialism, on which modern societies are founded upon, began during the Age of Discovery in the 15th century (Blakemore, 2019). While many colonization efforts began as mere geographical curiosity or a necessity for safe trade routes, some rival nations would become locked in a battle to conquer as much land as possible to expand their empire and claim superiority over one another (Blakemore, 2019). Upon reflection, colonialism can be regarded to have caused significant harm but also to have resulted in benefits for both parties (Blakemore, 2019). For example, colonial governments would invest in trade, medicine, infrastructure and education within their newly conquered lands (Blakemore, 2019). However, forced conformity to new cultural and religious standards, environmental degradation, human rights violations, the spread of diseases, and economic instability are all consequences of colonization that, in some cases, have outlasted colonial rule and continuity to persist within society today (Blakemore, 2019).

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What is Colonialism? (Colonialism Defined, Meaning of Colonialism, Colonialism Explained)

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During colonization, it was common for colonizers to impose their language onto the inhabitants of the regions they took over (Shakib, 2011). In certain cases, including the history between the Europeans with the Indigenous Canadian and American populations, natives were systematically forbidden to speak their mother tongues and may have been punished, discriminated against, and humiliated for speaking their native language (Shakib, 2011). With the aim of strengthening their political base, powerful governments approached colonization based on invalidation and consumption of subordinated languages through weakening, forgetting, and saluting them sovereignty language (Shakib, 2011). This is all in the aim of cultural sovereignty and the transformation of the minority nation into one that complies and aligns with the values of the colonizing government (Shakib, 2011). Hence, through the reduction of culture and language to submission, this process is expedited (Shakib, 2011). Therefore, they are able to desolate cultural and natural resources (Shakib, 2011). During colonialism, other languages were also created as different groups of people were forced or happened to interact (Fenigsen, 2007). For example, pidgins and creoles, some of the dialects of which are now recognized as languages, such as Haitian creole (Fenigsen, 2007). These processes also resulted in new hierarchies of languages, pidgins, and creoles, whereby language became a method of defining different groups of people and understanding where they were positioned in sociopolitical hierarchies (Fenigsen, 2007). Today, in modern society, the legacy of colonialism can be seen in the unfortunately low number of native speakers of Indigenous languages around the world and in the lasting hierarchies that are still associated with a way of speaking and their impacts on culture as a whole (Fenigsen, 2007). There a number of Indigenous groups that recognize the importance of language in cultural preservation and are actively working to revive and save their languages (Fenigsen, 2007). However, it is likely that there are numerous languages that will die out if they have not already due to the continuous suppression of native culture by colonizers throughout history.

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Map of Imperialism and the Spread of Colonial Languages 

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Meet Indigenous Speakers and Learn How They're Keeping Their Languages Alive

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Spanish: Links between Territorial Expansion and Language

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Spanish: Links between Territorial Expansion and Language

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One of the many points of Spanish history widely recognisable to many is their colonial policy, especially when enacted under the Conquistadors.

A great point of reference for Spanish language policies can be been in South America starting in the 16th century.

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To preface, the main motivations for Spain's expansion into the New World were profit through resource extraction and the spreading of religion (Catholicism).

In this way, language policy was a means to control or make easier the control of a population by the colonizing parties.

Similar to what is described in Example 2, the Spanish also used language assimilation to replace native languages, but only those of high usage and strong language unity. Until the independence of the former Spanish colonies, usage of previously dominant languages such as Quechua were suppressed and smaller tribal languages became de facto when speaking with other indigenous.

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Vietnamese language under French colonial rule

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Vietnamese language under French colonial rule

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Can you recognize the language?

It is an Asian language called Vietnamese.

Like many other Southeast Asian countries, Vietnam was a French colony from 1861-1945. Language was one of the major obstacles faced by the colonial government. Therefore, Annamalai (qtd. in Vu) states that most colonial governments adopted three policies to overcome the issue: linguistic elimination, tolerance and promotion.

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French Colonial Government Language Policies

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French Colonial Government Language Policies

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Four written languages were used in Vietnam during French colonization, namely Chinese, the Nom, the Quoc Ngu and French (Marr 21). As Vietnam was under China’s influence, the colonial government not only prohibited Vietnam's ruling class and peasants from using Chinese and the Nom but also reduced the time of learning Chinese at school. To further eliminate the influence of Chinese, Thanh (qtd. in Vu) suggested that the colonial government introduced Roman scripts by adopting a Western style of education.

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Positive influence: Development of society and literature

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Positive influence: Development of society and literature

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The introduction of Latin alphabets allows Vietnamese people to access Western concepts from books. Prior to French colonization, Vietnam was influenced by China and thus had never been introduced to democracy, science and technology (Vu 113).

In addition, the development of literature in Vietnam was of great diversity under colonial rule. Vietnamese elites who were likely to master French led the rapid development of Francophone Vietnamese literature.

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There was a shift in Vietnam’s written language: from the Nom (left) to the Quoc Ngu (right). These two written languages are apparently different. The former resembles Chinese, while the latter is a Romanized script.

Before French colonization, Vietnamese people usually used the Nom as means of communication, but the situation changed with the colonial government’s ban. Though the Nom is still used today, it's influence has undeniably diminished (Bianco 2). The language shift limits the linguistic development of the Nom as it is rarely used now.

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These decisions were made by the colonial government without consulting the general public. What do the Vietnamese people think about this replacement?

In fact, there is a huge debate among the Vietnamese community about the abandonment of the Nom. As suggested in this blog post, some support the abandonment as it has increased the literacy rate. The characters are Romanized and easier to pronounce and learn the language even if you are an outsider.

On the contrary, others think that the Nom should be revived considering its relationship with Vietnam’s culture and history. When both the Nom and Quoc Ngu were ‘invented’ by non-locals, these two written languages should have co-existed instead of prioritizing Quoc Ngu.

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The Republic of China under Mao’s direction went through a phase called: Cultural Revolution. Were English welcomed? How were English teachers treated, you might ask. Well, due to western invasions, and hatred for anything western were greatly expanded. During this period of history, “English was viewed as the language of the enemy” (Hu, 2005). English teacher did not have a good time, to put it lightly. For five years, no students were under the foreign language department. English as a language in China went on a hiatus for ten years.

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Previous western colonization in China didn’t place English in its throne of the language of the world in Chinese people’s eyes. The success of Western English-speaking cooperation, and opportunity for financial success did. During the 1980s, Deng, the chairman at the time, lead the national modernization program. One of this program’s fundamental goal was to push the boundary for modern science and technologies. In Deng’s eyes, they “held the key to China’s modernization” (Hu, 2005). Overnight, from a language that is despised by millions, English became the utmost priority for this nation’s development.

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Although some western merchants had dealt business with China during the Qing Dynasty. No one at the time would have predicted that it would be war and colonization that brought western languages to China. After the invasion of Eight-Nation Alliance, multiple provinces were under colonization of western countries. This was the unpleasant introduction of English in China.

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The country went through several education reforms during this period of rapid economic growth. Although some worry that the emphasis on English would have severe impact on the Chinese culture. In Johnson’s studies, he discovers that few has concerns about English language erasing cultures that aren’t native to English. Most Chinese claims that English, instead of eliminating cultures, it erases the boundary between various populations.

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Culture and the natural/social environment of a location are dependent on language as a basis of communication. Language is central to this idea of interaction and is a cornerstone to a functioning society. Without centralized language, a society will not be able to function.

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Colonialism's effect on language. Why is it important? 

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Colonialism's effect on language. Why is it important? 

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Not only did European colonizers take land masses, but by implementing their language, they were able to shift the cultural and linguistic practices of regions. This shaped the linguistic and cultural atmosphere of various locations, as the English language was prioritized.

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Colonized language in relation to success. 

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Colonized language in relation to success. 

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The inability to excel in the language that is being forced into a governing nation would equate to poor school and workplace performance, a link that has not been addressed until recently. Colonized language became so important to the acquisition of education and career opportunities, that oftentimes it would dominate the households of younger generations.

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Colonized language's effects on native languages and cultures. 

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Colonized language's effects on native languages and cultures. 

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Colonized language has cultural implications on native society because of the sheer impact it can have on harming a culture itself. The ability the English language has to suppress languages native to the colonized region can not only suppress linguistics, but can also suppress culture and history that has been passed on through generations. As illustrated in our examples, it is clear that colonized language has one of the largest and most important impacts on deteriorating cultures.

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In a society where reconciliation and reoperations are considered more than ever, we often reflect back on the impact colonialism has had on the cultures of our past. We identify the harm that the English language has historically caused on cultures that have been broken down throughout generations of colonial assimilation. These moments of looking back and understanding our past allow us to approach our present through a different perspective. Thankfully we are at a point where colonialism and forced assimilation isn't considered a normal thing anymore, allowing us to truly identify the relevance and importance language has on culture.

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"While these issues are undoubtedly of great importance, it is equally important to understand the cultural and specifically the linguistic and discursive practices that came to be associated with European colonial rule. These practices played an instrumental role in assigning low prestige to non-European languages and cultures, including cultural and linguistic forms that emerged due to Europe’s colonial expansion, and in establishing the superiority of the coloniser’s language and culture."

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"While these issues are undoubtedly of great importance, it is equally important to understand the cultural and specifically the linguistic and discursive practices that came to be associated with European colonial rule. These practices played an instrumental role in assigning low prestige to non-European languages and cultures, including cultural and linguistic forms that emerged due to Europe’s colonial expansion, and in establishing the superiority of the coloniser’s language and culture."

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(Migge, Isabelle 2007).

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It is important to not let language irrelevance in a society allow for the culture to diminish. Language and cultural are tied in many ways, and often the loss of one results in the loss of another in a society.

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The indigenous people of Canada are undoubtedly one of the most affected groups from colonialism. It is clear that many indigenous languages have died down over the years since colonization. Nevertheless, it is important to keep their cultural traditions, and presence alive in Canada, and not allow it to be stripped away just as their language has been.

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As has been discussed, colonialism carries significant impacts that can have rippling effects throughout a country. It can potentially rip apart cultures, people and radically enforce new ways of living. In the fierce political and economic landscape that is present in this world, recognizing the pros and cons of colonialism has never been more important.

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By promoting cultural events, incorporating the study of colonialism in the current education system (making sure to highlight strengths and weaknesses) and striving towards an inclusive society, it is possible to live in peace with multiple viewpoints.

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Washington Tribes - Preserving Culture 2016

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Being born and raised in Hong Kong, a former British colony, I have never experienced colonial rule but realize how influential it is. For the younger generation, we are glad that colonialism brought us new insights and altered our city into a diversified society with the combination of East and West culture. However, those who have experienced colonial rule believe that colonialism had been the worst years in their lives concerning the sufferings brought about by the British colonial government.

Cheryl

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Colonialism sounds far away for me, a Chinese. In my mind, it was something that could only be found in textbooks, although it happened to China less than a hundred years ago. It wasn’t until I dove deeper into Chinese, Canada, and other countries’ histories, I realize the effect of colonialism has done. You may say without colonies, China will not unite and grow to its size today, Canada will remain to be the land of aboriginal people, and none of these countries might speak English. You may say that colonialism brought change and ultimately brought English, an international language to foreign countries. But, are those justifiable to the suffering that millions had gone through due to foreign invasions, and colonization? There might not be a unanimous answer, but I would say colonialism is not the correct way to spread the English language and its culture.

Jason

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As an Egyptian, being born and raised in Canada, I have not directly seen the effects of colonialism in my life. I do however recognize its impact on my culture. The British occupation of Egypt left massive economic, social, and political stains on the country my parents grew up in. While some may argue that the economic stimulus that had arisen from the occupation benefitted the country overall, I believe that there has been a lot of irreversible damage done. It is important to reflect back on one's culture so that their identity can not be easily changed.  I am proud of my culture, and realize the effects colonialism has had on it.

Kirollos

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Even though I was born and raised in Canada and have not directly experienced colonialism, its impact still runs deep in my family. My parents are Indian immigrants and my grandparents were born into an India under the British rule. Though, fortunately, my grandparents did not grow up under British rule, they still had to suffer the consequences of the British occupation. The land was split into two different countries, people were divided by religion more so than ever, the economy was desecrated, entire provinces were starved, but most importantly, the British had significant ramifications on Indian culture and how it was viewed. I can recall my grandfather recounting how he was frequently scolded for his inability to learn English that was, by then, a mandatory subject in all schools, and how my great grandparents had to  learn to overcome the shame they were accustomed to feeling every time they tried to practice their religion. My great-grandparents used to practice Hinduism in secret to avoid being reprimanded for not conforming to British culture and were ridiculed for speaking in any language besides English. While it is true that the British reign over India did introduce modern ideas and technology to the country, I maintain that the damage caused to India as a whole, far outweighs the benefits the country experienced under colonization. While I am privileged to be living in a country where I can practice my religion and culture without fear of any consequences, I will never forget the suffering of my forefathers and native countrymen who suffered and fought so that my generation would be free. While India has yet to receive an official apology from the English monarchy, India must free itself from the hold that the English culture still maintains on the country. It is important to me that I keep the culture, religion, and language alive that are so integral to my identity and continue to take pride in my heritage when so many others could not.

Sneha

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Bianco, Joseph L. Issues and aspects of Vietnam's language policy: Some reflections. University of Melbourne ,1994. Web.

Blakemore, Erin. (February, 2019). "What is Colonialism?". National Geographic. Web. URL = https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/colonialism

Fenigsen, Janina. 2007. “From Apartheid to Incorporation: The Emergence and Transformations of Modern Language Community in Barbados, West Indies.” Pragmatics17 (2): 231–261

Hu, Guangwei. "English language education in China: Policies, progress, and problems." Language policy 4.1 (2005): 5-24.

Johnson, Anne. "The rise of English: The language of globalization in China and the European Union." Macalester International 22.1 (2009): 12.

Kohn, Margaret and Kavita Reddy, "Colonialism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2017 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2017/entries/colonialism/>.

Leevi, Jinn. "Chữ Nôm (漢喃) Hán Tự." Wordpress, 18 Feb. 2012, https://jinnleevi.wordpress.com/2012/02/18/chữ-nom-漢喃-han-tự/. Accessed  8 Dec. 2021.

Marr, David G. Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, 1920-1945. Berkeley: U of California, 1984. Web.

Shakib, Mohammad Khosravi. "The position of language in development of colonization." Journal of Languages and Culture 2.7 (2011): 117-123.

Vu, Le Toan K.  "越南語言政策的演變與發展."[The development and transformation of Vietnam's language policy]. Association for Taiwan Educational Review Monthly 9.12 (2020): Association for Taiwan Educational Review Monthly, 2020-12-01, Vol.9 (12). Web.

Migge, Bettina and Léglise, Isabelle (2007). Language and colonialism. Applied linguistics in the context of creole
communities. In Marlis Hellinger and Anne Pauwels (eds.),
Language and Communication : Diversity and Change.
Handbook of Applied Linguistics
297-338. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

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Colonialism is defined as "control by one power over a dependent area or people." It occurs when one nation subjugates another, conquering its population and exploiting it, often while forcing its own language and cultural values upon its people. By 1914, a large majority of the world's nations had been colonized by Europeans at some point.

Japan, Korea, and Thailand are the only other nations never to have been colonized by Europeans.

The concept of colonialism is closely linked to that of imperialism, which is the policy or ethos of using power and influence to control another nation or people, that underlies colonialism.

History of colonialism

In antiquity, colonialism was practiced by empires such as Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, Ancient Egypt, and Phoenicia. These civilizations all extended their borders into surrounding and non-contiguous areas from about 1550 B.C. onward, and established colonies that used the physical and population resources of the people they conquered to increase their own power.

In Ancient Greece, for example, city-states often established colonies in search of both extra living space and economic gain. After consulting an oracle, members of the city-state would send a select group of its inhabitants to establish a new colony. To seal the association between colony and city, its founding members would light a fire with a flame taken from the original city's central hearth and engage in other rituals laying claim to the new location.

During what is now known as the Age of Discovery, founding a new colony depended on another ritual: gaining the sponsorship of a wealthy patron, usually a monarch, and embarking on large ships to search for unceded land. Beginning in the 15th century, Portugal began looking for new trade routes and searching for civilizations outside of Europe. In 1415, Portuguese explorers conquered Ceuta, a coastal town in North Africa, kicking off an empire that would last until 1999.

Soon the Portuguese had conquered and populated islands like Madeira and Cape Verde, and their rival nation, Spain, decided to try exploration, too. In 1492, Christopher Columbus began looking for a western route to India and China. Instead, he landed in the Bahamas, kicking off the Spanish Empire. Spain and Portugal soon became locked in competition for new territories and took over Indigenous lands in the Americas, India, Africa, and Asia.

The rest of Western Europe swiftly followed: England, the Netherlands, France, and Germany quickly began their own empire building overseas, fighting Spain and Portugal for the right to lands they had already colonized.

Often, the colonies were wrested from the hands of their Indigenous inhabitants by relatively small parties of European men who lay claim after short skirmishes or by intimidating locals with their vessels, weapons, and trade items. For example, Columbus' crew for his famous 1492 voyage consisted of just 90 men, 39 of whom he left behind to build a settlement in what is now Haiti.

Subjugation and revolutions

Among the allures of colonialism was the chance to recruit-and often enslave-Indigenous people to benefit a colonial power. In Brazil, for example, explorers called bandeirantesembarked on expeditions in search of Native people to capture and enslave for Portuguese-established plantations and mines. And slavers from throughout Europe participated in the Atlantic slave trade, dealing in kidnapped Central and West Africans and forcing them to perform labor that enriched their empires overseas.

Even former colonies eventually became colonizers themselves: The U.S., which was formerly held by Great Britain, extended its territory shortly after winning the War of Independence and later expanded its claims to the Pacific and Latin America.

Starting in the 1880s, European nations also began taking over African nations, racing to coveted natural resources and establishing colonies they would hold until an international period of decolonization that lasted from around 1914 to 1975 and challenged European rule

By far, the most successful colonizer was the British Empire, which at its height soon after World War I could boast territories in every time zone in the world. The sun "never set" on England's political and economic ambitions, which it carried out with the help of British colonial governments.

De Beers Diamond magnate and British imperialist Cecil Rhodes is a controversial figure in South Africa. In recent years, many of the country's residents have called for the removal of monuments honoring Rhodes, saying his influence paved the way for apartheid.

Photograph by Hulton-Deutsch Collection, CORBIS/Corbis via Getty

Despite the growth of European colonies in the Western Hemisphere, most colonized countries gained independence during the 18th and 19th century, beginning with the American Revolution in 1776 and the Haitian Revolution in 1781. However, the Eastern Hemisphere continued to tempt European colonial powers.

Colonial rationale and resistance

Colonial powers justified their conquests by claiming they had a legal and religious obligation to control the land and culture of Indigenous peoples. Conquering nations cast their role as civilizing "barbaric" or "savage" nations, and argued that they were acting in the best interests of those whose lands and peoples they exploited.

Historically, church leaders both encouraged and participated in the takeover and exploitation of foreign lands and labor, most often in the name of Christian conversion. In the 15 th century, Catholic popes laid out a religious justification for colonization, issuing a series of papal bulls now known as the Doctrine of Discovery that asserted colonization was necessary to save souls and seize lands for the growth of the Church. Often, Christian missionaries were among the first to make inroads into new lands. Inspired by the belief that they must convert as many Indigenous people to Christianity as possible, they imported both religious and cultural customs and a paternalistic attitude toward the colonies' Native inhabitants.

Mahatma Gandhi enjoys a laugh with his two granddaughters Ava and Manu. Gandhi oversaw the end of Great Britain's colonial rule in India.

Photograph by Bettmann, Getty

Yet resistance to this control is an integral part of the story of colonialism. Even before decolonization, Indigenous people on all continents staged violent and nonviolent resistance to their conquerors. These included the Pueblo Rebellion overthrowing Spanish rule of what is now New Mexico in 1680, the slave revolt turned revolution in Haiti in 1791, a series of rebellions against English rule in India, and many other instances of collective and personal resistance.

Ethiopia was able to remain one of just two African nations to sidestep European colonial rule due to a series of savvy alliances forged by its emperor, and in 1896 the nation managed to stave off an Italian invasion at the Battle of Adwa.

Colonialism's legacy

Colonial governments invested in infrastructure and trade and disseminated medical and technological knowledge. In some cases, they encouraged literacy, the adoption of Western human rights standards, and sowed the seeds for democratic institutions and systems of government. Some former colonies, like Ghana, experienced a rise in nutrition and health with colonial rule, and colonial European settlement has been linked to some development gains.

However, coercion and forced assimilation often accompanied those gains, and scholars still debate colonialism's many legacies. Colonialism's impacts include environmental degradation, the spread of disease, economic instability, ethnic rivalries, and human rights violations -issues that can long outlast one group's colonial rule.

As South Asia historian John McQuade writes, "It takes a highly selective misreading of the evidence to claim that colonialism was anything other than a humanitarian disaster for most of the colonized."

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The subjugation of indigenous people-and the exploitation of their land and resources-has a long and brutal history.

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Sneha Patel

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Example 1: Spanish Colonialism of South America

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Example 1: Spanish Colonialism of South America

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Brian Huang

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Example 2: Vietnamese language under French colonial rule 

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Example 2: Vietnamese language under French colonial rule 

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Cheryl Leung

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Example 3: The rise of English in China 

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Example 3: The rise of English in China 

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Jason Zhou

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Hirumal Munasinghe

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Chippewas Of Georgina Island First Nation Indian Reserve No. 33a, Georgina, ON

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Kirollos Botros

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Kirollos Botros
Cheryl Leung
Sneha Patel
Jason Zhou
Hirumal Munasinghe