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1. In the 1850’s anti-pollution societies formed

2. By the 1840’s 500 smoking chimneys were in Manchester

3. Engines got bigger, resulting in an increase in coal-burning boilers

4. In Manchester many efforts to decrease smoke were made

5. Smoke from coal was decreased by using gas-powered engines

6. Smokeless zones were created by the 1956 Clean Air act]

7. Scientists realized that global warming was occurring in the 1890’s

Shriya Peddu

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- August Wilhelm Von Hofmann, the president of the Royal College of Chemistry, had assigned Perkin a mission. When he did this, he was only 18 years old and had been Hofmann's research assistant for two years.
- They were attempting to create a synthetic version of quinine, which was used to cure malaria.
They were attempting to create a synthetic version of quinine, which was used to cure malaria.
- Perkin's job was to research and conduct experiments with aniline. He discovered that when he used potassium to oxidize aniline, the result was a precipitate that was black, and when the color was removed, the result was silk that was purple
- His laboratory journal included fingerprints of the color mauve, which he had identified, as well as the synthetic dye mauveine.
https://blog.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/worlds-first-synthetic-dye/
Outside Info:
- Before Perkin's discovery, dyes and pigments had to be obtained, frequently at great expense and effort, from plants, metals, minerals, or organic substances like bat guano.
- natural purple dyes faded quickly
- Perkins has found a way in producing this dye by varying the components needed to make it.
https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2018/3/12/17109258/sir-william-henry-perkin-google-doodle-birthday-180-mauveine-purple-dye

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The world’s first synthetic dye | Museum of Science and Industry

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161 years ago, on 26 August 1856, the world’s first synthetic dye was patented by William Henry Perkin, whose archive is now part of our collection.

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Richard Arkwright:  The Father of the Factories

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Richard Arkwright:  The Father of the Factories

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By Adarsh Chandramouleeswaran

1. Richard Arkwright devised a simple but remarkable spinning machine which replaced the work of human handheld tools and made it possible to spin cotton yarn more quickly and in greater quantities than ever before.  This made him the “Father of the Factories”.

2. Richard Arkwright developed a successful hair-cutting and wig-making business in Bolton by the time he became interested in cotton spinning.

3. Arkwright alongside John Kay developed the first prototype spinning machine. The machine's moving rollers drew out the cotton fibers which replaced the action of a hand spinner's fingers. Then, its rotating spindles twisted the cotton into yarn and wound it onto a bobbin.

4. Arkwright made crucial developments that set his machine apart, succeeding where others had failed.  He discovered the correct spacing for the rollers that drew out the cotton fiber, and hung weights from the top set of rollers so they could grip the bottom rollers firmly.

5. Arkwright had started moving on to water powered machines rather than horse powered machines as waterpower was the most efficient way to run machines.

6. The ingenious design of the water frame allowed them to be operated by workers with little experience very easily.  This was good for Arkwright as they kept them fed with cotton, pieced up any breakages in the yarn and changed full bobbins for empty ones. The water frames produced by Arkwright could make huge quantities of strong and even yarn; something weavers needed to produce cotton cloth.

7. By 1800, many people were employed in mills.  As a result, working lives transformed. Instead of spinning at home, people now worked long, repetitive and exhausting days in huge, multi-storey mills, looking after the machines.  This would become a problem for the labor workers in the coming decades.

Outside Source used in research:

http://scihi.org/richard-arkwright-industrial-revolution/

1. Richard Arkwright borrowed the ideas of others for his machines and used them to build the machines; allowing them to make machines work successfully.

2. Richard Arkwright built houses for the weavers, a school and a church, thus establishing an industrial community at the expense of the traditional social fabric.  This later helped him in building more factories as it involved little cost and there was a high demand for yarn.

3. Richard Arkwright also influenced Samuel Slater, another entrepreneur, who brought Arkwright’s ideas to America and expanded on Arkwright's ideas, inventions and use of resources.

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The textiles gallery of the city that was built on cotton by Ryan Prince

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The textiles gallery of the city that was built on cotton by Ryan Prince

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1. The city of Manchester was at one point the world’s. Main importer of cotton, importing up to a billion Tons per year

2.Oldham’s platt brothers and Co. Ltd. Was the manufacturer for textile machines for the planet

3. There was a lot of wealth brought on by the textile industry but with it came great inequities.

4. Most of the cotton processed in Manchester was a result of slave labor in the southern United States.

5. Cotton transformed Manchester into a great city and made it an urban metropolis.
6. Manchester dominated the textile business during the industrial revolution which gave it the name “Cottonopolis”
7. The first cotton mills in Manchester and England appeared in 1776 using river powered water mills.
8. One of the first Manchester Textile mills was owned by Richard Arkwright in 1783.

Sources: https://sites.google.com/a/wisc.edu/ils202fall11/home/student-wikis/group6

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Manchester, England is widely known as an illustrative example of the industrial revolution, from the positive aspects of economic growth and technological advances to the more negative qualities associated, like over crowding and social stratification. How does a city become such an industrial powerhouse in relatively short period of time? From a climate conducive to the cotton trade to existing canals and transportation mechanisms, Manchester was primed to become an efficient industrial city once cotton mill technology caught up to the existing infrastructure. Manchester and its upper class quickly prospered, and separated themselves from the newly developed and rapidly growing working class. The social stratification was epic, as was the overcrowding. Working conditions were abysmal, inspiring scholars at the time to write several now-famous works critiquing the working conditions and the working class' plight.
Table of Contents

"If Britain had had to depend on her roads to carry her heavy goods traffic the effective impact of the industrial revolution may well have been delayed until the railway age." -Phyllis Deane, Historian

Canals were essential for the distribution of coal throughout Manchester and the rest of the UK. Before the prominence of the railways, canals were the only cheap mode of transportation allowing for the movement of massive amounts of cargo with ease. Had the canals not have connected vast quantities of coal with foreign raw materials; Manchester may not have become the industrial center of northern England.

Noted Transportation Advances Include:

Bridgewater Canal

Considered to the world's first true canal, it connected Runcorn, Manchester and Leigh in North West England. It was constructed to transport coal from the mines in Worsley to Manchester. Previous transportation methods by way of packhorse and other various rivers were inefficient and costly. Francis Egerton, the 3rd Duke of Bridgewater, whom hired James Brindley to engineer the route, funded the Canal. The determined path would begin underground at Worsley heading southeast through Eccles, then head south as it passed over River Irwell. Once it crossed over the river, the canal would follow south along Trafford Park and then finally east toward Manchester. The aqueduct necessary to cross River Irwell was completed in as little as 11 months from September 1760 to July 1761. The total price of construction cost the Duke $261,000, yet the canal helped cut prices of coal within Manchester by half. When it was completed, the canal allowed one horse to pull 30 long tons of coal per trip; more than ten times more cargo than was previously possible by cart. Along with transporting large amounts of goods, the canal also helped alleviate water deep within the mines, allowing Francis Egerton to withdraw more coal. 5
Mersey and Irwell Navigation (M&IN)
A Lancashire salesman selling his wares along the Mersey River first realized the benefits of converging both the Mersey and Irwell rivers at Manchester. In 1712, a local engineer by the name of Thomas Steers surveyed the area and located eight necessary locks to transport the boats. Yet because of the lack of funding, the project was shelved until 1721, whereupon King George I approved of the plan; although construction of the canal did not begin until 1724. Because of the winding nature of the two rivers, official completion of the canal did not take place until 12 years later in 1736. 6

The Revolution itself: "COTTONOPOLIS"
Because of the dominance of Manchester in the textile industry throughout the 19 th century, the city became known as Cottonopolis. English cotton mills first appeared around 1776, using water wheels powered by nearby rivers and streams. The first large mill was built along the Thames river, followed by the construction of similar mills throughout the north and east parts of the city. ⁷ Because of the vast amount of waterways around Manchester, the city was an excellent place for textile production.

Richard Arkwright owned one of the first mills in Manchester in 1783. Being destroyed in WWII, much of its history was lost, yet historians speculate that a Newcomen atmospheric engine powered the mill.

Yet with the improvements to the steam engine made by James Watt, productivity in textile mills skyrocketed. By 1816 there were 86 cotton mills throughout the city producing goods at a previously unheard of pace. By 1825 this number had increased to 104 cotton spinning mills with 110 steam engines located throughout the city ¹⁰.

"We may see in a single building a 100 horse power steam engine (which) has the strength of 880 men, set in motion 50,000 spindles. The whole requires the service of but 750 workers. But these machines can produce as much yarn as formerly could have hardly been spun by 200,000 men..." wrote Edward Baines when describing the productivity that could be generated by the new engines.

Another factor that led to the growth of productivity in Manchester was the large influx of people that migrated to the city. With the work force mushrooming from 17,000 in 1760 to 180,000 in 1830 ⁷. This arrival of new workers greatly influenced the amount of cotton being transported into the city to be woven into high-quality fabrics. These workers consisted of men, women, and even children; starting their work at six in the morning and were not able to return home until their 13 hour work day was completed ¹¹. In 1772, cotton was being imported at a rate of 2,000 tons per year, and then exploded to 45.2 thousand tons per year by 1816. ⁸

To sell their goods, merchants met at the Royal Exchange. Thomas Harrison built the first modern Royal Exchange in Manchester in 1809, yet the first Cotton Exchange wasn't constructed until 1829. The building concealed upwards of 11,000 members within its walls whom met every Tuesday to barter their goods.

This unrestrained capitalism was a foreign and modern idea that many people had never encountered. People travelled from all over the world to experience first hand this new, powerful economic system. ⁹

Effects of the Industrial Revolution in Manchester

While there is no doubt that the growth of industrialization in Manchester was very prosperous, this increased economic output did not come without associated negatives. This section discusses the overcrowding, poor working conditions and social stratification that developed as a direct result of the industrial revolution in Manchester. However, not all of the developments in Manchester that happened because of the industral revolution were bad, some of the world's most noted thought on the working class developed at this time too.

The population of Manchester in 1773 was only 22,481, but with the removal of legislation allowing for an exponential growth in cotton imports, this number was to rise drastically. The introduction of large factory mills as well as Crompton's Mule machines in any other available spaces created jobs that were largely filled by immigrants, but housing was climbing at a much slower rate than jobs. Mills started becoming electric in 1785, further increasing the output of cotton, and as a result additional industries appeared in Manchester to cater to the ever-growing cotton industry. The installation of these resources encouraged the exploitation of Manchester's coalfields to the west and as a result, created opportunities for employment for those seeking work. As coal production became more and more expedited due to accelerated industrialization, it became the driving fuel of almost every industry operating within Manchester and made the city a center for materials production, especially in regards to the textile industry.These expansions in the Manchester economy meant that in 15 years the population had almost doubled to 42,821. Housing was at a premium, with multiple families commonly living under the same roof. Health and hygiene became a serious problem. Mills and factories ran on coal, creating black clouds of soot that covered the city and even towns nearby. It was exacerbated however in the working class, fevers and cholera swept through cramped, overcrowded living quarters, streets were covered in excrement from horses, and they worked long hours with poor nutrition. Manchester's economy hinged on its main industry, and so when supplies became scarce, many of its occupants could only eat by way of soup kitchens. The water supply was always insufficient, so they resorted to collecting rainwater in lead cisterns and using that for cooking and cleaning. These conditions sparked the beginning of the workers rights movement in Manchester, but they didn't slow its growth: by 1823, its population reached 108,000 people.

Working Conditions in Industrial Manchester

As factories worked to maximize output and therefore profit, the working conditions worsened. There were no labor laws, which meant that men, women and children could work extensive hours with little to no regulation for their health, safety or well being. Shifts could be as long as twelve hours, with people working very close together with very heavy machinery. The machines all required careful attention and frequently malfuctioned, causing injuries to the operators. During the summer months, despite increased heat in the factories, shifts would sometimes be even longer because that was the height of both cotton production and daylight under which to work. At first, Manchester was known to have good relations between workers and factory owners, but because efforts to maximize profits grew faster than the labor union movements, these historically good relations began to decline.

The industrialization of cotton resulted in the defining of the city's social class structure. Due to Manchester's status as a large manufacturing center within mainland England, its population was comprised mostly of lower working-class. A local government body was formed to address issues in town, but a minimum income level was set as a requirement to hold any position ensured that small business owners and industrial-wage workers were ineligible. Given this fact, a large divide between the working-class citizens and the middle- to upper-classes developed. Along with this divide came political discrimination: during the visit by the Duke of Wellington for the opening of the Manchester and Liverpool Railways,-which came about as a method of transporting coal and other resources to and from the collieries and the city-his train was stoned by crowds composed of working-class citizens who disagreed with his opposition to political reform that would give working- and lower-class citizens the right to vote. The reform was intended to reorganize Parliament to reflect the industrial demographic changes in industrialized areas such as Manchester. The clash between the lower- and upper classes led to an attempt to withhold voting rights from anyone but the upper class. Poor acts made it illegal to be homeless or to beg, and combination acts made it illegal to collectively bargain, meaning that an employee who couldn't afford to live on his wage could be fired for organizing, and then when he was on the street he would be thrown in jail for sleeping outside. In response to these working conditions, the working-class organized gatherings to speak on how they would enact change. The Manchester upper class would have these shut down time and time again until 1819, when 60,000 people rallied for worker rights and were charged by the army. Eleven people died and over six hundred were wounded.

Thought in Manchester

The importance of developing the mind was apparent early as Manchester grew in size. In 1770 the first central library was founded, and five years later a theatre and a grammar school for children was built as well. The first official society of thought was founded in 1781- "The literary and Philosophical Society," but without a permanent location, they had to be based out of local taverns. Within half a decade a formal College of Arts and Sciences was founded, and expressly stated that it was absent of influence from either religion or political affiliation. Not soon after the governing body in Manchester instituted mandatory Sunday school programs as a means of instilling in the masses basic Christian morals as well as skills in reading and writing.

Industrial Manchester is known to have piqued the curiosities of many now famous philosophers. In 1844 Frederich Engels wrote his now-famous " Condition of the Working Class in England," which he was prompted to write upon observing some of the atrocious living and working conditions being endured by the working class across England, and in Manchester particularly.

"The town itself is peculiarly built, so that a person may live in it for years, and go in and out daily without coming into contact with a working-people's quarter or even with workers, that is, so long as he confines himself to his business or to pleasure walks. This arises chiefly from the fact, that by unconscious tacit agreement, as well as with outspoken conscious determination, the workingpeople's quarters are sharply separated from the sections of the city reserved for the middle-class; . . ." - Frederich Engels, 1844.

It goes without saying that Engels' observations influenced his thought, and therefore his later works, including The Communist Manifesto which he wrote with Karl Marx. The atrocities suffered by the working class in Manchester did not just inspire scholarly thought for outsiders like Engels, but also sparked internal movements. Poor acts made it illegal to be homeless or to beg, and combination acts made it illegal to collectively bargain, meaning that an employee who couldn't afford to live on his wage could be fired for organizing, and then when he was on the street he would be thrown in jail for sleeping outside. In response to these working conditions, the working-class organized gatherings to speak on how they would enact change. In 1816, workers enraged with conditions gathered and agreed to march on Parliament with nothing but their blankets on their back, to demand labor-law reform. Most of the workers were arrested on the way down and as a result never stood in front of lawmakers. The gentry labeled the March of the Blanketeers as "traitorous conspiracy" and in 1817 suspended habeas corpus. In 1819, 60,000 people rallied for worker rights and were attacked by the army. Eleven people died and over six hundred were wounded. The Suffragette movement, one of the first campaigns to help women obtain the right to vote has roots in Manchester, as women began fighting for their rights. Women began to realize that in order to really advocate for their rights they would need to have real representation, and that starts with the right to vote. The first Trade's Union Congress was also held in Manchester, further underscoring the development of though across all classes in Industrial Manchester.

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Industrial Manchester, England; 1760-1825 - ILS202_fall11

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Manchester, England is widely known as an illustrative example of the industrial revolution, from the positive aspects of economic growth and technological advances to the more negative qualities associated, like over crowding and social stratification. How does a city become such an industrial powerhouse in relatively short period of time?

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1. He was born in Cumbria in 1766 and starting teaching there. He then moved to Manchester, where he tutored in science and natural philosophy at Manchester Academy.

2. While living in Manchester, he joined the Literary & Philosophical Society. This allowed him to use a very well-equipped research lab, which made him very interested in scientific discovery.

3. Dalton formed an atomic theory to understand chemical reactions, formed a theory to explain color vision deficiency, and discovered things in meteorology. Modern physics and chemistry is still based on the atomic theory he discovered.

4. In 1801, he figured out the Law of Partial Pressures. This said that the pressure of a mixed gas is the sum of the pressures that all its components would exert if they were to be in the same space. In addition, he came up with the law of the thermal expansion of gases.

5. Dalton developed the first table of atomic weights, which included hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and zinc. This would help in the creation of the periodic table of elements in the nineteenth century.

6. He discovered that atoms in varying elements are differentiated by having weight differences. To illustrates the 3-D structures of these molecules, he used ball and stick models. They are still used today.

7. He also did research on color blindness. He found that the fluid color in eyes was a filter that only let in certain colors in the spectrum. He donated his eyes when he died and was later found that he lacked being able to see green light. This condition is still called Daltonism.

8. Additionally, he saw and documented the aurora borealis. He wanted to know what caused it and was very interested in weather and meteorology.

Other source: https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/diversity-in-science/scientists-with-disabilities/john-dalton/#:~:text=John%20Dalton%20(1766%2D1844),his%20work%20on%20human%20optics.

1. Elihu Robinson and John Gough were both an inspiration to Dalton. They were what sparked his interest in meteorology, which he continued to expand on his entire life.

2. Dalton published his first scientific paper in 1793. It was called ‘Meteorological Observations and Essays’.

3. In 1826, Dalton received the Royal Medal presented by the Royal Society for “the most important contributions to the advancement of natural knowledge”. He got it for his discoveries on the atomic theory.

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Tiny Clogs and Child Poverty in the Industrial Revolution 

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Tiny Clogs and Child Poverty in the Industrial Revolution 

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1. These clogs were known as the work - a - day shoe of Manchester’s women, children and men.

2. The clogs were lent by Charter Street Ragged School in Angel Meadow to the families who weren’t able to afford it.

3. These clogs had a CSRS stamp so that it stopped poor children and their families from pawning them for money and also showed that they were loaned.

4. The clogs were also selected for the gallery which showed the lives of all the people in the industrial Manchester’s workforce.

5. Workers earned good wages in Manchester’s textile mills, but work was never guaranteed because cotton shortages and low demand for cloth could shut the mills.

6. Some workers had to go without wages, which made them struggle to afford food, clothes and shelter.

7. “Ragged” schools like Charter Street in Angel Meadow was one of Manchester’s worst slum districts, and provided food, clothing, and basic education to the very poor people.

Outside source link:
https://aboutmanchester.co.uk/tiny-clogs-tell-the-poignant-story-of-child-poverty-in-the-industrial-revolution/

1) One of the most poignant objects which was added into the gallery was children’s clog used around the 1870.

2. These clogs were selected in the gallery to show the lives of the industrial Revolution Manchester’s workforce.

3. Another item in the gallery was a cotton gin which tells parts of the story of slavery and a host of colorful shipper’s tickets featuring exotic and unusual designs.

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William Henry Perkin and the worlds first Synthetic dye

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William Henry Perkin and the worlds first Synthetic dye

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By: Eshwar Mohankumar

-Discovery of synthetic dye was not made on purpose and was rather a product of fooling around

-Henry Perkin was a research assistant for August Wilheim von Hoffman and were tasked with chemically synthesizing a natural compound

-There was a lot of demand for quinine as it used as treatment for malaria

-Aniline an oil derived from coal tar was used and was oxidized with potassium dichromate which later produced a black sludge which made solution purple

-substance could have been utilized to dye silk purple far more cheaply than previous methods of making purple dye

-Perkin named dye mauveine

-Discovery was also used for coal tar was it was later found that there were other useful derivatives

-Dye industry was later revolutionized which made him very wealthy

Information: https://blog.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/worlds-first-synthetic-dye/

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Claudia Cacha

In the 20th century the was a lot of aviation innovation in Manchester. Manchester was a centre of aviation excellence, motivated by adventure and demands of war. Manchesters engineers made many major contributions to the development of aviation.

1) The Roe 1 Triplane was the first all-British aeroplane. Alliott Verdon-Roe built aswell as flew with in the year 1909. The next year, 1910, him and his brother formed A V Roe and Company.

2) A V Roe and Company was the first company in the world to be registered as an aircraft manufacturer which led to them becoming very important in British aircraft design.

3) At first they worked at a workshop in the basement of Brownsfield Mill, a cotton mill in Ancoats but later on expanded to larger factories in Manchester. They set up an big assembly plant in Woodford, 1924.

4) Roy Chadwick was the chief designer of A V Roe and Company, he designed the fuselage and undercarriage for AVRO 504, which became the standard training aircraft used by Royal Air Forces.

5) Manchester aviators, John Alcock and Arthur Whitten Brown made the first non-stop transatlantic flight in 1919. It was around the same time Roy worked on the AVRO 504 at A V Roe and Company (Avro).

6) Manchester’s Siddeley group bought A. V. Roe’s interest in the company in 1928. They kept producing Avro aeroplanes. They also built the iconic Shackleton right after World War II

7) The Shackleton was a British long-range maritime patrol aircraft used by the Royal Air Force between 1951 and 1990, it was their first line of defense in the Cold War. It was built at Woodford in Cheshire and could stay in the air for up to 24 hours which was a great accomplishment at the time.

Source: https://airwaysmag.com/manchester-airport-opens-gates/

1) In 1935 Manchester City Council voted on building the city’s new airport at Ringway, Manchester, the contruction befan in November of 1935.

2) On June 25 of 1938, the airport was ready for use. It was named after its location, Ringway Airport. It had a control tower, administration facilities, a restaurant, and a hangar.

3) On June 27 of 1938, KL had its first scheduled flight departing from the Ringway Airport. Later on the airport was name Manchester Airport (MAN).

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First part of the Longdendale reservoir (installed in 1850)

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John Frederick Bateman's Machine That Helped Clean Water in Manchester

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John Frederick Bateman's Machine That Helped Clean Water in Manchester

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By Nirnay Bhattacharya

- Manchester experienced a massive increase in population from 60,000 in 1800 to 142,000 in 1842. The overpopulation caused by urban migration made Manchester the most filthy and overcrowded city in Britain.

- Due to outbreaks of diseases like typhoid and dysentery, the Manchester Statistical Society found the average lifespan was 17 years.

- These problems were caused by the city's poor infrastructure for water and sanitation. Of 47,000 houses in 1847, only 11,000 had a piped water supply.

- The people who could not afford proper plumbing got water from shared taps, shallow water, or streams. These were extremely polluted from the privies (toilets) with no plumbing for waste.

- In 1851, Manchester Corporation with chief John Bateman created reservoirs with hydraulic engineering.

- The machine collected rainwater from the Pennines and the clean water flowed to Longdendale.

- While the engineering feat benefited people, it did not help the poor who could not get clean pipes. The machine made Manchester's classes more separated and different as the middle and lower classes could barely access water.

- However, Manchester's government eventually invested in pipes to give clean water to the middle class and suburbs. The urban workers in the dense city meanwhile did not receive these.

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Manchester’s Smoke Nuisance : Pollution In The Industrial City

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Manchester’s Smoke Nuisance : Pollution In The Industrial City

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Ahanna Sehgal

The industrial revolution brought rapid economic growth and development to Manchester, but it also led to significant air pollution that is still being worked to solve today.

1) The burning of coal for energy was a major contributor to air pollution in the city, this is due to the harmful substances it releases when it is burnt.

2) Factories and other industrial facilities released a variety of pollutants into the air, including particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, and other gases.

3) Due to Manchester being one of the main cities for industrialization, the city's population grew rapidly, leading to increased demand for energy and higher levels of air pollution.

4) The air pollution in Manchester was especially severe in the winter months, when the use of coal for heating increased.

5) Many of the factories and industrial facilities in Manchester were located in densely populated areas, which exposed residents to high levels of air pollution.

6) Being sick was normalized to the point where most people had stinging eyes and were constantly coughing and sad.

7) Residents and workers of Manchester weren’t aware of the drastic changes that living in a polluted environment would cause not only them but their future generations.

Research:  https://foundations.uwgb.org/industrial-pollution/

1) Other sources of air pollution in Manchester during the industrial revolution included transportation, such as horse-drawn carriages and steam-powered trains, which released particulate matter and other pollutants into the air.

2) 1/3 of houses in Manchester had a lack of latrines, this meant sewage drains often leaked into water supplies leading many citizens to sickness.

3) Manchester’s environmental concerns were only addressed  during the late 1950s where the conditions only started getting worse.

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Sir William Henry Perkin's discovery of Synthetic Dyes

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Sir William Henry Perkin's discovery of Synthetic Dyes

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Saharsh Medichalam
1. In 1856, William Henry Perkin was a research assistant for August Wilhelm von Hofmann, tasked with chemically synthesizing a natural compound.
2. He used aniline, an oil derived from coal tar and oxidized it with potassium dichromate which produced a black sludge that Perkin noticed while cleaning his flasks made the solution purple.
3. The substance could be used to dye silk purple far more cheaply than previous methods of making purple dye including Phoenician dye which was made from sea snails.
4. Perkin named his synthetic dye mauveine and the color it produced mauve. Today the dye is formally called aniline purple.
5. Henry Perkin patented the dye on August 26, 1856, mass producing it and making a fortune and was able to retire at 36 from business, continuing to research in chemistry.
6. The discovery also created a use for coal tar which was previously known as a waste product but later found to have other useful derivatives.
7. There was a mystery though researched by Dr Plater who found that the bottled dye made personally by Perkin kept in the museum seemed to be different from what is produced by the process in his patent.
8. It was found by Plater that Perkin had a different process for making purple than what was found in patents, most likely used to keep his personal dye a secret from competition.

1. Perkin's factory that produced the dye was made with his brother and funded by his father.
2. The introduction of purple to the masses created a frenzy for the new color in the 1850-1860s known as the 'mauveine measles'.
3. Perkin's personal dye had a different structure to the one found in purple postage stamps at the time, revealing that he had a different process for making his own.

https://blog.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/worlds-first-synthetic-dye/

https://researchoutreach.org/articles/mystery-victorian-purple-dye/#:~:text=William%20Henry%20Perkin%2C%20a%20young,%2C%20to%20the%20mass%2Dmarket.

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WILLIAM HENRY PERKIN AND THE WORLD’S FIRST SYNTHETIC DYE

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WILLIAM HENRY PERKIN AND THE WORLD’S FIRST SYNTHETIC DYE

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By: Aditya Kaushik

1) The discovery of synthetic dye was not made on purpose, it was actually a product of fooling around, as Sir William Henry Perkin was a very curious research chemist.

2) At 18 years old, he was employed to a man named Hofmann, who was adamant to develop a synthetic form of a substance called quinine.

3) Quinine was in a lot of demand because it was used as a treatment for malaria.

4) At 18, Mr. Perkin was tasked to go about experiments using a substance that is called aniline, since quinine was far too important as a resource.

5) Aniline was a colorless oil derived that is derived from a coal tar, and does not have a scent.

6) When he oxidized aniline by using potassium dichromate out of sheer curiosity, the result of the oxidation turned silk purple.

7) This revolutionized the dye industry and made him very  wealthy.

External Website Facts:

1) This dye also led to the uncovering of relative dyes, which were used in pharmacies because these dyes had some aspects to them that help with health.

2) The spread of the dye and pharmaceutical industries lead to scientists being curious and researching more about molecular structure.

3) Perkin ended up selling his business at the age of 36 to devote himself to research, which included investigating organic chemicals to rotate plane-polarized light, which is used in questions about molecular structure.

Website: https://www.sciencehistory.org/historical-profile/william-henry-perkin

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In this image, Factories are releasing extremely harmful waste and runoff into the river. Untreated sewage also pollutes the waters

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Water Pollution and Sanitation in Manchester

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Water Pollution and Sanitation in Manchester

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By Karan Vijayakumar

Article Link: https://www.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/water-and-sanitation

- In the 19th century, Manchester grew famous for its production of textiles. This caused the population to boom from 60,000 inhabitants in 1800 to 142,000 by 1842.

- In 1837, the Manchester Statistical Society published evidence that the average life span of people from the laboring population was around 17 years. This is mainly due to horrible living conditions and outbreaks of diseases such as Typhoid, Dysentery, and Cholera.

- The root cause of Manchester’s environmental problems were inadequate water and sanitation infrastructure (essentially the sewer system). Of the 47,000 houses in Manchester, only 11,000 had a piped water supply. The sharing of open water sources obviously are not very sanitary.

- At this time, rather than toilets, Privy middens were mainly used. These structures consisted of a wooden seat built over a pit. Privy middens we’re shared between up to 30 families and we’re rarely emptied. Human waste often seeped into watercourses and overflowed into the streets. The toilets that did exist connected to drains that emptied directly into the rivers.

- To gradually improve sanitation, Privy middens were converted into pail closets, which used a removable metal bucket to collect waste. Unlike Privy middens, Pail buckets were emptied frequently in order to process the waste into manure.

- Manchester’s early sewer network was designed primarily to deal with the draining of surface water. This caused them to be inadequate in dealing with human waste. In addition, Manchester’s manufacturing industries dumped much contaminated water and solid waste into the rivers. Manufacturers argued that there was no other way to get rid of waste products and as such, were resistant to attempts made to contain water pollution.

- In 1841, to satisfy the city’s demand for clean water, the Manchester Corporation supplied water from Longdendale to Manchester in a huge project. This was done through making aqueducts that flowed water towards Manchester from a chain of 6 reservoirs through the the utilization of gravity. The gathered water provided benefits to Manchester’s manufacturers who were desperate for a plentiful supply of clean water. Unfortunately, this also widened inequalities. Most of the fresh water was supplied to middle-class suburbs, while the working people of Manchester continued ti rely on shared water sources.

- By the late 1860s, the demand for water outstripped the supply from Longdendale. This was solved by an ambitious plan which involved the creation of a reservoir at Thirlmere and bringing water to Manchester via a 96-mile, gravity-fed aqueduct. This project began in 1885, and water reached Manchester in 1894, ending the problem of supplying the city with adequate water. The plentiful water source allowed for the mass conversation of privies to flushing toilets, improving the sanitation issue.

Outside Source Link: https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/britain-1700-to-1900/industrial-revolution/diseases-in-industrial-cities-in-the-industrial-revolution/

- Cholera was a significant disease in Industrial Manchester. It is a waterborne disease caused by sewage coming into contact with drinking water and contaminating it. As such, this  disease usually affects the poorer areas than the richer ones. As many people used the river as drinking water, this disease was significant towards Manchester.

- Typhoid and typhus were as feared as cholera. Both were also common in the Industrial Revolution. Typhoid was caused by infected water whereas typhus was carried by lice.

- One of the worst diseases in the Industrial  Revolution was tuberculosis (TB). The disease caused a wasting of the body with the lungs being attacked. The lungs attempt to defend themselves by producing something called tubercles. The disease causes these tubercles to become yellow and spongy and coughing fits causes them to be spat out by the sufferer. Tuberculosis mostly affects those who were poorly fed and under nourished. This disease is airborne, which means it can be spread through the air.

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This is the River Irwell which is where many of Manchester’s factory waste was dumped into.

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1. As the population began to increase in the 1800s the environmental conditions were left unchecked which led to it degrading rapidly.

2. Since the environmental conditions were so bad many people suffered from typhoid, dysentery, and cholera which caused data to show that the average expectancy of an inhabitant of Manchester was 17 years old.

3. There were 47,000 households in Manchester during 1847, but only 11,000 had a water supply while 12,000 had to use shared taps or standpipes in the streets for water supply. The rest of other people had to rely on wells and buckets that got water straight from the river, which was the worst since all waste was in the water they drank. There were also carbon filters but only certain people could afford them because the price was too high for poor or regular class people to buy.

4. One reason that caused the rivers in Manchester to become so polluted was because human waste, factory used water, and dye waste were dumped into the rivers everyday.

5. While people had protested about the treatment of the environment and the conditions in which they lived in manufacturers paid no mind to this because they only wanted to make a profit and by making changes to help with sewage and water supply it would cause them to lose money.

6. With the amount of pollution that had been dumped into the rivers also caused there to be an increase in chances of floods that could occur since the waste dumped into the rivers increased the height of the rivers by 3 inches every year.

7. One of the changes that came during the reforms in Manchester was a law passed in 1890 which required all buildings to have plumbing and in 1892 a law was passed that said all existing building owned by landlords must have the plumbing system for the convenience of the people.

1. The first reservoir created in Europe was created in Manchester in order to try and help with the amount of water there was in Manchester at the time.

2. In order to cope with the inadequate amount of clean water a 96-mile aqueduct had to be created to bring clean water to Manchester. It also became the longest aqueduct in the world at the time.

3. All great cities are built on a great river in order to support the population but even though Manchester was built on some rivers it wasn’t great enough to support the population so Manchester was the first city to do things the hard way.

Sources used:
https://www.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/water-and-sanitation

https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/how-victorian-water-engineers-put-10769535
- Brandon Anand

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Arav Kumar

Atomic theory was created by John Dalton

John Dalton was part of the Literary & Philosophical Society in Manchester

The Society allowed him to gain access to a laboratory where he pioneered big discoveries in science

Atomic theory is based on the concept that each element has the same unique indivisible atom

Dalton was able to create 20 elements he knew of, which would later be part of the periodic table

Each aspect of Dalton’s theory was fixed and improved but it was the basis of modern chemistry and physics

Dalton created the ball-and-stick to model the three-dimensional structure of molecules, which is still found in teaching today

https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Dalton/Atomic-theory

Dalton measured the masses of elements which was inaccurate but helped him prove the Law of Multiple Proportions

The Law of Multiple Proportions said that when two elements formed more than one compound the ratio of the two elements creates different compounds

The Law of Multiple Proportions can only exist if the atomic theory is real and so Dalton was correct

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1) Worn around 1870, the tiny clogs were the most poignant object to be added in to the textiles gallery

2) These shoes were worn by most women, children, and men  who were in poverty and could not afford to buy shoes. This meant that no one fully owned these shoes

3) These shoes were lent by Charter Street Ragged School in Angel Meadow to mainly the children of families that could not afford to buy the tiny clogs

4) The school but a ‘CSRS stamp on the shoes to show that they are loaned to stop poor children or their fatimí lies to pawn the for money

5) The living conditions in the cities and towns were miscible. It was characterized by overcrowding, poor sanitation, spread of diseases, and pollution

6) Workers were also paid very low wages that didn’t allow them to purchase food items which makes them go into poverty

7) People started to hire children since they realized it was legal and they were able to pay them less than they pay adults, specifically 10%-20% of an adult

https://foundations.uwgb.org/children-during-the-industrial-revolution/

1) These shoes were used since they were either cheap or easy to make. The same size was used throughout all the children, which causes most of the children too have foot aches.

2) Child labor underwent before the Industrial Revolution but not to such high extent. It was most exploited in mill and factory work during the Industrial rise of Great Britain

3) Many of the children who worked in factories experienced symptoms such as paleness, slimness, wheezing, and difficulty in breathing

Abhiram Maganti

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Boddingtons Beer Company and Strangeway Brewery 

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Boddingtons Beer Company and Strangeway Brewery 

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By: Sarvesh Anand

1. Strangeway brewery, the birthplace of Boddington beer was established in 1783.

2. Henry Boddington arrived at Strangeways in 1832 where he was made partner.

3. Within 5 years Boddington became the sole owner of Strangeway.

4. The English Beer Scandal involved the Boddingtons beer company since their beer contained arsenic from the old brewery process in the 1900s.

5. During WW2 the brewery chain had become the main supplier of alcohol in North West England.

6. The brewery suffered a massive hit when an air raid struck Manchester stopping production for 7 months during repairs.

7. Until 1989 the beer company had been held in the Boddington family until it was bought by Whitebread bear company.

Sources: https://propermanchester.com/feature/boddingtons-the-rise-and-fall-of-the-cream-of-manchester/
2nd Source
https://www.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/boddingtons-breweries

1. The brand was passed from company to company until 2012 when the last Boddington beer brewery in Manchester closed with production being moved to Salmesbury.

2. At the time it was once of 30 companies in Britain to brew 100,000 barrels of alcohol a year.

3. The 1870s and 1880s were a time of mass expansion to other breweries.

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By: Srinath Sundara

1. The Ribbon loom was made by T.F. Wilkinson and Co. Ltd and it was made in 1900.
2. The jacquard head on top on the ribbon loom acts as a programming system which gives instructions to the loom to weave a particular pattern.
3. The loom had the ability to weave 4 ribbons at the same.
4. The Jacquard system was invented by Joseph Marie Jacquard in 1804.
5. This system transformed the way patterned cloth could be produced and it made manufacturing much more easier and cheaper.
6. The jacquard loom is often considered a predecessor to the modern computer as the loom also uses a binary system to store information that can be read by the loom.
7. A jacquard loom could be operated by an unskilled worker.

Outside Source
1. The jacquard loom was able to tie together textile manufacturing and computing which were Manchester’s two most important historic industries.
2. The spread of Jacquard’s loom resulted in the plummet of cost of fashionable, highly sought after patterned cloth.
3. These kinds of cloth were able to be mass produced and it was becoming affordable to a wide market of consumers.
https://www.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/jacquard-loom

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A picture of the real version of a New Family sewing machine.

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By: Tanush Siva

1. This sewing machine was made between 1865 and 1883 by the Singer Manufacturing Company.
2. It is classified as a 'oscillating-shuttle lock-stitch machine', where the shuttle moves at a 90 degree angle towards the direction of the cloth feed.
3. This machine surprisingly looks like many sewing machines that were created until the 20th century.
4. The original prototype for this machine was very heavy, and was meant to be used in factories. The Singer Manufacturing Company produced a more lightweight version of it (the 'Family' machine) in 1858 and made an even better version (the 'New Family' machine) in 1865.
5. This sewing machine was produced for around 20 years, leading to over 4 million of them being manufactured.
6. It was available in many forms, with a basic version, a version ornamented in pearls, and a form with cabinets.
7. The basic model of this sewing machine costed 4 pounds.

Outside Source:
1. The original patent for this machine was from P. Diehl in 1878, who was a engineer for the Singer Manufacturing Company.
2. The New Family machine was the most successful machine of the 19th century, but the Singer Company stopped manufacturing it around 1890. Clones of the machine were still made until the 1930s.
3. This machine had some flaws, like how it had bevel gears (which were expensive and shed teeth), and how problems in the shuttle caused vibrations which reduced sewing speed.

Link:
https://ismacs.net/singer_sewing_machine_company/singer-improved-family-sewing-

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By Hersh Bindra

1. Made in 1926 by Dobson and Barlow Limited.

2. Ring Spinning was created in America in 1830.

3. The Ring Spinning Frame was made of 400 spindles all lined up right next to each other.

4. This was done to decrease production time and employees.

5. 3 of these could fit in the space of 1 mule spinning frame.

6. The Ring Spinning Frame was autonomous, meaning it didn’t need hand power to spin it.

7. The yarn spun in the Ring Spinning Frame was twisted in a small eyelet close to it.

Link:https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co45115/ring-spinning-frame-1926-portion-of-a-spinning-frame

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By: Shrihan Kodati

1) This water frame was made by Sir Richard Arkwright, England, 1775
2) It was dubbed the name of “Water Frame” as it was fueled by water power from Arkwright’s Cromford mill
3) Before the water frame was created, Arkwright created a prototype spinning machine capable of spinning 4 threads at a time
4) The water frame was able to spin double the amount of threads compared to it’s prototype
5) Subsequent machines were vastly enlarged, though their framings were of wood rather than iron into the 1790s
6) This machine is one of many machines specialized in covering part of the cotton spinning process
7) The cotton spinning process and the creation of this invention along with many other inventions revolutionized manufacturing processes in the cotton industry, the leading mechanized industry during the early Industrial Revolution

Outside research:
1) Before the water frame, thread and yarn were produced by hand, proving to be a very tedious and laborious process. This  method of production was not very efficient neither was it quick
2) Prior to Arkwright’s work, a machine existed called the “Spinning Jenny” which had a similar function to the water frame. However, the thread it produced was much stronger
3) The creation of the water frame was essential to the later developments of the Industrial Revolution. At the time, it was an absolute technological revolution

Link: https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/richard-arkwright-and-his-wonderful-machine-the-water-frame

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Series of punch cards on the Jacquard hand loom

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By: Anvi Kumar

1. A weaver's assistant, or "draw boy," had to stand atop a loom and manually raise and lower the warp threads to produce patterned fabric before the invention of the Jacquard system

2. The secret to Jacquard's invention's success was its use of replaceable cards with tiny holes punched in them that contained instructions for weaving a pattern

3. Effectively, the time-consuming task of the draw boy was replaced by this invention

4. By the 1820s, Jacquard technology had reached Britain, substantially advancing Lancashire's expanding textile business and enabling Manchester and the cotton towns nearby to make the highly desirable woven patterned fabrics

5. Manchester engineering firms started producing Jacquard machinery for the area's textile mills.

6. The creation of the Jacquard loom, which used binary code to tell a machine (the loom) to perform an automated procedure, revolutionized the manufacture of patterned cloth

7. Because the design of early computers was influenced by the Jacquard loom's interchangeable punch cards, it is sometimes thought of as a forerunner to modern computing

Outside Research:

1. Jacquard initially had the concept for his loom in 1790, but the French Revolution, in which he fought on the side of the Revolutionaries to defend Lyon, put an end to his efforts

2. The English inventor Charles Babbage used Jacquards punched cards as an input-output medium for his planned Analytical Engine (first computer!!)

3. Up until the middle of the 20th century, Jacquards loom were also employed for data entry into digital computers, but finally electronic gadgets took their place

https://www.britannica.com/technology/Jacquard-loom

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By: Aditya Mote

1. The sewing machine was made in 1846 in Lowell.

2. It was invented by Elias Howe and it’s patentee was William Fredrick Thomas.

3. The year 1846 was when the first sewing machine was brought to England from America.

4. Howe had little success with the sewing machine in Britain, but he soon found that its manufacturing was flourishing in the United States.

5. Howe went through many legal battles against makers, including Singer who went on to become rich.

Outside Source

1. The sewing machine significantly sped up the manufacturing process of inexpensive clothing in the American Industrialization.

2. Mass production of clothing was possible in addition to army uniforms, upholstery for cars, bedding, towels, etc.

3. The burden of sewing shifted from housewives to factories, where these women could find work to increase their families income.

Link: https://www.stocks.co.uk/blog/how-did-sewing-machine-impact-industrial-revolution.html

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One of the many Old Spitalfields hand looms used during the Industrial Revolution. 

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By: Abhinav Toti

1.) This particular hand loom used the Jacquard loom. It was a primary component of the Old Spitalfields handloom
2.) The Jacquard loom was patented in 1804, by the Frenchman Joseph Marie Jacquard (1752-1834)
3.) The Jacquard loom simplified the way the process of manufacturing textiles. This is because it made it much easier to incorporate complex patterns within cloth. This mechanism was attached to the rest of the machine around the 1840s.
4.) The Jacquard loom had to be hand-operated. This was because the healds of the machine needed to be manually lowered or raised.
5.) The loom operator then presses the treadle of the machine to form the thread. This means that each machine needed 2 people.
6.)  By 1860, Daniel Walters & Sons owned 150 machines, which were operated by a total of 300 people.
7.) Soon the machines passed on to Messrs Warner & Sons (who took over in 1894), which was then passed to a Harness making business (owned by William Folliot).

Research:

1.) The primary mechanism implemented within this inventions is Jacquard's loom. This loom was one of the first automatic looms, and allowed for the supervision and precise usage of up to 24,000 weaving rows.
2) The Jacquard loom functioned by feeding a set of up to 2,000 cards around an unique square bar, and inserted through hundreds of tiny holes. These cards were held, and allowed needles to pass through the system. This resulted in the warp thread shifting in correspondence to the card.
3.) This loom is hailed as the one of the earliest programming devices, as it allowed for information to be passed between the rows of cards. This resulted in beautiful, complex patterns that were never seen before.

Link:
https://mccarlcoverletgallery.omeka.net/exhibits/show/technological-textiles/item/2

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Arkwright’s prototype spinning machine, 1769

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Arkwright’s prototype spinning machine, 1769

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By: Advait Baijulal

1) The prototype was first made in 1769 by Sir Richard Arkwright and John Kay(a clockmaker)
2) This machine uses a drawing roller method invented by Lewis Paul in 1738
3) The way it works is that their are 4 pairs of roller that each let cotton fibers go through, and the rollers are differentiated by the slowest to fastest
4) From the rollers they do this to the fibers to reduce the cotton strength, and make it much thinner
5)After the fibers are passed through it goes through several hook and reaches a bobbin, which hold the thread in place
6) The speed affect the amount of thread on a bobbin and the degree of twist for the thread
7) This machine is only used for spinning hard/strong warps(vertical), and not wefts(horizontal)

1) The part of the roller where cottons runs through is covered by wood, the top with leather, and the bottom with one fluted, and this causes there to be a difference in spread produced
2) Arkwright got a patent for this machine in 1769 and this machine caused a huge utility to many manufactures in England, causing the style of wefts or yarn much more used in daily life and it has the best quality
3) Arkwright explained the spinning machine using letters to distribution each piece clearly and ended up using 23 letters

Link: https://historyofinformation.com/detail.php?id=419

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1) This pocket sowing machine was invented and sold on the market in 1886 by the British
2) The machine fit neatly in the hand of a person and was dismissed as a novelty toy unfit for professional trade
3) A company for the item was set up in London called the "Moldacot Pocket Sewing Machine Company"
4) An earlier version of the machine was made in Germany during 1885 and stamped with an anchor
5) The set that contained the machine came with accessories that were able to be attached to the machine
6) The company that created the highly anticipated machine only remains in business for 2 years going backrupt after losing 50,000 pounds
7) Over 60,000 machines were sold and used in the two years that the company existed

1) The machine was relatively cheap for it's time period and small enough to take with you and be taken out for immediate use
2) The sewing machine was commonly refered to as a "Pocket Sewing Machine" by the people using it
3) The invention weighs under a pound while being surprisingly durable for it's weight and size
https://ismacs.net/moldacot/moldacot-sewing-machine-history.html

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Gwendolyn Singer

1) The power loom was made by was made by Messrs. Sevill and Woolstenhulme, Oldham, in Manchester England in 1857.
2)This loom creates a simple weaving in which its crossed over and under the wraps.
3)If the weft of the loom breaks the machine is forced to stop.
4)This machine is made out of cast iron, cast steel, cotton textile and wood. I can infer that this machine is very heavy.
5)The image is a 1:3 scale of the real textile machine.
6)This type of machine would be used for calico weaving.
7) The machine could be automatically stopped if the shuttle does not reach its box after each pick.

https://ritaroyd.co.uk/weaving-fabric-history/looms-textiles/history-automated-loom

1)Loom machines took over skilled labors jobs to create a faster production and more efficient.
2)Drawlooms were invented in Asia to use for silk weaving before mechanical inventions were created.
3)in the 19th century simplified automatic looms were a major step up.

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1) In 19th century Manchester, coal was established as the dominant source of energy for powering industry
2) During the 19th century, people didn't understand the long-term climate consequences of burning fossil fuels
3) coughing, stinging eyes, and gloom was seen as normal in industrial Manchester
4) residents and workers suffered the consequences of living in the air pollution accompanied with dark skies, dirty homes and clothes, respiratory disease and increased mortality
5) For Victorian industrialists, smoke became a signifier of economic success and technological progress, and factory workers plus other workers also agreed
6) The heart of Manchester's urban pollution was the practice of burning coal, a fossil fuel used in steam engines
7) As engines got bigger, the number of coal-burning boilers increased too
8) By the end of 19th century, there were almost 2000 industrial chimneys polluting the air of Manchester, and other town called Salford

1) Manchester's environmental concerns were seen by the Scottish scientist Robert Angus Smith
2) Manchester allowed for the advancement of the understanding in the chemical composition of the atmosphere, and the impact of an impure atmosphere upon plant and human life
3) The establishment in Manchester of a Vapors Abatement Society helped raise awareness of atmospheric pollution in a city which the buildings appeared to be "carved from blocks of soot"

https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/may/29/manchester-report-climate-change

Ashwika Bodicherla