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The cholera epidemic in the Philippines originated on March 20, 1902, and persisted until March 8, 1904 (Heiser, 1907).

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American interventions, aimed at suppressing the disease, included draconian measures such as forcible administration of medicines

1. Detention in concentration camps, and burning the Farola district. Cholera spread due to these policies, and other diseases developed.

2. Burning victims' bodies created distrust and hampered health campaigns (Worcester, 1909 as cited by Acevedo 2021).

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Superstition-based Measures: from Religion to Folk-belief

A lot of the health measures used at the time of the cholera outbreak were just that, superstitious. Though later on the Government made the right decision by liberalizing their healthcare projects and investing more into the educational methods.

One example during the 1820 cholera outbreak, was when the Catholic clergy and Spanish merchants spread rumors that non-Spanish foreigners were out to poison the wells and, thus, killed the natives (Acevedo, 2021). This incident underscores the fact that the spread of misinformation leads to chaos.

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While also being in a war against America, Philippines had to face the cholera epidemic, which put them at risk of two threats to their lives. Even before the 1902 outbreak, the 1888–1889 outbreak took around 70 thousand lives (Acevedo, 2021).

Their home, in danger of being invaded, being burned down, or quarantined. Their food supplies had become scarce, caused by the closures of trade routes and unsustainable health measures applied for safety.

If they were not worried about dying to starvation or to the Americans, they had cholera to worry about, its threat was felt, having 50-70 deaths every day during the 1902 Philippine cholera epidemic (The British Medical Journal, 1902).

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The Philippines' first suspected COVID case, a 38-year-old Chinese woman, was identified on January 30, 2020 (Edrada et al., 2020).

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The Story of Coronavirus (full version), English

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Emergency Declaration

President Duterte declared a public health emergency on March 8, 2020 (Proclamation No. 922). Luzon was under the strictest lockdown, known as enhanced community quarantine (Atienza, 2021). Additionally, Congress granted emergency powers to President Duterte through the Bayanihan to Heal as One Act of 2020 (Bayanihan Act) on March 2, 2020. Despite provisions granting fiscal flexibility, it was enacted with minimal opposition (Yusingco & Pizarro, 2020).

Militaristic Response

The government's COVID-19 response involves a notable military presence, with lockdown measures resembling military checkpoints. Retired generals play key roles in leadership, and President Duterte's directive to arrest quarantine violators highlights a militarized enforcement approach (Regino, 2020; Dizon, 2020).

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Community Quarantines:

In 2020, the Philippines enforced an "enhanced community quarantine" with strict measures like home isolation, social distancing, business closures, travel bans, curfews, and increased enforcement (Amit et al., 2021).

Mandatory Masks, Social Distancing

Malacañang mandated the public to follow strict home quarantine and social distancing measures, including wearing face masks and face shields at all times when outside their homes (Da Silva, 2020).

Vaccination Program

In January 2021, the Department of Health of the Philippines unveiled an interim plan for COVID-19 vaccine deployment. Aiming to achieve herd immunity against COVID-19 (Tomacruz, 2021; Tejero et al., 2022).

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Loss of Lives

The toll of COVID-19 on Philippine society highlights existing inequalities in access to healthcare and resources, impacting marginalized communities more severely. Approximately 4.1 million people have been infected, with over four million recoveries and around 66.4 thousand deaths (Statista Research Department, 2023).

Healthcare System Strain

The COVID-19 pandemic exposed vulnerabilities in the Philippine healthcare system, straining medical resources, hospital capacities, and healthcare staff. (Lim, 2020).

Economic Fallout

COVID-19 severely impacted rural livelihoods in the Philippines, particularly in poor communities, with loss of income and job opportunities worsened by pandemic restrictions (Fallesen, 2023).

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Both cholera and COVID-19, share similarities in their capability to trigger widespread outbreaks which pose significant public health challenges (Yetman, 2020). Additionally, both diseases have the potential to lead to severe illness and mortality, particularly in areas with limited access to healthcare and sanitation services. Hygiene and sanitation play crucial roles in controlling their spread, underscoring the need for effective preventive measures to mitigate their impact on public health.

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The initial response to both outbreaks involved military-enforced quarantine and forced medicines for cholera, and forcible medication for COVID-19. Affected populations, however, faced resistance and distrust. Therefore, relying entirely on such measures is ineffective for combating infectious diseases. Instead, a more balanced and compassionate approach is necessary to address public health challenges (Aldrich & Lotito, 2020)

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In spite of modern medical approaches being available, superstitions prevailed during the cholera epidemic. Contrary to the COVID-19 pandemic, modern health literacy efforts were employed to combat the disease, utilizing evidence-based practices and education. The importance of evidence-based public health measures is emphasized in both instances, emphasizing the importance of education in disease control. By being well-informed, the public can make better decisions, follow guidelines, and contribute to disease control efforts (Brownson et al., 2002).

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Both cholera and COVID-19 disrupt agricultural, livelihood, and healthcare systems, particularly in vulnerable communities. The complexity of infectious diseases is highlighted by these outbreaks. In response to future epidemics, sanitation, a strong healthcare system, and early detection are important (Dikid et al., 2020). Promoting equity in healthcare is crucial for resilience against future pandemics.

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FA 2 - References