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US President and and Bolivian President where the latter pledged resource production against the Axis powers.

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Reactions to the rise of Fascism in Europe in the Americas (1930s) 

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Reactions to the rise of Fascism in Europe in the Americas (1930s) 

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Good Neighbor Policy: The US wanted to prevent European Powers from reasserting themselves in the Americas (particularly Latin) after achieved independence. They decided to do so through a policy of non-intervention and non-interference through which they believed would improve relations with Latin American countries by making them feel respected and truly independent/sovereign. Improved relations would mean increased cooperation through with they could all work towards shared values and the US could promote stability.

The League of Nations became involved with the advancements in Europe as they voted on what actions to take in response to the unfolding events in the region.

Hitler's Appointment as Chancellor - American responses were mixed:

Some countries (mostly those with large German immigrant populations) felt he was a saviour and were inspired by his nationalist drive. This sparked new populist movements.

Other countries (i.e. US) were fearful of the authoritarian regime he may be able to build through race based policies.

Overall, countries were on watch to see what the execution of his beliefs would look like once materialized.

A source with insight to different advancements in European fascism along with primary and secondary sources to show these as well as American reactions to them:
https://www.libertarianism.org/publications/essays/fascism-american-reactions-1922

US Neutrality Acts: A series of acts passed with the intention of keeping the US out of foreign affairs. The 1935 act said they were not to sell weapons or war supplies to any country involved in war. Later versions of the act increased specifications.

Canada was torn as Ottowa did not want to outright condemn fascist expansion but others did not want to promote fascism either. They did not know whether they should follow in line of others in applying strict sanctions or not take any actions.

When the Spanish Civil War broke out almost no countries wanted to intervene in the name of it being a foreign matter, except Mexico who actively supported the Republicans that were fighting Franco's nationalist forces.

Non-intervention policies slowly morphed into those of appeasement as countries failed to consider the impact of certain concessions (territorial, lack of action, or permission based) made to "avoid further conflict".

Once Germany invaded Poland, most countries took to siding against fascist Axis powers but the extent of their devotion in terms of action taken varied from remaining neutral to war declarations.

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Slogans and posters like the one above were commonly placed around the US to encourage women to join military services or industry jobs to help war efforts. 

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Social Impact of WWII on women and minorities

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Social Impact of WWII on women and minorities

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Women

Unlike the domestic and caretaking jobs they were confined to before, during WWII millions of women were  working in the industry sector, as nurses for the war efforts, in the many branches of women militaristic support and action they had created, and manufacturing/war-production jobs.

Society was forced to envision and support women's "newfound" capabilities to justify making them step up in the name of labor shortage with men off at war.

However, society also criticized the women for abandoning their homemaking duties which included raising the children so closely. While jobs and governmental agencies introduced benefits such as childcare people still felt the women were not doing enough as mothers.

Initially, birth and marriage rates increased but they were followed by a divorce rate increase as well closer to the end of the war.

Once men had come back women were pushed out of the positions they had begun to thrive in which made them unhappy with the injustice of being "used" and not actually considered for what they wanted.

African Americans

A review of moments during WWII that were impactful to the lives of African Americans: https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/topics/african-americans-world-war-ii

WWII created an opportunity for AAs to demonstrate their devotion to the country by serving it in hopes that doing so would bring them the respect and equal treatment they deserved.

AAs experienced many acts of racial violence and racial military confrontations despite being housed separately and in similar conditions.

The Tuskegee Airmen were a group of AAs who were trained to be pilots by Tuskegee University. Their intelligence was doubted and doubts escalated to exams but many passed and became very successful pilots. Despite almost 1000 hours of flying and assisting Europe they were often treated as "less" with terms like "trainees".

Many civil rights leaders emerged from these efforts as they learned valuable lessons regarding effective protest and mobilization tactics.

The support and activism of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) grew to almost half a million.

Over 1.5 million AAs migrated to the north and west in search of employment as factories were in need which brought attention to rights through executive orders such as the creation of jobs without discrimination.

Native Americans

Much of their land was taken by the US in the name of expansion, training/preparation, research/experiments, resources for the atomic bomb, and even internment camps.

Those who specialized in a skill such as kayaking or tracking were critical to US safety efforts.

Many Native American men (99%) served in the war and women also took jobs that were either defense related or positions that were newly opening to them such as welding.

The Navajo Nation made key contributions with their language, that was only known by about 30 people outside of their tribe globally, to the US' coded communications system.

Many Native Americans who returned to their home tribes newly educated and practiced, attempted to use their knowledge to create new opportunities for those at home. While welcomed by some, others did not agree which created tensions between Native Americans' traditional and more contemporary approaches.

Hispanic Americans and Mexicans

Hispanic Americans and Mexicans also used the new employment opportunities during the war as men served in the military, helped in factories or shipyards, and women entered the jobs that were previously occupied by men which improved their status.

They were considered valuable in communications across several fields due to their bilingualism.

Repatriation occured around the 1930's which led to the Bracero Programme to fill the created job shortages. The program gave unskilled laborers the opportunity to work under improved benefits and living conditions.

In 1943, the Zoot Suit Riots took place which were a series of disagreements between the Anglo sailors/servicemen and workers of hispanic origin. The riots affected their work experiences negatively and were eventually stopped due to the toll on productivity.

While their contribution to the war was major, they felt they were not appreciated sufficiently for their work. The GI Bill was an opportunity for these men to become more successful as it included college tuition, living stipends, and financial assistance for both general living and businesses.

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Tank manufacturing factories in Detroit during WWII.

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Economic and Diplomatic effects of WWII on US and Canada in Americas

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Economic and Diplomatic effects of WWII on US and Canada in Americas

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US

The US transitioned from a neutral stance to one that was strongly aligned with the Allies.

Throughout the war the US also improved relations with several Latin American countries in efforts to increase collaboration and chances of stability in Latin America.

The US also maintained those alliances post-war since a majority of them had shared values and goals for the world order with the exception of the USSR, of which the US became an enemy due to ideological reasons and their new anti-communist stance.

The war created a lot of new jobs which resulted in industry growth as well as relieved any remaining strains from the Great Depression. Programs such as the New Deal likely helped the organization of job creation, conduction, and efficacy.

The US' economy was sufficiently successful at  transitioning from a consumer-based economy to a wartime one. With many people stepping up to take on new jobs to meet production demands, the US was able to produce at rapid rates that could fuel economic growth in stretches. It also transitioned well back into a peacetime economy which allowed them to make the most of newly gained production tactics.

The US provided a lot of financial aid whether through loans or grants to countries in recovery after the war, mainly in efforts to ensure that stability would remain.

Canada

Government spending increased from $118 million to $4.6 billion in the span of six years.

Discusses the Canadian economy, particularly production in terms of how much they were able to produce and the employment statistics that went into said production: https://ingeniumcanada.org/channel/articles/the-canadian-economy-and-the-second-world-war#:~:text=In%20all%2C%20Canada%20produced%20%245.8,natural%20resources%20during%20the%20war.&text=The%20war%20brought%20an%20end,course%20for%20post%2Dwar%20prosperity.

Over 40,000 Canadian soldiers gave their lives while over 50,000 returned home injured.

The industrial sector recovered thanks to constant production which provided the boost Canada's economy needed to restabilize itself.

Canada not suffering any direct attacks for almost the entirety of the war meant that despite increases to the defense budget, they were producing non-stop and were not exactly facing any economic hardships caused by at home disasters so society kept working too.

Canada's post-war economy was one of the most efficient globally.

Canada had contributed critically to the war with its air, aquatic, and land forces as well as its contributions in policymaking and diplomatic affairs throughout the war.

Canada had become the successful middle-man between the US and UK which meant their relations were strong enough to flexibly work with either equally well and assist wherever and however necessary.

The war had also brought Canadians closer together, increasing nationalist sentiments.

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Men of the Régiment de la Chaudière, a Primary Reserve infantry regiment of the Canadian Army, positioned resting along the Normandy beachhead in June 1944. 

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US

Initially the US took a non-interventionist approach as seen through the first of the Neutrality Acts but as the global situation escalated those clauses changed to be more particular in their impact of who they helped and who they did not. Later specifications allowed assistance to the UK and France in their efforts against Germany.

The Lend Lease Act of 1941 was eventually passed which pledged helping the Allies with any war supplies, goods, and weapons they needed.

A detailed look at the forms in which the US provided aid to anti-Axis efforts before their formal entrance: https://www.history.com/news/united-states-neutral-wwii-lend-lease

The US typically sent troops into any conflict the Allies entered in efforts to prevent German expansion, both territorially and influentially, protect human rights and sovereignty, and take back the land.

The US also brought the war in Asia to an end with the atomic bomb droppings in Hiroshima which forced its surrender.

The US' troops and industrial sector production were key to the Allies' war efforts but its diplomatic assistance in overseeing that they strategized and collaborated to their best extent was likely something that the Allies could not have won the war without.

Canada

1 million Canadian citizens served

4th largest surface fleet in the world

3rd largest air force (RCAF) which was a key player in the Battle of Britain and European bombing campaigns

Battle of the Atlantic: During the naval attack launched by German forces to force the UK into negotiation, Canada was critical to the UK's survival since Germany was blocking import receival channels. Canada made major improvements to its fleet so it could supply the UK with everything it needed while simultaneously attempting to protect and take back the area.

Hong Kong: Canada sent troops, nearly a fourth of which were captured or killed, to assist the UK in defending Hong Kong (a British protectorate).

Dieppe: Canada attempted to relieve the USSR by making a move to open the 2nd front and taking Dieppe. Of the 5000 Canadian soldiers, almost every single one was either captured, killed, or injured. Their sacrifice proved to be of strategic benefit to the Allies when planning the next attack.

Italy: Canadian forces were sent to North Africa to assist with the attack of Sicily to remove Italy from the war for good. The attack was successful and they continued to advance onto mainland Italy to slowly establish Allied bases and take control from German forces who had come to Italy's defense.

D-Day & Battle of Normandy: The RCAF played an important role in preparing the beaches for invasion and their ground support ensured the operation began smoothly. They continued cooperation and contribution as they moved inward to liberate countries one by one.

Battle of Scheldt: The Canadian forces underwent almost a month of non-stop difficult fighting until they were able to open Antwerp as an Allied trade channel that would be key for supply reasons to the Allies' final push into Germany.

Canada's forces were important to supporting each of the Allies' advances, collecting key victories over Germany, and even clearing the Asian region of Axis control through recovery efforts.

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"Japanese Americans arriving at an assembly center in Stockton, California. Their possessions are piled outside awaiting inspection." (National WWII Museum)

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Treatment of Japanese Americans during WWII

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Treatment of Japanese Americans during WWII

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After Pearl Harbor, Roosevelt conducted presidential proclamations regarding "enemy aliens" which fueled new fears of enemies within the US that were working for opposing forces such as the US government. These talks led to the alienation, discrimination, beating, and property damage of/to Japanese civilians residing in America (amongst others). Of course, these people usually had no connection to their home country's actions.

Executive Order 9066: An order called in February 1942 by Roosevelt, calling for the removal of anyone of Japanese descent from significant US military areas.

Executive Order 9102: An order called in March 1942 by Roosevelt, establishing the War Relocation Authority which would be in charge of the aforementioned removals and now relocation. Relocation was typically to internment camps.

Japanese Americans were given hours or days notice to pack strictly necessities and most were forced to sell the rest of their belongings in a rushed manner which created a major value loss.

The first stop after evacuation was assembly centers in camps left abandoned from the war, that sorted further relocation. The centers were small which meant poor living conditions even if only temporary.

117,000 Japanese Americans were assigned to internment camps spread nationwide.

Internment camp conditions had harsh climates, occasional crowding, dangerous security measures, and some unsanitariness. While they included schools, hospitals, wash and dining areas, it was difficult for the interned to make the camps feel homely though they made their efforts to add touches of personalization.

By January 1946, the Supreme Court ordered the closure of all internment camps due to their unconstitutionality but the US government provided no support for Japanese Americans who were released and given that most had nothing and nowhere to return to, many were forced to completely rebuild their lives.

Those who the US felt posed real threats (over 17,000) to the nation were relocated to Department of Justice Detention Centers under tight US surveillance.

Japanese-Americans of 2nd generation were given the opportunity to serve in the war on behalf of the US to prove their loyalty. 33,000 chose this route. They were considered valuable assets especially due to their communication abilities so they could speak to others that had been captured by the US or decipher documents, but outside of the war front were still discriminated against once they returned to the US.

Japanese Americans who resided in Hawaii were protected to an extend because of how much the state's function relied on the population and how much of that population was made up of Japanese Americans.

In 1988, Reagan apologized to internees for the US government's actions during these times and offered $20,000 in restitution to any survivors.

Biden's more recent apology, a small review of attack on Japanese Americans within, and the steps that have been taken towards acknowledging the unjust experience in internment camps: https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2022/02/18/day-of-remembrance-of-japanese-american-incarceration-during-world-war-ii/

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Aftermath of the 1st Atomic Bomb that was dropped on Japanese city, Hiroshima. 

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Reasons for US using atomic weapons against Japan

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Reasons for US using atomic weapons against Japan

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The Battle of Okinawa saw major losses to the US military with over 12,000 deaths, 36,000 injured, and 34 ships destroyed. As General MacArthur and Truman analyzed potential strategies, the general told Truman that pursuit of Japanese island, Kyushu, would lead to 30,000 casualties within 30 days. Other analysts drew numbers that were seven times that amount and analysts now say that the attack may have resulted in millions of casualties.

The alternatives to dropping the bomb were:

rescind the demand for unconditional surrender

wait for the USSR to declare war & invade Manchuria

intensify the bombing campaign & naval blockade on Japan in attempt to causing internal collapse due to resource scarcity

detonated a bomb on an empty island to show off the US' power/potential

Ultimately, the decision was Truman's to make and he decided to use the atom bomb because he felt ending the war as quickly as possible was the most important and that the bomb was the way to do so.

A journal article by renown American historian Gar Alperovitz, analyzing why the decision was made https://www.jstor.org/stable/2539092?seq=4

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Political and Economic Causes of the GD in the US

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Political and Economic Causes of the GD in the US

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Speculation and Excessive Credit: Reckless speculation was a big contributor to the crash of the stock market. The speculator market was climbing at extreme levels, and no one did anything to control it. Occasionally economists would warn people, but others and governmental figures continued to encourage the speculation since going against it would affect their popularity; people did not want to hear that the market would do anything but continue to increase. The market was poorly designed, built on little to no foundation and hooking people in compulsive manner. Additionally, the introduction of credit, loans, and installment plans in the 1920’s was a game changer that allowed consumers to spend more money than they physically had due to the feasibility of getting them approved. Banks did not check on the ability of the people they were granting loans to, to pay back those loans. So, banks were handing out money easily and never actually got it back. This was because the people should not have gotten them in the first place due to their financial situation and it only got worse when the economy took a downturn. So, this resulted in the loss of money, banks had to file for bankruptcy, and that created chaos financially.

Inaction of the Federal Reserve: Prior to the reforms under the New Deal, the Federal Reserve Central Bank was responsible for regulating banks and their activity but did not do much at all. The Reserve Board did not set any limitations on how much money banks were able to distribute but more importantly did not have any requirements for banks reporting their activity to ensure that they were allocating money correctly or even using thorough background checks of their customers. The Reserve also did not promote any structure effectively, not did they implement any policies or actively offer resources that could help the banks be supported. For this reason, a chain reaction began when a major bank closed down that caused people to, in panic, withdraw their money in fear of the same happening to them. Since banks only store a portion of their customers’ total money, this overwhelming and unexpected withdrawal left banks incapable and highlighted how unprepared they were.

Income Inequality: During the 1920’s wealth was not distributed equally. About 60% of Americans were living in poverty. It was also estimated that 5% of the population had 1/3 of all the wealth, with the top 1% controlling it. This meant that in reality the spending out of pocket with physical money was only a small percentage of the American population. Others could only spend with credit which meant more dependence on credit. It trapped them in a cycle of poverty because of how reliant they had to be. The dependence meant that when the economy declined, partially due to the mismanagement of those loans, the people did not actually have any money to help circulate or recover the economy.

Europe Exports on Decline: Prior to the war, Europe was leading in the realm of trade, supplying western countries and one another with the essentials they needed. However, after WWI, the reparations inflicted on Germany, severely impacted their economy. They were unable to continue exporting at the rates they were before which affected countries that depended on them for certain products such as the US. The US was now in need of increasing their production to meet demand while also facing increasing demand driven by loan mismanagement and speculation. + Smoot Tawley Tariff Act or wtv

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The Roosevelt administration took several actions in attempt to stabilize the economy. Almost all of the actions taken were apart of FDR’s New Deal which was a collection of programs to change the systems America had in place and provide the three R’s, Relief, Reform, and Recovery. The programs tackled unemployment, different industries such as the agricultural industry, and credibility of financial services. A majority of the programs proved successful to some extent, and this was proven by all the changes that were seen in regard to participation, prices, and money in the economy. The actions were key to stabilizing the economy because the lack of regulation, surveillance, and promotion of wealth distribution were what led to destabilization in the first place.

Rhetorical and legal criticisms of Roosevelt’s new deal focused on the constitutionality of his actions, how much they limited individual rights and liberties, and how inclusive they were. An important part of the former (constitutionality and ind. rights/libs) was the American Liberty League that warned against that aspect of FDR’s legislation and said he was being both unconstitutional and violating people’s liberties. Two of the main critics on the latter (inclusivity) were Huey Long and Francis Townsend which argued FDR was not doing enough for marginalized groups, the poor, and the elderly, respectively.

FDR’s responses to the opposition to his new deal were his court packing attempt to gain political favorability in the court that was unsuccessful, and the creation of new legislation that was tailored to respond to criticism’s concern.

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Causes

Political Fragmentation: The Conscription Crisis of 1917 led to the antagonization of English and French-speaking Canada against one another which catalyzed the already existing gap that was growing between the political parties that eventually broke into anti and pro-conscriptionist factions.

Regional discontent was also on the rise as disagreements over Canada's political system grew, people demanded more rights, and the race for leadership initiated a power struggle that meant temporary instability that made them more vulnerable.

The armistice of 1918 also weakened Canada's industrial market which left them searching for opportunity. Fortunately, their proximity to the the US, their need for new factory locations, and the Canadian Shield that could supply the demanded minerals benefited Canada.

Increased taxes globally led to a decline in trade.

The supply of manufactured products and commodities also began to exceed demand in prices globally which harmed economies more.

Canada also grew over dependent on staple products and the US' economy.

The government's also accumulated even more debt during these times.

Impacts

Experiencing one of their longest droughts catalyzed the effects of the lengthy and severe economic downturn that was the Great Depression.

Imports fell by a quarter of their total percentage, exports fell by 55%, wheat prices fell by 75%, unemployment was at 27%, and 20% of Canadians were being supported by relief programs out of necessity.

Socially speaking, society had to readjust themselves considering how prior to the Depression they were used to self-reliance rather than helping one another, a tendency that became unfeasible after everyone's new struggles due to the Depression.

Marriages were postponed, the birth rate declines, and many people began to relocate in search of new economic opportunity in the form of jobs and housing.

Solution

The Prime Minister Bennett, established a series of programs that were targeted towards aiding recovery efforts and creating the safety net that was not there before. Examples of some of the programs are:

The Canadian Wheat Board: Many industries began to fall but particularly the agricultural in which wheat was a critical crop. This organization was aimed at rationalizing the price of grain on the world market and provide assistance for affected farmers.

The Farmer's Creditors Arrangement Act: As farmers were heavily impacted by the Depression, this act was aimed at helping them manage their debt through loan restructuring.

The Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Act: An act aimed at providing relief to the ecological spaces harmed by the Dust Bowl through innovative solutions

The Bank of Canada: The first Central Bank in/of Canada that assisted with the application of the government's monetary policy and restabilize Canada's financial institutions.

The Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commision was also established to grow Canada's broadcasting industry and improve the collectivity and unity in Canada's recovery efforts.

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Causes

Latin American economies were highly dependent on imports when it came to manufactured goods due to a lack of technological advancements and education. They relied on the more industrialized countries to supply them with their consumer goods. Equally, the industrialized countries who focused heavily on their manufacturing relied on Latin American countries for produce and agricultural goods since they had many resources that allowed them to do so well such as land.

Different prices reached maximums quickly as the European economies began to weaken and could no longer buy Latin American goods or export at the same rate.

The Depression catalyzed the effects of the poorly designed policy that was the Latin American trading system practice as they were unable to receive the needed goods or sell their own for income.

Impacts

Internal deflation was the main impact in Latin America as the demand for their exports fell and supply surpassed it.

Political changes also took place as the people were unhappy with their government and its efforts, blaming  them for the economic hardships. There was a rise in coup d'etats as well which created political chaos and weakened many government structures.

The populations wanted a strong leader who was able to make decisions that would be effective at yielding economic success and preventing such consequences of an economic downturn again and quickly.

There were many new battles for power that occured, each based on different beliefs/ideologies but all geared towards making improvements in the way they thought recovery and security could be achieved.

The agricultural industry was hit hard and many farmers were struggling with unemployment and thus, basic living necessities.

Solution

Government regulation was the primary attempt at restoring the economy by setting new prices and limitations such as max production levels in hopes that economies would get stronger.

Agriculture and mining were used as means of restoring other industries such as that of manufacturing.

Different countries tried creating new alliances such as Brazil with Germany, so that they could have at least one economic partner to assist them and speed up their overall recovery.

Work conditions were improved by some governments such as minimum wages and the establishment of incentivizing and basic-necessity based benefits that could increase employment and productivity.

Education investment was another area of focus by some governments to encourage more productive societal engagement that would benefit everyone.

Many of these changes were achieved through force or more limiting regimes but in a lot of cases this was a successful method.

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Impact of the GD on African Americans and Women

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Impact of the GD on African Americans and Women

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African Americans

Prior to the GD, African Americans had made some economic progress, obtaining opportunity brought by the Harlem Renaissance but lost this minor status boost right away.

Farms in the South were lost due to decline in crop prices that African American farmers were dependent on.

Urban jobs that were low-skill and low-pay were taken up by white men who as a result left no room for African Americans seeking employment that were either already in the area or migrating into it.

Minorities like African Americans and Hispanic Americans were excluded from the New Deal to a higher degree than they benefitted. In the various New Deal acts, minorities saw multiple impacts. Acts like the Agricultural Adjustment Act and Social Security Administration excluded groups of minorities from receiving benefits due to their design and led to minorities being unemployed and further disadvantaged. However, acts like the fair labor and standards act and the fair employment practice committee attempted to improve and equalize conditions for minorities by promoting the prohibition of discrimination and creating a collection of rules in the workplace. Though they were not always followed by every company.

Black women also saw high unemployment as jobs such as domestic servants went to white women instead.

Overall, job-loss and unemployment rates were significantly higher for African Americans than whites everywhere.

Survivalist Entrepreneurship: Women in the 1930's who worked in positions of laundresses, beauty occupations, boarding houses, dressmakers, and seamstresses.

There was also a rise in African Americans joining labour organizations to make change towards the employment inequality they were facing.

Women

Many women stayed behind while the men in the families went out seeking jobs so they struggled with the domestic and financial responsibilities around the house themselves. This meant many women had to step into the traditional domestic role whether they liked it or not as society's views changed and reaffirmed the idea that men deserved the job's more as the family's income earner.

Though a lot smaller, a number of women did go on to become entrepreneurs.

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One of the industries that developed during these times was that of art. FDR felt art was fundamental to America and the Works Progress Administration opened many new jobs and opportunities that provided different platforms for artists to gain exposure, share, create, and sell their artwork (in the form of music, theatre, art, writing, etc.) through a variety of outlets. During this era, art was created with the purpose of capturing the many changes, hardships, emotions, and developments at the time. Newly, art could be expressed limitlessly as society had come to have a more open mind that allowed artists to express their sentiments about the current events to the fullest extent.

The Public Works of Art Project branch of the Civilian Works Administration was key to the aforementioned opportunities and catalyzed the view changes.