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Geography | KS1 | KS2 | Earthquakes | BBC Teach

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Extensive resource to support your teaching

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Use the Earthquakes PowerPoint presentation in conjunction with the Lesson Plan. The PowerPoint presentation contains photographs and images and follows the sequence of the lesson. The factsheet for teachers to accompany this lesson also explains some of the key points in more detail. It is expected that the places mentioned in the Lesson Plan will be located on Google Earth, or by using an atlas.
What is an earthquake? Where do earthquakes happen? What is the role of plate tectonics in the formation of earthquakes? What are the different magnitudes of an earthquake and how do these impact differently? Where is the San Andreas Fault? What is the significance of the San Andreas Fault on the landscape and people of California? What are the potential dangers of the San Andreas Fault in the future?
Additional links: An animated guide on why earthquakes occur, how they are measured, and why tsunamis can occur as a result can be found on the Guardian website

Show a picture of the after effects of the earthquake in Folkestone, Kent, on 28th April 2007. The earthquake had a magnitude of 4.3 on the Richter scale. Do not contextual the information.

Pupils should identify enquiry questions: who, what where, why? What is the evidence? The factsheet for teachers contains background information on this earthquake.

Pupils may assume that the damage on the photograph is a product of stormy weather, the collapse of a badly built structure or vandalism.

Discuss that earthquakes in the UK are infrequent, but can happen. In fact, between 200 and 300 earthquakes are detected in the UK, by the British Geological Survey every year. The risk from these earthquakes is not insignificant.

To find out the last earthquake occurrence in the UK visit the British Geological Survey site. You will be surprised how many earthquakes there are.

What is an earthquake? An earthquake is simply a vibration of the Earth's crust. Every thirty seconds there is an earthquake somewhere in the world. Some earthquakes are barely detected while others cause immense damage and loss of life.

Where do earthquakes occur? Like volcanoes, earthquakes mostly occur along plate boundaries. As we know the plates are not motionless but move across the mantle.

Ask pupils if they can remember the types of plate boundaries discussed in the last lesson.

Remind them if necessary that at constructive plate boundaries two plates move apart from each other, causing molten rock to bubble up between the plates and harden to form new crust. Iceland was an earlier example of volcanic activity at a constructive plate boundary. At destructive plate boundaries two plates move towards each other, or converge. The heavier plate is forced below the lighter plate. Mount Etna in Sicily was an earlier example of a volcano formed at a destructive plate boundary. (Japan's 2011 earthquake, as detailed in the accompanying case study, also occurred at a destructive plate boundary).

You may like to show pupils, once again, the interactive map of the world detailing the major tectonic plates, volcanoes and earthquakes. Go to the Geological Society website.

Transform plate boundaries: Show pupils the diagram of a transform plate boundary and explain that earthquakes are also very common at transform plate boundaries. Here, rather than moving apart or towards each other, the two plates move past each other. Friction may cause them to stick, but when they eventually become unstuck, often with a violent jolt, it can cause an earthquake.

The Focus and Epicentre: (Show pupils the image of the structure of an earthquake). The focus of an earthquake is the point deep underground where the earthquake begins. The epicentre is the point on the Earth's surface that is immediately above the focus. When the earthquake is triggered by the jolting of tectonic plates, shock waves (called seismic waves) immediately spread out in all directions from the focus. They spread for many kilometres, but their intensity reduces with distance; the closer to the epicentre, the greater the impact of the seismic waves.

How is the power of an earthquake measured? The 'power' or strength of an earthquake is called its magnitude. The Richter scale is a measurement of the magnitude of an earthquake.

Earthquakes with the highest magnitude have a measurement on the Richter scale of 9. Not all earthquakes can be felt by people on the ground, earthquakes with a magnitude of less than 3 are so faint that they can only be detected by seismographs (a type of measuring and recording instrument). Earthquakes with a magnitude of 5 cause cracks to appear in walls and bricks to fall. With a magnitude of 9, an earthquake is a severe, often catastrophic event. An earthquake of this scale will cause widespread destruction and leave many people injured or dead.

Can earthquakes be predicted? Although it is known that most earthquakes occur at the plate boundaries, there is no reliable method of predicting the exact time, place or magnitude of an earthquake. This means it is hard to evacuate an area prior to an earthquake and instead a lot of effort has been put into ensuring that new buildings are constructed to withstand an earthquake; that people know what to do in the event of an earthquake and that warning systems are in place.

The San Andreas Fault
The San Andreas Fault marks the boundary between two tectonic plates: the Pacific plate and the North American plate. This is a transform plate boundary; the Pacific plate (on the west) moves in a north westerly direction, relative to the North American plate (on the east). This causes earthquakes along the fault. The entire San Andreas Fault is 1,287 km long (800 miles) and reaches to depths of 16km (10 miles). In places the Fault is 1.5 km wide (1 mile).
The San Andreas Fault extends from northern California (on the west coast of USA) southwards to Cajon Pass near San Bernardino. From Cajon Pass the main San Andreas Fault branches into smaller fault lines.

Show pupils the map of the location of the San Andreas Fault, or use Google Earth. Also show pupils the photographs of the Fault.

The plates move, on average, 6 cm each year. If a person stood on one side of the Fault and looked across it, features on the opposite side would appear to have moved to the right. Show pupils the photograph of the displaced fence to illustrate the effect of this movement on the small scale.

Geologists believe that the total displacement (movement) along the Fault is at least 563km (350 miles) since the San Andreas fault came into being about 15-20 million years ago.
The 1906 San Francisco earthquake: Thousands of small earthquakes occur in California each year. Large, highly destructive earthquakes, however, occur on average once every 100-150 years along the Fault. The San Francisco earthquake of 18 April, 1906 was the most recent of these. It is estimated to have had a magnitude of 8.3 on the Richter scale and lasted for one minute. It resulted from a displacement, or movement, of the Fault by 6 metres. Damage was caused by both the earthquake and by the fire that swept through the city afterwards. Nearly eight square kilometres and 28,000 buildings were destroyed resulting in millions of dollars in damage. 700 people were killed and thousands were left homeless. Show pupils the photographs of the aftermath of the earthquake.

The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake: A segment of the San Andreas Fault ruptured under the Loma Prieta peak in the Santa Cruz Mountains, northern California. The earthquake, with a magnitude of 6.9 on the Richter scale lifted the mountains themselves and then sent seismic waves 16km away from the epicentre, towards the city of Santa Cruz. When the seismic waves reached San Francisco, the upper deck of a section of Oakland's Interstate 880 collapsed. More than 40 slabs of concrete, each weighing 500 tonnes, fell onto the cars below. In San Francisco's Marina district mud and sand was shaken to form viscose liquid that acted like quicksand and caused buildings to become unstable and collapse. In total 28 000 homes and businesses were destroyed, 3,800 people were injured and 63 people died. Show pupils photographs of the aftermath of the earthquake.

The Big One: This is a hypothetical earthquake with a magnitude of 8 or greater that is expected to happen along the San Andreas Fault. See the Factsheet for more information.

For an up to the hour map of earthquakes on the west coast of USA visit the USGS website.

Pupils will design a board game. This might be in the style of Monopoly, Snakes & Ladders or one of their own devising. To progress in the game players will need to correctly answer questions on earthquakes. Incorrect answers will result in being 'sent back' several places etc.

The board games should be colourful and eye-catching, but decorated with topic-specific pictures, diagrams and maps.

High ability pupils will be expected to devise harder questions for their game; they may also write additional questions in chance/community chest-style cards. The geographical detail of the decorations will also be more thorough.

The board game could also cover other aspects of the module as the class teacher decides.

'Let's be Seismologists!'
The class teacher defines the effects of an earthquake. From the evidence, pupils have to deduce its measurement on the Richter scale. Use the information on the Richter scale in the factsheet for teachers to help you.

This resource has been developed as part of the Rediscovering London's Geography project, funded by the GLA through the London Schools Excellence Fund. It seeks to improve the quality of teaching and learning of geography in London's schools, in addition to encouraging more pupils to study geography

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Royal Geographical Society - Resources for schools

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Use the Earthquakes PowerPoint presentation in conjunction with the Lesson Plan. The PowerPoint presentation contains photographs and images and follows the sequence of the lesson. The factsheet for teachers to accompany this lesson also explains some of the key points in more detail.

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Resources from the Red Cross

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This resource focuses on how individual and communities prepare for, respond to and recover from life-changing natural disasters. It also explores the causes of earthquakes.

This resource has been updated with a case study and extra source material on the Central Italy earthquake of 2016.

Every year, the Red Cross helps people from around the world who have been affected by natural disasters.

With content that is designed and differentiated for 11-19-year-olds, this Geography teaching package includes activities using case studies, images, maps, statistics, videos and eyewitness accounts.

The core resource includes embedded case study examples from the Nepal earthquakes of 2015, also drawing on examples from the earthquake in Haiti in 2010, giving a range of perspectives on the humanitarian impact of earthquakes. Fresh source material and case study content is now available on the Central Italy earthquake of 2016. These case studies can be used as part of compare and contrast activities.

We urge all geography teachers to download this free resource and encourage young people to think about the humanitarian impact of natural disasters. This invaluable resource pack has been created with technical input from the British Red Cross combined with the expertise of Geographical Association teacher consultants.

Rebecca Kitchen, Secondary Curriculum Leader at the Geographical Association

Learning objectives

Learners will:

gain understanding of different types of natural hazards and disasters

explore the short- and long-term consequences of a natural disaster

discuss the humanitarian response and what might make communities resilient.

Resource overview

Introduction and curriculum links
Learn about how the resource has been designed to support your teaching and how the content maps to the Geography curriculum for 11-19-year-olds in Key Stage 3, GCSE and A Level in England; to the Scottish curriculum for excellence; and to the Welsh and Northern Ireland curriculums.

Session 1: Natural disasters
An introduction which sets the scene of the topic of natural disasters alongside general ideas of risk and hazard.

Session 2: Earthquakes
This session looks specifically at earthquakes, with a focus on tectonic hazards.

Session 3: The impact of a natural disaster
Learners explore the immediate aftermath of a natural disaster like an earthquake, and the work of local and international Red Cross teams to support people affected.

Session 4: Recovery and resilience
Activities to explore how the Red Cross helps people rebuild their lives and consider the longer-term impacts of a natural disaster. The core resource includes embedded an embedded case study and source material on the Nepal earthquake in 2015.

Additional case study: Central Italy earthquake 2016
Use this additional source material to adapt your sessions to focus on the Central Italy earthquake or use it alongside the embedded Nepal case study to compare and contrast.

This very detailed case study will provide a timely resource. It is often time consuming to build a suitable case study from the many different websites reporting up to
date hazards so this is very much welcomed.

Paul Hunt, Geography teacher and subject lead

Video: Nepal communities learn earthquake-resistant building

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Natural disasters: earthquakes | Teaching resources

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This resource focuses on how individual and communities prepare for, respond to and recover from life-changing natural disasters. It also explores the causes of earthquakes. This resource has been updated with a case study and extra source material on the Central Italy earthquake of 2016.

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This is an example of what planning might look like in school. BUT - how can this be changed to offer enhanced enquiry opportunities for pupils?

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Iain Freeland HMI, Ofsted's subject lead for geography, discusses our geography subject inspections.
Studying geography is so important for children, regardless of their age or stage of learning. Geography helps them to make sense of the world around them and piques their curiosity in places and people. Done well, it engages pupils in their world, often spurring them into action, and is fun!

Between January and March 2020, we carried out 23 geography subject inspections of primary schools. The schools were selected at random from schools that were graded as outstanding at their most recent inspection. These inspections were carried out to:

develop further our understanding of the primary curriculum

better understand strong curriculum management in primary leadership

identify good practice at subject level.

Many strengths

There were strengths in the quality of geography education in many of the schools we went to. Overall, curriculum planning was well thought through, and there was clear organisation to make sure that pupils built on what they had already learned. In a few schools, where subjects were taught discretely, there were sophisticated links across subjects to make sure there was cohesion across the whole curriculum.

Teaching geography in the early years was almost universally strong. Teachers were adept at helping pupils to understand their locality, the wider world and phenomena, such as the weather and seasons. Pupils with special educational needs and/or disabilities were fully included in the provision for geography. Teachers and other adults supported these pupils well so that they could access the same content.

The vast majority of the schools we inspected were significantly revising their curriculum plans for geography. In almost every school, leaders were using the national curriculum as the basis for their planning. However, at the time of the inspections, just under half of the schools did not meet the scope or ambition of the national curriculum. In most cases, the most significant gaps were in key stage 2. However, headteachers were aware of this and, in almost all schools, plans were already in place to improve this.

Areas for improvement

In some schools, we found that practice was not always as good as it could be. Very few teachers had actually been trained in teaching geography, although some could remember a brief session as part of their initial teacher training. In some cases, this led to teachers not drawing out important geographical concepts or introducing errors. We found that pupils often struggled to recall places they had studied, including the principal cities of the United Kingdom and major world oceans. Very few showed a good appreciation of scale.

Important geographical skills (using maps, atlases, globes and digital mapping, using locational and directional language, using aerial photographs, devising maps, using Ordnance Survey maps and fieldwork) were not taught particularly well. When pupils were constructing their own plans or maps, these often lacked the accuracy or conventions followed by geographers, such as the use of scale. In some schools, teachers were making good use of the plentiful supply of globes, atlases and maps at various scales. In others, this was less common.

Fieldwork is vital to geographical practice, but this was weak in key stage 2 in many of the schools we inspected. That's not to say that pupils did not visit different places, but, when they did, they did not make the observations or collect data that they could analyse and present their findings. Fieldwork was much stronger in the early years and key stage 1.

Very few schools were working with secondary schools (or junior/middle schools in the case of infants schools). This limited the precision with which primary schools set their curriculum goals and make sure pupils are properly prepared for the next phase of education.

While there was room for improvement, it's also clear that these schools had a lot to be proud of. Pupils told us how much they love geography, showing great curiosity about the world around them and the people in it. Many were passionate about the planet and looking after it - a number told us that they were taking direct action to protect the environment. Given that school leaders were clearly aware of the gaps in their curriculum and were actively working to fill them, I hope that these successes are built on.

Background

These inspections were carried out under section 8 of the Education Act 2005 and in accordance with Ofsted's published procedures for a no formal designation inspection of schools. The inspections were carried out to enable Her Majesty's Chief Inspector to better understand the quality of education in specific subjects provided by outstanding primary schools. Twenty-three geography inspections were carried out between January and March 2020.

As these inspections only looked into one subject, inspectors were not expected to evaluate or infer the quality of education in the school. This is because the education inspection framework methodology requires a minimum of three subjects to be reviewed in order to draw out systemic features. This was not the purpose of these inspections.

Schools inspected

The full detail of the findings of each inspection are published on each school's web page on Ofsted's reports website.

Abacus Belsize Primary School, Camden

All Saints' Church of England Primary School, Ilkley, Bradford

Bournehall Primary School, Hertfordshire

Broomhaugh Church of England First School, Northumberland

Castlethorpe First School, Milton Keynes

Challock Primary School, Kent

Charnwood Primary School, Leicester

East Haddon Church of England Primary School, Northamptonshire

Gomer Infant School, Hampshire

Lindley Church of England Infant School, Kirklees

Louth Kidgate Primary Academy, Lincolnshire

Lowdham Church of England Primary School, Nottinghamshire

Lumley Infant and Nursery School, County Durham

Merrow Church of England Controlled Infant School, Surrey

Oulton Broad Primary School, Norfolk

Purleigh Community Primary School, Essex

Shepherdswell Academy, Milton Keynes

Silkstone Common Junior and Infant School, Barnsley

St John's (Church of England) Primary Academy, Clifton, Calderdale

St Mary's Catholic Primary School, Falmouth, Cornwall

St Matthew's Roman Catholic Voluntary Aided Primary School, South Tyneside

Trowse Primary School, Norfolk

Yardley Hastings Primary School, Northamptonshire

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Iain Freeland HMI, Ofsted's subject lead for geography

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Geography in outstanding primary schools

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Iain Freeland HMI, Ofsted's subject lead for geography, discusses our geography subject inspections.

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The purpose of this article is to develop a clear understanding of what Bloom's Taxonomy is, and how you can apply it in your own teaching and learning. Towards the end of the article, you will find some free Bloom's resources and teaching resources, which will help get you started.

If you have been teaching for any length of time, you are extremely likely to have come across Bloom's taxonomy at one point or another. Maybe you are very familiar with it already and use it daily to inform your teaching and assessment.

For many of us, however, our familiarity with Bloom's taxonomy may be limited to catching a passing reference to it at a teaching conference or a staff training.

If this describes your situation, then this article is designed to take you from a limited knowledge to a functional understanding. It will help enable you to implement Bloom's core concepts for the benefit of your students.
What is Bloom's Taxonomy? Taxonomy Definition
As it isn't a word we use every day, let's start by getting to grips with what we mean by the term 'taxonomy.' Put simply, taxonomy is the science of organizing things and classifying them according to various criteria.
Bloom's Taxonomy

In brief, Bloom's taxonomy is a series of cognitive skills and learning objectives arranged in a hierarchical model.

Originally, Bloom's taxonomy was designed as a way of gauging competence by placing a student's knowledge on one of 6 levels which are often represented visually in the form of a pyramid.

Each step of the pyramid from bottom to top represents a move from a lower-order thinking skill to a higher-order one; from straightforward concrete cognition to a more abstract, conceptual understanding.

This taxonomy of educational objectives gets its name from its creator, Benjamin Bloom. Bloom was an American educational psychologist who is best remembered for his significant contributions to the theory of mastery learning, as well as this renowned and widely used taxonomy.

Back in the 1940's, Bloom and his colleagues devised his taxonomy by categorizing a range of educational goals and arranging them into a hierarchy. Bloom believed that by classifying goals in this manner, it would make it easier for educators to more accurately assess student performance.

This work went through countless revisions and reviews before a finalized version was published in 1956 as The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. The document described a path towards educational attainment that passed through 6 orders of learning.

While Bloom's taxonomy can be divided into 3 domains of educational objectives cognitive, psycho motor, and effective, it is the cognitive domain where our 6 levels are focused.
The Application of Bloom's Taxonomy
Though the original intention of the taxonomy was to serve as an assessment tool, it's use quickly spread into other areas of teaching. It became a very effective tool to help educators identify clear learning objectives, build curricula, as well as to create purposeful learning activities in the classroom.

Despite its dry, academic-sounding title, Bloom's taxonomy has had concrete and measurable positive impact in classrooms worldwide, from kindergarten to college and beyond.
Revised Bloom's Taxonomy
As educators became more experienced in using the taxonomy, they utilized it with ever-increasing flexibility. It became apparent that some revision of the original tool would be beneficial. So, in 2001 a group of stakeholders collaborated to revise the original tool to make it better suited for modern demands.

The group was made up of educators, psychologists, assessment specialists, and researchers, and they achieved a number of important improvements.

They worked to make the tool more dynamic conceptually, moving away from the one dimensional levels of educational objectives. They did this primarily through a change in language.

Bloom's Taxonomy Levels

As any good copywriter will tell you, verbs are more powerful than nouns. Those charged with revising Bloom's Taxonomy were well aware of this fact and it is apparent in the many nouns in the old version were subsequently substituted by verbs. Nouns were replaced by much more action-oriented verbs to reflect the idea that learning is not just passive acquisition, but an engaged, active participation.

For example, where the original version talked of Knowledge, the revised Bloom's taxonomy referred to the much more active Remember. It is helpful here to take a look at the full list of 6 levels in the above table for ease of comparison.
Why Should Teachers Use Bloom's Taxonomy?
Bloom's taxonomy is a great tool for helping teachers to develop higher order critical thinking abilities in students. Referring to the taxonomy's concepts during the planning process helps teachers to focus in on appropriate objectives for groups and individuals and to plan for their progression in the short, medium, and longer term.

The taxonomy provides a clear framework or system of organization for classifying lesson objectives, as well as a coherent starting point to build lessons from.
How Can Teachers Use Bloom's Taxonomy?
The starting point of any planning process should be the consideration of the level of the students. Luckily, Bloom's provides a very convenient framework to begin this process.

When creating objectives, you can move from the simple to complex, the concrete to abstract, according to your students' ability through reference to the taxonomy.

For example, knowing that Remember refers to the lowest level of cognitive rigor means you can design your objectives with this in mind.

Likewise, Create references the highest level of cognitive rigor and this will inform the objectives you create for the most sophisticated of your students.

Bloom's Taxonomy Verbs
The knowledge above provides a good starting point, but it doesn't mean that every objective you write for Level 1 students must begin with the word 'remember'.

Conveniently, Bloom's Taxonomy provides lots of related verbs that provide a helpful way for educators to plan lessons. Verb tables have been created to align with each of these levels.

Now, let's take a look at these levels and some corresponding verbs.
Bloom's Taxonomy Levels and Corresponding Verb Lists
At this level, students are challenged to recall and remember the basic facts and information of the story or text.
Verb List: Cite, Define, Describe, Draw, Identify, Label, List, Match, Memorize, Name, Record, Repeat, State, Write Verb List: Add, Clarify, Compare, Contrast, Explain, Give, Infer, Observe, Predict, Summarize, Translate Verb List: Adapt, Assign, Calculate, Construct, Employ, Express, Illustrate, Modify, Show, Solve, Use Verb List: Break down, Characterize, Classify, Contrast, Distinguish, Explore, Identify, Investigate, Order, Prioritize Verb List: Appraise, Assess, Critique, Defend, Determine, Estimate, Explain, Grade, Justify, Rank, Rate Verb List: Abstract, Assemble, Combine, Compose, Construct, Correspond, Design, Develop, Generate, Integrate, Portray, Produce
Level 2 gives the student a chance to show a fundamental understanding of the story or text.

Here, students gain an opportunity to demonstrate their ability to use the information in a new way.

At this level, students can deconstruct the story into its component parts to better understand it.

This level gives students an opportunity to develop an opinion and back it up with reasoning and evidence.

This level affords an opportunity for students to take what they have learned and make something new from it.

Clearly, the verbs listed above do not represent a comprehensive list of all the possibilities of verbs and verbal phrases available at each level, but they certainly provide a good starting point.

You may also note that some verbs and phrases will work at more than one level, just be sure to refer to the stated aim of each level to assess what the purpose is in that particular context.

A useful way to employ verb lists such as those above is to incorporate them into your learning objectives for lessons or for longer-range planning such as term plans or writing a curriculum or scheme of work.

You can easily differentiate the learning objectives you set by moving up and down levels and by using simpler verb synonyms in those objectives. Using a thesaurus is a great way to achieve this quickly.

FREE BLOOMS SPELLING RESOURCE
In Conclusion
Level 1: Remember

Level 2: Understand

Level 4: Analyze

Level 5: Evaluate

Level 6: Create

A great Bloom's Taxonomy video for teachers and Students

The great value of Bloom's taxonomy is in its flexibility as a tool across diverse fields of learning.

Its comprehensive scope provides a useful framework to organize and plan learning experiences designed to cover a broad range of cognitive abilities without being too prescriptive.

Just as Bloom's taxonomy ranks Create as its highest level, when approaching planning and/or assessment using this taxonomy, be creative in its use to get the most benefit from it in your classroom.

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A Teacher's Guide to Bloom's Taxonomy - Innovative Teaching Ideas

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The purpose of this article is to develop a clear understanding of what Bloom's Taxonomy is, and how you can apply it in your own teaching and learning.

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Introduction

This review explores the literature relating to the field of geography education. Its purpose is to identify the nature of high-quality geography education in schools. We review pedagogical approaches, assessment practices and the impact whole-school policies and systems have on geography education.

We will use this understanding of subject quality to examine the state of geography education in England's schools. We will then publish a subject report so that we can share our findings with the sector and government. The ultimate goal is that, through this work, we will contribute to raising the quality of geography education for all young people.

In this review, we have:

The review draws on a range of sources, including a programme of research from our Research and Evaluation team. This piece of work builds on previous research, including the 'Education inspection framework: overview of research' and 'Principles behind Ofsted's research reviews and subject reports'.

The context of geography curriculum design in English schools

Since the writings of Ptolemy and Strabo in the first and second century, geography has been a curiosity that has interested scholars and philosophers. This is the subject that principally uses spatial organisation as its reference system and seeks to make sense of the world and its people, places and environments through explanatory relationships.

The study of geography is about more than just memorising places on a map. It's about understanding the complexity of our world, appreciating the diversity of cultures that exist across continents. And in the end, it's about using all that knowledge to help bridge divides and bring people together.

With such responsibility, the centrality of geography in school curriculums should be commonplace. Indeed, geography has had a statutory place in the national curriculum since its inception, and its place in primary education can be traced back to the 19th century. However, despite having its roots in classical times, there are many definitions of the discipline. In the United Kingdom, the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education has set out geography as:

[the] integrated study of the complex reciprocal relationships between human societies and the physical, chemical and biological components of the Earth. Geographers study place, space and time, recognising the great differences and dynamics in cultures, political systems, economies, landscapes and environments across the world, and the links between them.

The requirement for maintained schools and academies to offer a broad and balanced curriculum is set out in the Education Act 2002 (for maintained schools) and the Academies Act 2010. This expectation is reflected in the national curriculum and is at the heart of the education inspection framework ( EIF). However, the subject has often had a relatively low status, particularly in primary schools.[footnote 10] Studies over the decades have shown the decline in the amount of time spent in classes studying geography, particularly in primary schools.[footnote 11] Subject reports by Her Majesty's Inspectors and Ofsted have repeatedly commented on the relatively poor state of geography education in primary schools.[footnote 12]

The situation in secondary schools has been more variable. Geography was a popular school subject and choice for O level or Certificate of Secondary Education ( CSE) through the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. The 'Geography and Young School Leaver' project was introduced in response to the raising of the school leaving age to 16 in 1972/73. It had the greatest take-up by schools of all the projects launched at that time.[footnote 13] Since the 1970s, there has been much work on curriculum development. However, at the turn of the century, the number of pupils entering geography examinations was in decline.[footnote 14] This has been turned around over the last decade. Now, almost half of key stage 4 pupils study geography.

Primary education and the early years foundation stage

Children start on their geography education journey in the early years foundation stage ( EYFS). Until 2021, the EYFS framework contained few references to geographical learning. The 2021 update includes many more. For example, the 'people, culture and communities' and 'natural world' strands set out much clearer, identifiable geographical knowledge that children are to learn.[footnote 15] In other strands, there are opportunities for children to draw on geographical content. For example, they may develop their fine-motor skills when drawing plans and sketch maps. Crucially, in the early years, children begin to acquire some of the geographical vocabulary that they will build on through the rest of their schooling.

One article highlights the empowering nature of geography and its importance as a subject in its own right and also for strengthening pupils' comprehension across other subjects.[footnote 16] Others also emphasise the significant role geography plays in primary schools, helping pupils to understand their world, their role in it and the responsibilities that come with it.[footnote 17] The primary national curriculum sets out, at a high level, what geography pupils are to learn by the ages of 7 and 11. However, the subject is often diluted or lost within the topic-based approach taken by many primary schools.[footnote 18] There is also a correlation with the reduction in time spent on primary initial teacher education courses.[footnote 19] If primary teachers, typically as generalists, do not have the geography subject knowledge they need, then it may be no surprise most primary pupils are taught little geography.[footnote 20]

Ofsted's research in 2020 on geography in primary schools showed that most were revising their geography curriculum.[footnote 21] Inspectors found that almost half of the schools inspected did not teach the breadth of knowledge set out in the national curriculum, particularly in key stage 2. Inspectors noted that pupils' geographical skills were weak and there was a paucity of meaningful fieldwork. Nonetheless, pupils showed a healthy appetite for geography. They also displayed concern for the world and its people.

The position in secondary schools

In contrast, there has been a steady rise in the number of pupils studying geography after the age of 14. The number of pupils entering the GCSE has risen sharply. In 2010, almost 170,000 pupils were entered for GCSE Geography in English schools.[footnote 22] By 2019, the number had risen to over 251,000, an increase of nearly 50%, even though the number of 16-year-olds fell by 9% in the same period. There is a clear link between this rise and the introduction of the English Baccalaureate ( EBacc) in 2010. This performance measure is based on a suite of qualifications that must include geography or history.

Throughout this period, entry rates for boys have been slightly higher than for girls. The increase in entries came disproportionately from disadvantaged pupils, pupils from Black, Asian and minority ethnic groups, and those with lower prior attainment.[footnote 23]

Attainment has remained broadly similar over the last 10 years. Approximately a fifth of pupils gain grades 7, 8 and 9 (or A and A* before 2017) and 7 out of 10 pupils gain a grade 4 or better (C or better before 2017).[footnote 24]

The number of students taking geography at A level has also risen but at a much less marked rate. Again, this is set in the context of the falling number of 18-year-olds across the country. Since the current A level specifications were introduced in 2016, the gender gap in geography has been one of the smallest of all subjects.[footnote 25]

In September 2019, Ofsted launched the EIF.[footnote 26] This followed an extensive period of research into understanding what constitutes a good quality of education.[footnote 27] The EIF clarified the expectation that, regardless of a pupil's age, they would benefit from a curriculum that 'remains as broad as possible for as long as possible' and that pupils 'should be able to study a strong academic core of subjects, such as those offered by the EBacc'.[footnote 28] Again, this has strengthened the position of geography in the curriculum as schools take on board this research and respond to it.

Evidence from recent inspections of the quality of geography education also suggests that the subject is receiving greater attention.[footnote 29] Similarly, schools, particularly in the primary phase, are reaching out for support and training. Both the Geographical Association and Royal Geographical Society report that the number of schools taking out membership, subscribing to their journals and seeking consultancy support has risen dramatically in recent years.

In this review, we extend the research-based findings that led to the EIF, particularly around the quality of education, to geography education. We have set out the context of geography education across England and summarised a research review into effective practice in geography. We have considered curriculum progression in geography, pedagogy, assessment and the impact of school leaders' decisions on provision.

Curriculum

Summary

The geography curriculum in schools identifies the knowledge and skills that pupils are to learn. Like many subjects, knowledge in geography can be organised into 2 forms:

Substantive knowledge sets out the content that is to be learned. The national curriculum and other geography education literature presents this through 4 interrelated forms:

Disciplinary knowledge considers how geographical knowledge originates and is revised. It is through disciplinary knowledge that pupils learn the practices of geographers.

A successful geography curriculum reflects teachers' careful thought about what is to be taught, the rationale for it, the sequencing of learning and the relationships between the forms of knowledge. With this in place, pupils are likely to know, remember and be able to do more.

Curriculum progression

A high-quality geography education brings together careful selection of content, organisation of that content, choice of teaching approaches, assessment and other factors.

The geography curriculum maps out the knowledge that pupils learn to gain geographical expertise. In planning the curriculum, the nature of the discipline should inform content and activity choices to ensure that pupils learn and can consider their own answers to geographical questions.[footnote 30]

The nature of geographical education

Nonetheless, a clearly mapped journey starting in the early years and developing through the curriculum is critical if pupils are to move towards becoming experts in the subject. This has been described as working towards 'abstract clarity, which in turn imparts meaning to everything else below it'.[footnote 35]

As a subject that incorporates as much from the natural sciences as the social sciences, the structure of the geography curriculum is complex. However, rarely do these exist in isolation. Indeed, one of the strengths of geography is that it brings them together. Geography must have a curriculum that respects both discourses and the interplay between them.

Organising concepts

There is increasing, although by no means universal, agreement within the geography education community that many high-level concepts are central to a pupil's geographical education.[footnote 43] These include:

Concepts are important in geography as they draw out the links between processes and ideas.[footnote 44] To develop their understanding of each of these concepts, pupils need to learn the range of relevant knowledge and skills. It is from this knowledge and development of these skills that pupils gain a more abstract appreciation of the subject. Therefore, it is critical that the content of the curriculum is broken down into component parts (or chunks) that pupils can first comprehend in their own right, before combining different components to gain a fuller conceptual appreciation.

Based on the above, high-quality geography education may have the following features

The geography curriculum identifies sufficient breadth of content and ensures that pupils learn this in sufficient depth.

Pupils' geographical education begins in the early years and builds year on year, developing pupils' expertise.

The organisation of the curriculum builds knowledge so that pupils can draw on it in future learning. Pupils are increasingly able to apply generalisations to understand the world around them.

Teachers are the adjudicators of curriculum content and select it judiciously. They use their good subject knowledge to do this and take into account how pupils build their geographical knowledge over time.

Geographical expertise is built on substantive geographical knowledge. Drawing from the breadth of concepts gives pupils the knowledge they need to appreciate the whole domain of geography. They understand how common concepts draw different aspects of the subject together.

Teachers break down the content they wish pupils to learn into component parts. When selecting that content, teachers take into account what their pupils need based on their prior knowledge and experiences.

Forms of geographical knowledge

As concepts provide a framework or 'grammar' for geography, so the content or substantive knowledge is the 'vocabulary'. It supplies the detail that pupils need to learn.[footnote 45] Content is vast and poses one of the challenges to a school's geography curriculum: the balance between breadth of coverage and depth of study.

This is important to consider when devising a geography curriculum. There is a need to identify both the content (substantive knowledge) that is to be taught and the knowledge of relationships that allow pupils to understand the connections between ideas (disciplinary knowledge). Pupils' combined appreciation of both substantive and disciplinary knowledge can be described as geographical understanding.

The national curriculum, since its introduction in 1991 and through its revisions since, has maintained a focus on 4 forms of geographical knowledge:[footnote 48]

Looking at each form of substantive knowledge in turn demonstrates both the substance of each and the relationships between them, as illustrated in the graphic below.

Locational knowledge

'Knowing where's where' is one of the mainstays of geographical education. In building pupils' locational knowledge, teachers recognise that this not only helps pupils to identify specific features but also to:

Pupils also need to be taught about the absolute positioning (reference) systems used in geography, particularly latitude and longitude. Location influences so many of the earth's systems that without a grasp of it early in their education, pupils do not have one of the critical geographical frameworks that allow them to make sense of many natural and human phenomena. For example the effect of proximity to the equator.

A review of research throughout the 20th and early 21st centuries concluded that at the age of 5 pupils start to gain knowledge of their own country and its features.[footnote 54] At around 8 years of age, there is a significant increase in pupils' knowledge about other countries. One of the major contributors to this increasing knowledge is pupils' personal experiences, particularly visits or holidays to other countries.

However, these experiences vary between pupils. The curriculum must ensure that all pupils, regardless of their experiences, build an increasingly extensive knowledge of different countries, regions and features. Not only should their knowledge increase but the fluency with which they can recall the location should improve.[footnote 55] This reduces the call on pupils' working memory. Ultimately, pupils should be able to automatically pinpoint certain locations at each stage of their education and be able to associate these locations with the peculiarities that identify them. For example, they may appreciate the unique climatic conditions of the world's hot deserts and their geographical situation.

Place knowledge

It is place that connects the physical topography and physical or human geography processes with personal experience and how geographical conceptualisation brings meaning to undifferentiated 'space'. This then gives meaning to a location.[footnote 61] As a result, pupils' understanding of place gives them a connection that brings together many aspects of geography and makes it very real. This also supports pupils' memory.

Curriculum planning and place knowledge

Typically, this begins from places like their home or their classroom at school, which they know intimately, to the areas along their route to school, to their town or city, to a more conceptual understanding at regional, national and global scales. This does not preclude teaching about the unfamiliar, but a cohesive curriculum provides pupils with links to what they already know.

Linked closely to locational knowledge, pupils' place knowledge supports them in their understanding of one of geography's organising concepts, scale.

The requirements for place knowledge set out in the national curriculum show that the emphasis at key stages 1 to 3 is on exploring localities and understanding similarities and differences between them. In order to do this, the curriculum must be structured to give pupils the component knowledge of what makes a place the way it is. From this knowledge base, pupils can identify similarities and differences.

At GCSE, the guidelines require a focus on 'the geography of the UK' and for pupils to draw on 4 meanings of place:

At AS/A level, the requirements for place study are more detailed, focusing explicitly on the idea of place and the meanings and representations of place that change and shape how we see the world.[footnote 65] With increasing complexity of understanding of place, it is critically important that from the early years onwards pupils gain the building blocks of knowledge to understand what place is and how it is represented.

Building a sense of place

From the early years, the geography content that children learn can allow greater awareness of people, the environment, the relationships between them and the child's place in this relationship. This sense of belonging is recognised as being significant in children's social and emotional development and in preparing them for more formal learning.[footnote 66] It is important, therefore, in Nursery and Reception, that teachers set curricular goals so that children build their place knowledge and begin to appreciate the connections between people and the physical environment. In doing so, pupils need to learn the vocabulary in order to express these ideas.

The national curriculum requires teachers to identify content that allows pupils to make comparisons between different places but also the same place over time. For example, pupils may study the effect of migration on 2 different cities or explore how the retreating coastline of the Holderness coast in Yorkshire has affected human land use through the ages.

As pupils progress through their schooling, the curriculum supports them in acquiring the place knowledge to consider the content being explored from different perspectives. For example, in exploring water security in north-eastern Africa, pupils may learn about the possible benefits of building the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam for Ethiopians in the form of hydro-electric power supplies and the impact on Egyptians downstream who depend on the water supply from the River Nile, especially in times of drought. Through these standpoints, pupils are able to identify the different advantages and drawbacks for each stakeholder.[footnote 67]

Environmental, physical and human geography

The third form of knowledge includes phenomena, human and natural, that are central to the interest of a geographer. Knowing why a phenomenon occurs and the impacts that it has are at the core of the discipline.[footnote 68] Through the curriculum, there should be a balance between the 2 aspects.

From the early years on, the curriculum should set out how pupils gain knowledge of environmental, human and physical processes so that pupils can:

In order for pupils to get better at understanding environmental, human and physical processes, the curriculum needs to be sequenced carefully. For example, most of the physical processes, and many human processes too, are driven by the atmospheric conditions (the weather). So, pupils first need to secure an understanding of components such as air pressure, the water cycle and longitude.[footnote 69] With this knowledge, pupils have a strong basis to understand why certain biomes exist and also how they are changing. It also contributes towards pupils' understanding of climate change and the effects, both physical and human, that are happening in different locations, such as changes to agricultural practices and rising sea levels.

A well-crafted curriculum moves pupils on from learning about those processes that they experience and the impact they can see to a broader, more global array of processes. They also develop a more complex understanding of processes. For example, in key stage 2 pupils may learn about fold mountains and in key stage 3 consider how glaciation shaped upland landscapes. By developing pupils' knowledge in this way, older pupils should be able to generalise and appreciate models that represent the phenomena.[footnote 73] This is particularly important for pupils studying geography beyond the age of 14. Students in the sixth form are likely to have learned the geographical knowledge necessary to be able to offer some critique of models, generalisations and theories and recognise their limitations.

Geographical skills and fieldwork

The final form of knowledge to explore is the procedural knowledge, generally called 'geographical skills', including the knowledge necessary to carry out fieldwork.

Geographical skills allow pupils to collect, represent and interpret spatial information and their acquisition is an important dimension of the geography curriculum.

Fieldwork

Fieldwork has been described as 'the medium that enables formal education outside of the classroom'.[footnote 79] However, in order to engage in this 'medium', pupils first need substantial procedural knowledge of the processes and techniques that geographers use and the conditions for using them.[footnote 80] Furthermore, AS- and A-level students must design their own investigation and involve fieldwork.[footnote 81] In addition to learning different data collection methods and approaches, pupils need to appreciate which method is most appropriate to use.[footnote 82] There are many other considerations before actually collecting the data, like considering where data should be collected, as well as how and when. Fieldwork knowledge also includes an understanding of how to process the data and then draw on knowledge of environmental, human and physical processes and locational knowledge to analyse the data and draw conclusions.

Therefore, a high-quality geography curriculum includes opportunities for pupils to learn the procedural knowledge they need. This is integral to the exploration of human and physical processes so that pupils can conceptualise their classroom learning. Through their geography education, pupils need to learn and apply geographical skills, increasing in range and complexity, to interpret 'real life' geography.[footnote 83] The curriculum is likely to build in complexity from basic observation in the early years through to complex data-gathering techniques in the sixth form. For example, in the Reception class, children may observe the weather daily and record it on a chart. Over time, they may be able to identify the seasonal changes in the weather they observe. Older pupils should learn to use sampling strategies and to apply statistical techniques and more complex presentation methods when exploring changes in beach sediment or investigating people's perceptions of a particular location.

Fieldwork connects pupils with the complexities of the real world, making it both stimulating and fascinating and a valuable element of the subject. However, it also requires teachers to have sound subject knowledge so that they can confidently explore the uncertainties and ambiguities that come from moving geography from the classroom into real environments with pupils. Unlike in other subjects, it is not possible to tightly control variables in geography. Pupils need to have sufficient knowledge of the limitations of procedures and mitigation they can use and knowledge of the processes they are exploring, in order to be able to draw valid conclusions.

When leaders and teachers are designing the curriculum, they take into account that fieldwork teaching and practice support pupils in deepening their understanding of geographical processes and the interplay between them. In order to do so, fieldwork experiences need to be more than tokenistic events to satisfy the minimum expectation set out in the specification for a qualification.

Geographical skills

Within geographical skills, pupils learn to interpret spatial representations, particularly maps, globes and atlases, and construct their own plans and maps. Pupils also draw on these skills to support their knowledge of environmental, physical and human systems and also to gain a sense of place. This aspect of geography is widening as governments and commerce recognise the value of it and technology advances.[footnote 84] Pupils need to learn how to interpret resources such as aerial photography, satellite imagery and digital mapping. As well as thinking about the technical, or procedural, knowledge that pupils need, teachers and leaders also need to ensure that pupils can apply that knowledge. Consequently, the integration of this aspect with other aspects of geography is important. For example, pupils need to apply technical knowledge when using maps to identify settlement patterns.

Throughout the national curriculum, the role of fieldwork is clear. This is also reflected in qualification specifications:

at AS and A level, students must carry out fieldwork in both human and physical geography. There are specific minimum times set to be spent on this. It is assessed through the individual study and makes up 20 to 30% of the award.[footnote 85] The Department for Education requires 'geographical skills and fieldwork to be embedded within the required content knowledge'[footnote 86]

at GCSE, 15% of the award is attributed to assessing pupils' knowledge of fieldwork

Map skills

Geographical skills include both constructing and interpreting hard-copy and digital maps and plans. This involves developing pupils' abilities to use atlases and globes. Maps are, to a certain extent, the language of geography. A graphical or visual form of representation is generally more effective than a textual account.[footnote 87] Indeed, it is often in the graphical plotting of data that geographers identify patterns.

In order for pupils to become proficient in map skills, the curriculum ensures that pupils have the knowledge they need, such as knowledge of direction and scale, to draw and analyse maps. This is likely to build from drawing plans of areas that children in the early years are familiar with, such as their classroom or the school premises, through to more complex maps of larger areas and more distant places. Through drawing maps, pupils may identify relationships between features or ask questions about which processes have led to particular patterns, such as settlement distribution.[footnote 88]

In a high-quality geography curriculum, plans introduce pupils to different types of mapping, including topological and thematic mapping, as they progress through key stage 2 and secondary education.[footnote 89] A high-quality geography curriculum also includes sufficient opportunity for pupils to practise:

decoding information from maps

constructing (or encoding) maps

analysing distributions and relationships

route-finding

interpreting the information to draw conclusions[footnote 90]

Integrating opportunities to develop these skills throughout the curriculum supports pupils' development of fluency and automaticity. For example, once they become familiar with the symbols used on an Ordnance Survey 1:50,000 scale map, pupils no longer need to routinely reference the key. This both speeds up their map reading and frees up working-memory space to process the information more efficiently. Of course, much mapping is now available digitally and the same principles apply.

The more proficient a pupil is in using maps, the stronger their ability to relate to geographical concepts.[footnote 91] For example, pupils are better able to interpret the spatial information and identify increasingly complex patterns, such as land use.

Aerial photography and satellite imagery

In recent decades, aerial imagery has become readily available digitally and so used much more in daily life.[footnote 92] Similarly, satellite (or remotely sensed) imagery has become increasingly available to teachers. As they often use particular (or false) colours to represent different phenomena, these can be complex to read and analyse. Therefore, the curriculum needs to prepare pupils adequately with the knowledge to decode the images and interpret the representations.

The importance of aerial and satellite imagery should be recognised by its presence in curriculum plans. It is noted that this imagery provides the contextual setting that strengthens pupils' schema and deepens their understanding.[footnote 93] Also, images such as these often spark pupils' curiosity and lead them to ask their own questions or spur their interest to further their knowledge of the human and/or physical processes they see.

Geographic information systems

In a digital age, many of the traditional cartographic skills are now incorporated into digital mapping.[footnote 96] It is this mapping that underpins geographic information systems ( GIS). A GIS is a framework for capturing, managing and analysing geo-located data that is spatially organised. This technology is now commonplace in our lives. For example, clicking on a digital map brings up information about that place and choropleth maps show the prevalence of a particular issue based on individual data points. However, appreciating the more technical aspects of spatial modelling, geographical query and spatial analysis is knowledge that secondary-aged pupils need to be taught.

GIS is also a useful resource in developing pupils' spatial 'literacy', in helping them navigate locally and globally, and in combining datasets to identify relationships between them.

The curriculum should incorporate opportunities to teach and make use of GIS throughout topics. This contextualises pupils' learning. Although the national curriculum explicitly states that pupils should be taught about GIS in key stage 3, there are systems available that are accessible to primary-aged pupils.

Spatial thinking in the curriculum

Geographers visualise and analyse spatial relationships between objects. For example, through the use of maps, pupils are presented with a spatially referenced framework and visual cues. Through such visualisation, pupils draw on concepts they have already learned, such as location, distance, direction, shape and pattern. Taught well, spatial thinking develops a meaningful sense of place and appreciation of the interconnectedness of the subject.

The 2007 national curriculum set out some principles that are useful to bear in mind when planning the geography curriculum.[footnote 99] The first principle, 'build on and expand [pupils'] personal experiences of geography' is recognised in research as highly influential when pupils are learning geography.[footnote 100] Many researchers note that the concept of building from what is known or familiar to pupils gives them security in their understanding and so helps them commit knowledge to their long-term memory.[footnote 101] This does not mean we should exclude teaching the unfamiliar. It is important that pupils gain knowledge about the world beyond their own experience, for example to appreciate how people live in other parts of the world.[footnote 102] However, pupils must still be able to relate this to what they already know if they are to build a strong schema.[footnote 103] In this context, a schema is a cognitive structure that connects knowledge previously learned. This helps pupils to build, connect and remember different aspects of the curriculum in the long term.

Other factors can further support pupils' learning of geography. The use of real and relevant contexts is important in helping pupils relate general principles to actual locations. Using contemporary examples is also helpful. However, a particular example or a more detailed case study should not be chosen simply because it is recent. In selecting examples, teachers ensure that their choice best demonstrates the phenomenon or phenomena being studied. Furthermore, it may be that a comparison over time is a useful means of exploring a particular aspect of geography. For example, teachers could use a case study showing the influence of economic development on a region and resilience to the effects of natural hazards over a lengthy period of time.[footnote 104]

Geographers are concerned with the local and the global. They are interested in how local, regional and national decisions have global impacts. They are interested in the relationships between regions and countries, for example in exploring trade and their interdependence on each other. When identifying content, it is important that pupils are able to consider scale and have the ability to 'zoom in' and 'zoom out' in order to view processes and their impact from local, regional, national and international perspectives.[footnote 105]

'Thinking like a geographer'

The phrase to 'think like a geographer' has long been used. It captures how pupils can learn to:[footnote 110]

use what they know from one context in another[footnote 111]

think about alternative futures

consider their influence on decisions that will be made

These are questions that geographers are best placed to answer. And so, it is important that the curriculum gives pupils the knowledge they need to habitually ask these geographical questions and learn how geographers reach their answers.[footnote 114] In doing so, the curriculum goes some way to reveal the ways of geographers to pupils.

Based on the above, high-quality geography education may have the following features

Leaders who plan the curriculum appreciate that the body of knowledge covered by geography is vast. They make informed and careful choices about what is taught. This may go beyond the content prescribed in the national curriculum. For example, they may choose to explore particular phenomena that are prevalent in the locality.

The curriculum includes the most appropriate examples and case studies to demonstrate each aspect being learned. These are always real and relevant to the content.

When introducing new component knowledge, teachers make sure that pupils can relate this to what they already know, so that they build a strong schema and so remember more. Teachers emphasise this interconnectedness between forms of knowledge to help pupils do this.

Through careful curriculum design, each form of knowledge receives due consideration. Pupils build their knowledge both within the form and in how each form relates to others. Crucially, the interplay between each develops pupils' secure geographical thinking.

Leaders appreciate the structure of the subject, so their curriculum plans are constructed effectively to ensure that pupils know more, remember more and are able to do more.

Thematic or topic-based approaches

The task of sequencing geographical content is complex. When considering the curriculum as the progression model, what pupils are to know needs to be identified precisely and sequenced clearly. There needs to be a clear progression 'map' for each subject. The challenge of doing this in a topic-based or cross-subject approach is extremely complicated. But this approach is common in many primary schools and special schools.

Thematic or topic-based approaches are designed to make the most of a multi-disciplinary structure in a school. However, in such an approach the clarity of the curriculum goals can be lost. Potentially, one subject can dominate at the expense of the others. This is especially the case if a teacher's subject knowledge is stronger in one subject than others. Add to this the notion that the knowledge to be learned must build, within its own discipline, on what is already known and look forward to what is next to be learned. Furthermore, each subject has its own disciplinary structure to be respected and substantive knowledge to be learned. It is particularly challenging where subjects have different structures as, too often, the integrity of one or more subjects can be lost to another. Furthermore, there are 'discontinuities in the methodological skills' across disciplines.[footnote 115]

With all this in mind, to construct this kind of curriculum approach across subjects requires the most expert teachers with strong multi-disciplinary knowledge.

Based on the above, high-quality geography education may have the following features

Over time, curricular goals are increasingly challenging. For example, they may increase in complexity, consider more variables, make multiple comparisons or require the application of abstract ideas.

Teachers revisit content taught previously in order to introduce new, more complex knowledge to deepen pupils' understanding.

In cross-subject or thematic approaches, each subject is carefully planned to ensure that pupils can make progress in each subject. The curriculum goals retain subject specificity.

In planning a thematic curriculum, teachers are aware of the disciplinary nature of the subject. Their plans respect these disciplinary structures.

Staff who plan thematic approaches are sufficiently expert in each discipline. They have a secure appreciation of how geography relates to other subjects and use this to develop clear plans.

Selecting examples and case studies

When considering how best to teach pupils about a particular phenomenon, teachers give considerable thought to their selection of examples or case studies.[footnote 116] Contextualising geographical phenomena to particular locations or events expands and extends pupils' knowledge of the world. Their studies should take them beyond their own experience and allow them to appreciate how their own lives are affected by the phenomena explored through examples and case studies.[footnote 117] However, care should be taken so as not to limit pupils' understanding of a particular event. For example, Bangladesh is often only studied as the location of river floods. This denies pupils the full appreciation of the diversity of the country.[footnote 118] Some studies advocate a 'multi-faceted approach' to explore a range of topics through the case study.[footnote 119] This allows pupils to gain richer and deeper geographical knowledge and to see the links between different factors.

Each place is unique and is continually changing. Ultimately, the examples and case studies chosen should help pupils to appreciate the diversity of cultures, environments and economic settings and how they change both in time and by location. Pupils' place knowledge is particularly strengthened by studying case studies. Drawing on different perspectives, such as Freeman and Morgan's '3 lamps' model helps pupils to deepen their appreciation of the location and its people, cultures and environmental conditions.[footnote 120]This is the point at which the concept being explored becomes 'real'.

Some geography educators advocate that teachers should go to primary sources to ensure accuracy and currency of case studies.[footnote 121] This ensures the authenticity of the representation and can personalise the case study. Case studies should help pupils build knowledge of the world and provide an opportunity to use GIS in order to turn the space into place knowledge. In doing so, the connectedness of the subject is further embedded.

Weather and climate

Weather, climate, depression, anticyclone, air mass, weather system

Britain's weather and climate are variable due to Britain's position in relation to the global atmospheric circulation

Global atmospheric circulation

Urban settlements

Town centre, inner city area, suburb, suburbanisation, re-urbanisation, transport network, accessibility, land-value surface

The land use pattern of a large town or city is a consequence of innumerable decisions, made by individuals and organisations, about the value of different locations for various purposes

Urban land-use models (for example, Burgess, Hoyt, Harris and Ullman, Mann); bid rent theory (Alonso)

There is also a need to ensure that examples and case studies, data and images are appropriate. Older resources may portray inaccurate or outdated stereotypical representations. There is a risk of a 'single story' being presented of people and places.[footnote 124] The 'single story' shows people or place as only one thing, over and over again. Then that is what they become in pupils' minds.

Past geographical events should not be presented as if they are representative of the here and now. It is important, therefore, that teachers critically reflect on the imagery, data and attitudes they portray and the messages that are conveyed to pupils, even unwittingly. This is particularly pertinent in light of current thinking about matters such as ensuring that geography accurately represents the nature of the world's people, their communities, economies, diversities and experiences.[footnote 125]

Also, there is a temptation to piggy-back on contemporary media representations. For teachers, the foremost consideration must be what geography is being learned and how their teaching is building up pupils' knowledge step by step. Films and documentaries are appealing for the quality of their production, but they often cover complex composite ideas without exploring the component knowledge that pupils first need to understand.

Based on the above, high-quality geography education may have the following features

When selecting case studies and examples, leaders and teachers take great care in:

accurate representation

avoiding portraying a 'single story'

ensuring sufficient depth of understanding

reflecting the dynamic nature of geography

supporting pupils to see the interconnected nature of the subject

broadening pupils' knowledge of the world

fostering a sense of place

supporting pupils' appreciation of generalisations and models

A further dimension to be considered through curriculum design is the nature and conventions of the discipline - disciplinary knowledge.

Disciplinary knowledge

In geography, unlike some other subjects, there is not a commonly held view on what disciplinary knowledge is. Disciplinary knowledge can be viewed as the connection between the academic discipline and the school subject. As the scope of geography is complex, so the discipline is too. Broadly, disciplinary knowledge introduces pupils 'to specialised forms of knowledge, modes of thought and experience, which are the symbolic products of past human endeavours to better know the world and the people within it'.[footnote 126]

Teachers need to consider how pupils gain an insight into the discipline when planning the curriculum.[footnote 129] Through their experience of geographical education, particularly through critical evaluation, the nature of the discipline can be revealed to pupils.

Given the complexity of disciplinary knowledge in geography, research suggests that 'subject-specialist, qualified, professional teachers are key to the process'.[footnote 133]

Based on the above, high-quality geography education may have the following features

The curriculum is designed to allow pupils to see that geography is a dynamic subject where thinking and viewpoints change.

In developing pupils' disciplinary knowledge, teachers' plans allow pupils to:

take a holistic view of the content studied

establish whether the geographical questions posed, the methods used, and the answers found are valid

recognise the interconnectedness of different geographical content

appreciate what it means to be a geographer by asking geographical questions such as 'why is this place like this?', 'how is this place changing?' and 'how are other places affected?'

Disciplinary knowledge ensures that pupils appreciate the context in which substantive knowledge was generated. This helps pupils to appreciate context and the perspective from which knowledge was created, different standpoints and how views have changed as time has moved on.

Misconceptions

In exploring the here and now of the world's people, places and environments, geography teaching has a specific responsibility to tackle misconceptions that pupils may hold about people's lives, in the United Kingdom and across the world.

The role of the teacher is to tackle these misconceptions (or errors) so that pupils are able to properly understand the phenomena that are being studied.[footnote 136] To do so, it is fundamental that teachers' knowledge is secure. Understanding pupils' misconceptions, however ill-conceived they may be, is useful in establishing how best to teach pupils to correct erroneous thinking.

In the case of tropical cyclones, pupils may start off with many different explanations of their causes, processes, patterns and impacts. For example, pupils may hold beliefs about matter and the fact that stationary air does not occupy space, have mass or exert pressure.[footnote 137] Also, they may have an absent or misguided view of air pressure and the global heat budget, perhaps only a partial appreciation of the water cycle and limited understanding of the properties of matter. All of these are critical components that lead to the formation and processes of tropical cyclones. If any component is misunderstood, then pupils' overall understanding of the tropical cyclonic system is impaired. Therefore, it is critical that teachers plan learning activities that identify what pupils misunderstand.

A further contributing factor to misconceptions may be how terminology is used in different ways. In geography, particular language has specific, and often detailed, meaning. Everyday use of the same terminology can often lead to pupils having a naïve understanding of it. For example, many children are familiar with the term 'oasis'. They may associate it with peace or calm. Few are likely to appreciate that it is the geographical term for a fertile area in the midst of a desert due to the presence of water.[footnote 138] Importantly, through their teaching, teachers ensure that pupils have an accurate, subject-specific understanding of the terms that are used.

In planning teaching activities, it is important that the sequencing of content is thought through carefully. It should build pupils' knowledge and skills progressively. Pupils will need sufficient time to gain the knowledge they need and to apply their learning. These conditions are critical if misconceptions are to be avoided. During lessons, teachers should be alert to pupils' misconceptions and use techniques to help pupils gain the clarity they need. 'Corner-cutting' in teaching content and not doing it deeply enough often lead to pupils' misconceptions.[footnote 139]

Curriculum structure

Over time, the curricular goals should be increasingly challenging. A high-quality geography curriculum takes a pupil from learning the basic building blocks to developing in-depth knowledge.

In a well-structured curriculum, the prior content that pupils have remembered allows them to understand the conditions, processes and interactions that explain geographical features, distribution patterns and changes over time and space. Building pupils' knowledge in this way allows them to make comparisons with an increasing number of different contexts and at different scales. Thus, the curriculum helps pupils make greater sense of the world by organising and connecting knowledge and ideas about people, locations, processes and environments.

Through their geographical education, pupils should become increasingly aware of generalisations and models. Older pupils need to be able to apply this knowledge in their studies. Consequently, the curriculum supports pupils' appreciation of space, place and interdependence: 3 of geography's 'big concepts'.

Components, composites and schema

In mapping progression over the course of a programme of study, a well-constructed curriculum sets out the substantive knowledge that pupils need to learn in a connected way. To do so, critically, the curriculum identifies this substantive knowledge in components or small chunks. For example, in the early years and key stage 1, these components include associating geographical features or processes with the language used to describe them and more generally equipping pupils with the common vocabulary that geographers use.

Sequencing

By learning each component in an ordered way and appreciating how one component relates to another, pupils gain a composite knowledge of a geographical process or phenomenon. A review of curriculum changes in South Africa notes the need for 'careful and deliberate sequencing of learning so that learners can build on their prior learning and prepare for their future learning'.[footnote 142]

In the early years, pupils need to first learn the vocabulary associated with describing the weather, often gained through activities that require them to observe the elements of weather (precipitation, wind, temperature and so on). The curriculum then requires pupils to recall this knowledge subsequently to learn that certain combinations of weather relate to the seasons. For example, in the UK, we typically associate cold temperatures, and perhaps snow, with winter. This early start to gaining geographical knowledge requires that pupils acquire and remember the language that is common to the subject and comprehend how it translates to outdoor atmospheric conditions. From here, curriculum can begin to build a geographical knowledge of where these conditions are typically found through learning about climate belts and later study into biomes.

It is important to note that some geography content links with other curriculum areas, particularly science. This can lead to some challenges, as matters specified for particular year groups may not align with the preferred sequence in geography.

How knowledge is remembered

Pupils need to draw on prior knowledge to learn more complex ideas. Therefore, key content needs to be not just briefly understood but to be remembered in the long term. A well-structured geography curriculum will help pupils to do this.

Typically, the curriculum organises and repeats substantive and disciplinary knowledge in ways that show pupils how each component fits together and how each composite idea fits with others. Through this, pupils gain a secure grasp of well-connected pieces of knowledge and consequently know more, remember more and are able to do more, thus making good progress in the subject. Similarly, pupils have developed their disciplinary knowledge as they engage critically with the content. Curriculums help pupils build an effective schema when they further embed previously learned knowledge in memory through recall and review, build on what pupils know and increase both the quantity and complexity of content and disciplinary appreciation.[footnote 145]

Teachers consider the knowledge they have selected, what they emphasise, the order in which they teach it, and how they assess pupils' grasp of it. Selecting the knowledge has been covered in the previous sections, so we now turn to the organisation of the curriculum.

Based on the above, high-quality geography education may have the following features

The knowledge pupils learn is well organised with clear connections between components, which means they are more likely to remember it in the long term.

The curriculum builds on pupils' prior learning and re-visits the content, which supports pupils in developing strong schemata.

Pedagogy

Summary

The approaches teachers take are critical when translating the planned curriculum into effective experiences that allow pupils to learn and remember new content. Research shows how, through the choices they make about their approaches, teachers can helpfully promote pupils' spatial thinking, improve their efficiency and gain insight into the way of geographers (disciplinary knowledge).

Research also notes the risk of the curriculum being driven by popularisation, while acknowledging the motivational effect that this can have.

Pedagogical considerations

In high-quality geography education, teachers are clear about the rationale for the teaching approaches they adopt and why they are successful. In doing so, teachers give considerable thought to how pupils learn geographical content most effectively so that they are able to reach ambitious curriculum goals.

In this section, we are covering the pedagogical considerations of spatial thinking as opposed to the knowledge (or skills) as is often presented.[footnote 148] When pupils have the necessary knowledge of geographical concepts and tools, teachers can develop pupils' spatial thinking by contextualising subject content spatially. This can range from considering the implications of locations in non-fictional and fictional texts to identifying distributions, patterns and relationships.

Drawing pupils' attention to scale and interrelationships using maps in all subjects gives pupils a visual representation that fosters spatial thinking. Several researchers argue the importance of the concept of space that pupils will gain through familiarity with maps to give them a spatially organised frame of reference that links geographical content and concepts.[footnote 149]To do this, teachers may ask pupils to create their own mental (or 'memory') maps.[footnote 150] They can also highlight to pupils the links between physical and social features and their location through digital technologies such as GIS, which allows pupils to plot data sets (for example, the prevalence of crime in certain areas) onto base maps that can be analysed.

Through teaching approaches that require pupils to consider spatial representations, pupils consolidate their appreciation of scale and interrelationships. Spatial representations also set the reference frame within which pupils can solve problems and make decisions.

Memory

In order for pupils to know more, remember more and be able to do more, teachers need to think carefully about the activities they use to put the planned curriculum into practice. The working memory has limited capacity and so teaching must not overwhelm this.[footnote 151] Teachers can avoid overloading working memory by devising activities where the most important knowledge components are relatively few in number, and by identifying tasks that help pupils secure that knowledge.

Carrying out enquiries and making decisions

Before exploring enquiry-based learning, it is important to distinguish between geographical questions as an organisational tool and as a pedagogy. In the former, the teacher poses a geographical question and selects the curriculum content that allows pupils to reach an answer. As a pedagogy, geographical enquiry is described as 'any activity that opens up problems and issues, encourages questions and begins to find solutions'.[footnote 154]

it is question-driven and encourages a questioning attitude towards knowledge (including posing geographical questions)

pupils analyse geographical data and sources of information as evidence

pupils interpret information for themselves to develop understanding

pupils reflect on their learning

checking that pupils are secure in the prior knowledge they need to carry out the enquiry

structuring tasks carefully, such as ensuring that there is sufficient teacher instruction, guidance and scaffolding for pupils to learn the intended content[footnote 159]

In doing so, teachers can ensure that pupils have the capacity to learn and apply their knowledge successfully.

Special educational needs and/or disabilities

Very little has been written about geography education for pupils with special educational needs and/or disabilities ( SEND). In our set of inspections of outstanding mainstream primary schools, we found that schools had rarely found it necessary to make changes to the curriculum for pupils with SEND but had often modified their teaching approaches.[footnote 160] There is a need for all pupils to share the same curriculum, with the same level of ambition and expectation of the geographical knowledge that pupils should know.[footnote 161] In the case of pupils with the most complex learning needs, there may be occasions when it is appropriate to modify the curriculum. However, this will be the exception.

Gaps in pupils' knowledge are likely to be one of the main barriers to making good progress. In 2 studies, researchers showed that, where pupils with SEND were not fluent in component knowledge, they experienced difficulties.[footnote 164] Although we know this to be true for all pupils, these reports highlighted its significance for pupils with SEND. Teachers must be alert to the specific gaps in knowledge that these pupils may have so that they can prioritise the concepts that are most fundamental to future learning. For example, pupils in key stage 3 should understand how human activity relies on effective functioning of natural systems. In order to do this, teachers need to know how securely pupils understand the water cycle and carbon cycle before moving on to look at human reliance on balanced ecosystems.

Teachers can identify and break down the components of the subject curriculum into manageable chunks for pupils who find learning more difficult, particularly those with cognition and learning needs. These may be smaller 'steps' than those taken by other pupils. For example, for some pupils to understand glacial landforms, specific teaching about climate change over geological time and weathering and erosion processes may need to be more explicit and broken down into individual components.

In many schools, teaching assistants are deployed to support pupils with SEND.

Studies note that few teaching assistants have the same geography content knowledge as the teacher.[footnote 165] Consequently, it is important that teaching assistants are briefed sufficiently about the content for the pupils they support. With expert input from the school's special educational needs coordinator ( SENCo) and other specialists, teachers can work with teaching assistants to discuss their approaches. Where necessary, they can appropriately modify their curriculum or pedagogy to meet pupils' needs, as set out in their education, health and care plan or individual education plan.

For pupils with physical disabilities, teachers have to make adjustments both in the classroom and to the ways in which fieldwork is carried out. Depending on the nature of disability, this may involve selecting locations (and sampling sites) carefully or adapting itineraries.[footnote 166] Furthermore, it may be possible to use additional adults to support pupils' mobility or adapt resources so that pupils with SEND can engage fully.

Pupils with colour-vision deficiency (colour blindness) face particular challenges when analysing multi-coloured resources, particularly maps. Teachers should ensure that the resources (including digital resources) are accessible to pupils with colour-vision deficiency.[footnote 167]

There is no single teaching strategy that meets the needs of all pupils with SEND.[footnote 168] However, ensuring that there are adequate structures and sufficient scaffolding in place to support those who need it is crucial. Fundamentally, planning to ensure that pupils with SEND make strong progress is likely to have a positive impact on all pupils. Teachers' expectations should be suitably high for all pupils. Too often, however, the focus is on teaching to the middle and so many pupils with SEND and those who struggle are likely to fall further behind.[footnote 169]

Pupils' motivation and interest

In geography, interest can be promoted in different ways.

The selection of content has to be carefully considered. It may be that an event that has affected pupils or is of particular interest to them helps the teacher in selecting other examples that pupils can relate to or in emphasising a particular aspect of geography.[footnote 173] For example, if pupils live in an area of a city that is experiencing redevelopment or where an industrial development is being constructed, this can give a useful 'way in', or 'hook', to the teaching of urban morphology.

Many teachers use contemporary headlines in the media to engage pupils in learning effectively. Some studies support this and comment on the need to introduce 'fresh topics and new perspectives' as a means of motivating pupils and expanding their knowledge.[footnote 174] Sometimes, however, the discussion stimulated by such headlines marginalises the geographical knowledge that can be learned, for example in favour of political or moral debates about how much humans value the earth. It is important that the geographical knowledge that is to be learned is not lost.

Using both personal experiences and media headlines to spark pupils' interest in geography can be effective. But there can be risks associated with these approaches. In using personal experiences, teachers need to be aware of potential narrowing of the curriculum. They need to give careful thought to other, similar and contrasting, examples. Comparison as a cognitive process is valuable in identifying common features and generalising but also in comparing differences and similarities.[footnote 175] If teachers use topical issues in the media, it is important they keep their attention tightly focused on the geography that they intend to be learned. Often, the concepts that are broadcast on media channels are in fact high-level, challenging and complex. Teachers need to ensure, therefore, that pupils have learned the underpinning knowledge sufficiently well in order to have the level of understanding needed.

Encouraging pupils to be responsible citizens (often teachers' intention when using media coverage) and ensuring that they appreciate their role and impact on the world, such as in sustainability, is a function of schools. Geography provides a clear framework for this learning.[footnote 176] However, this should not lead to teachers advocating a partisan perspective.

Based on the above, high-quality geography education may have the following features

Through its very nature, geographical knowledge is stimulating and motivating. Teachers make the most of this and use many thought-provoking aspects of geography in the curriculum.

Teachers motivate pupils by building on what pupils already know, ensuring that they experience success.

Events or locations that interest pupils may be chosen to exemplify specific aspects of geography.

When using personal experiences to generate interest, teachers manage the risks of:

Teachers use examples carefully to compare and contrast, as well as to stimulate interesting discussion.

When using contemporary media coverage to engage pupils, teachers ensure that the geographical knowledge to be learned is always at the forefront of their teaching. Teachers are alert to the need to check that media content is geographically accurate.

Assessment

Summary

It is helpful if teachers evaluate how secure pupils' prior learning is in order to plan lessons. They need to know what difficulties pupils may face. Teachers need to appreciate any misconceptions that pupils have as well as any gaps in pupils' knowledge. Findings from assessments inform teachers about how to adapt their teaching appropriately and build on what pupils know.

The importance of assessment

Evaluating the progress that a pupil has made is therefore a multi-faceted operation. Assessments may happen in a range of ways, such as through questioning, short tests, longer synoptic tests, extended writing, decision-making exercises, and self- or peer-assessment.[footnote 179]

Class teachers should use assessments that are designed to check that the intended curriculum has been covered and that identify how secure pupils' knowledge is. Research has found that this kind of assessment flags any areas that may need further teaching and highlights any misconceptions that pupils have. Equally, it identifies aspects that pupils quickly grasp.[footnote 180]

It is likely that teachers will want to establish what pupils already know at the start of the academic year, particularly when pupils have moved to the next key stage.[footnote 181] Carefully crafted, these diagnostic (baseline) assessments provide a useful insight into pupils' knowledge and what may need to be taught again and help to ensure that the curriculum is well balanced.

Formative assessment

For some pupils, assessment is motivational in itself. However, it is noted that this tends to be the case for those pupils who anticipate success.[footnote 184] There is a clear risk here that the attainment gap widens. It is critical, therefore, that the curriculum and its assessment are carefully designed and implemented effectively. This should make sure that all pupils know more, remember more, and can do more, and so experience success.

Summative assessment

Assessments are also used to issue graded qualifications, to make selection choices (such as for university admission) and for accountability purposes. Typically, these focus on more summative approaches at the end of a course of study, where an extensive body of geographical knowledge is assessed.

Although summative tests and exams at the end of a course serve these purposes, they also pose risks if they are used throughout a course or if the assessment criteria are extrapolated to progress measures.

First, they typically assess a broad body of knowledge. It is not until the end of the course of study that pupils have the breadth of knowledge, depth of understanding, appreciation of the interconnectedness of components from each form of substantive knowledge, and disciplinary knowledge to attempt these assessments. Therefore, they are not so useful for diagnostic purposes and are likely to be used infrequently.

Second, the criteria were not written to be broken down into milestones. Consequently, using GCSE criteria to evaluate progress from Years 7 to 11 in a secondary school presents a flawed picture.

Finally, fixing attention on a terminal assessment or exam runs the risk of narrowing the curriculum. If particular geographical concepts are omitted from the curriculum, for example weather and climate, then pupils will struggle to comprehend the systems that lie behind many geographical processes. As a result, pupils' responses will lack a detailed understanding and full appreciation of phenomena and their impact.

Progress tracking

Since levels were removed from the national curriculum in 2014, school leaders have looked to other ways of tracking pupils' progress.

Many secondary schools have constructed models of progress and target-setting based on key stage 2 outcomes in English and mathematics national curriculum tests. These have often identified specific points that a pupil, having reached a particular level of attainment in English and/or mathematics at the age of 11, should reach each term as they progress through key stage 3.

Workload

Assessment systems must be manageable and useful for both pupils and staff. The potential to overwhelm teachers' workload is significant. Careful thought should be given to ensure that assessment, in whatever form, can provide pupils and teachers with an indication of how secure pupils' knowledge and understanding are.

In formative assessment, pupils need to be clear about what they are to do to improve, and teachers should use their findings to adapt their teaching.

Based on the above, high-quality geography education may have the following features

Assessments allow pupils and teachers alike to appreciate what has been learned.

Teachers are clear about the assessment criteria, which both helps pupils to improve their attainment and motivates them.

Assessments are designed so that teachers can identify specific gaps in pupils' knowledge and any misconceptions.

Assessment information flags areas where pupils have a secure knowledge and where they need some aspects to be retaught. If there are common issues, leaders review and adapt the curriculum.

Teachers recognise that progress is rarely linear due to the cumulative nature of geography.

Culture, policies and systems

Summary

A high-quality geography education depends on the priorities established at a whole-school level. Fundamentally, the expertise and professional development of teaching staff have a significant impact on the curriculum and its implementation. This is especially true in geography because few primary teachers and a substantial proportion of secondary teachers have not studied geography beyond A level.

Other considerations, such as allocating sufficient curriculum time to teach geography, adequately resourcing the subject and the leadership of the subject, all contribute to a high-quality geography education.

Whole-school factors that affect high-quality geography education

Beyond, and often underpinning, the quality of geographical education are the policies, decisions and structures both in schools and in teacher education.

Oates identified 13 'control' factors that operate at a national level.[footnote 190] However, many of these can be usefully explored at school level. Several factors can play a significant role in ensuring a high-quality education:

We shall look at each of these factors in turn.

Professional development

Perhaps most the most critical factor in ensuring a high-quality geographical education is teachers' subject knowledge. Brooks discusses how encouraging teachers to focus on their 'synoptic capacity' draws together the importance of teachers' professional knowledge of:

the content (substantive knowledge)

the nature of the subject (disciplinary knowledge)

the ways in which they can teach it (pedagogy)[footnote 191]

If 'good geographical subject knowledge is a prerequisite for good teaching', then subject-specific training becomes critical. Teachers need to have the knowledge to successfully plan and revise the geography curriculum, as well as to consider their own teaching and the impact that it has on pupils' learning.[footnote 195]

Until recently, the increase in teachers taking 'subject knowledge enhancement' courses before or during their teacher training courses was helping. However, these are no longer available in geography.

The rapid increase in membership of the professional organisations and uptake in subject-specific in-service training in recent years show a recognition that subject-specific insight is essential.[footnote 196]

As geography is a dynamic subject, the need to maintain both up-to-date subject knowledge and also to engage in discourse about the nature of the subject and pedagogy are key. Many authors identify the supportive role of the Geographical Association and the Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers) in this regard.[footnote 197]

Non-specialist teachers

With relatively few geography specialists in the primary phase and the increased uptake of geography in key stage 4, the proportion of geography-specialist teachers teaching the subject has decreased.[footnote 198]

One geography educator notes: 'The sad thing is there is so much chance for EY [early years] and primary teachers to be curriculum makers... but, sadly, for so many this is beyond them due to time, capacity, interest, internal/external pressure and accountability.'[footnote 201] This highlights that the need for in-service professional development for non-specialist teachers, in primary and secondary schools, is paramount.

Resources

Access to high-quality and up-to-date resources is an important factor in implementing the geography curriculum. The national curriculum set out some resources that pupils should become more proficient in through their schooling. These include different types of maps (including topographical as well as topological) at various scales (in hard copy and digitally), atlases, globes, aerial and satellite imagery, and GIS.

In order to develop pupils' spatial cognition, teaching about these resources, including their construction and interpretation, is critical. Of course, the world is dynamic both physically and politically. Therefore, it is important that teachers know how locations and features have changed when they are teaching. Atlases should be up to date, reflecting the current names that are used. For example, Eswatini is the African nation previously known as Swaziland and the city of Chittagong in Bangladesh was renamed to Chattogram in 2018.[footnote 202]

The move to web-based GIS has removed some of the challenges that teachers used to face with computing hardware in schools. As with locally hosted solutions, the providers are frequently upgrading the interfaces and functionality. This has a knock-on consequence for teachers as, ultimately, the use of GIS in schools and its effectiveness depends on teachers' experience and expertise. Some studies provide a detailed summary of the features of effective professional development in this area.[footnote 203]

Textbooks and online resources (slide sets, film clips and so on) are also a common feature of geography teaching. As with case study design, critical considerations with these include:

For example, older textbooks and other resources may include imagery, maps and data that present an obsolete, inaccurate or inappropriately stereotypical view.

Live, or real-time, data can provide additional stimuli and interest in a topic. Research has noted the positive impact of using live data sources on pupils' knowledge and engagement.[footnote 204] It brings realism and relevance to pupils' studies and allows them to practise geographical skills and apply knowledge of geographical processes in their analyses.

Institutional structures

School leaders and those responsible for governance have a significant impact on the quality of the geography education through the decisions they make.

Subject leadership arrangements, curriculum organisation, the time afforded to teaching geography and the allocation of teachers are all critical factors in ensuring that pupils benefit from a high-quality geography education.

Subject leadership

Similar to the need for secure subject knowledge, geography also needs clear leadership of the subject. Indeed, one of the characteristics of a high-quality education noted in research is leaders' sound subject knowledge and understanding.[footnote 207]

Geography leaders are also typically responsible for pupils' performance in the subject. Having clearly identified what it means to get better at geography when designing or revising the curriculum and aligning assessments to the content, it should be possible to track pupils' progress.[footnote 210] Through reviewing pupils' work and assessment information, it is possible to track the gains in each pupil's geographical knowledge.

The insight from these and other monitoring activities gives geography leaders a clear understanding of the strengths and relative weaknesses of the subject. From this analysis, they can ensure that any professional development is closely matched to teachers' needs.[footnote 211] It should also help them to reflect on how effective the curriculum is and whether any changes are needed.

Curriculum organisation

Time allocations

The decisions that school leaders and those responsible for governance make about the curriculum are a significant factor in its design and implementation at a subject level. The 'low status' of the subject and the different calls on curriculum time can limit pupils' exposure to geography.[footnote 212]

A 2006 study reported the reduction in time given to teaching geography in primary schools.[footnote 213] The study found that, from 1997 to 2004, teaching time had fallen by a fifth in key stage 1 to 3.8%, and by over a quarter in key stage 2, to 4.1%. Consequently, this placed geography tenth of 12 subjects taught in key stage 1 and eighth in key stage 2.

A further call on time is that for field trips. When pupils go off site, this requires a significant investment of curriculum time. However, undertaking fieldwork is a core part of the geography curriculum and pupils need to practise their geographical skills regularly and in different environments. For some purposes, this is possible on the school site, which is less time consuming. For most, it involves visiting other locations.

Both the amount of time allocated to geography and the way it is organised in the school timetable affect the quality of geographical education overall.

When 2 or more teachers are responsible for the same class, this is even more challenging.[footnote 220] It may be that teachers cover different forms of knowledge. However, they still need an appreciation of how other forms are being covered. A carefully constructed, cohesive curriculum that is implemented consistently may help mitigate the impact of split classes. Equally, it may go some way to supporting changes in teacher during or between years.

Based on the above, high-quality geography education may have the following features

Leaders invest in high-quality, subject-specific professional development for teaching staff. This ensures that teachers have the substantive, disciplinary and pedagogical knowledge they need.

Teaching staff have a wide range of up-to-date resources to develop pupils' locational knowledge and spatial cognition. They use live data sources to motivate pupils.

Geography leaders have sound subject knowledge and understanding of the discipline. They ensure that they, and the teachers of geography they support, have clarity about both the content to be learned and effective teaching approaches.

Geography leaders use their monitoring of pupils' progress to evaluate the strengths and relative weaknesses of the subject. The curriculum is revised based on their findings.

Sufficient teaching time is allocated to cover the breadth of subject knowledge pupils are to learn. School leaders give careful thought to how geography is timetabled.

Wherever possible, specialist teachers are allocated to teach geography classes. Non-specialist teachers are well supported and receive further professional development and support in both subject knowledge and the nature of geography.

Conclusion

This review has drawn on a range of evidence to identify the features of a high-quality geography education. High-quality geography is underpinned by sufficiently knowledgeable teachers who have the necessary subject knowledge and appreciation of the discipline. They can construct a curriculum that respects the discipline, contains judiciously selected content, is cohesively organised and is contextualised to the school.

The review shows the significance of a well-planned curriculum, both in terms of what pupils are to learn and how it is organised to ensure that pupils remember what they have been taught. Research from a range of studies shows the importance of sound locational knowledge for pupils. However, international studies show us that this is a weaker aspect of pupils' geographical knowledge. This impedes pupils' abilities to locate features, navigate effectively and appreciate the impact location has on geographical processes.

Similarly, prioritising pupils' understanding of place knowledge brings meaning to the locations and processes that they learn about. When pupils have an appreciation of place, the connections between different geographical processes and locations are revealed.

Through teachers' careful identification of each component of geographical knowledge and thoughtful sequencing, pupils learn and remember more and more. Curriculum plans reflect the importance of each interrelated form of substantive knowledge (locational knowledge; place knowledge; environmental, human and physical processes; geographical skills and fieldwork). They consider each in a proportionate manner and reveal the connections between them. Through teachers' curriculum planning and pedagogical approaches, pupils gain an insight into the discipline. Research shows that this is most effective when pupils build on their existing knowledge.

As pupils progress through their school years, they develop their knowledge from specific examples to generalisations that they can apply in different locations. Pupils will also be developing the range of geographical skills they use. Foregrounding the use of maps is critical in supporting pupils to present spatially organised data and to analyse it using their knowledge of geographical processes. Research shows that pupils learn geographical skills most effectively when they are integrated into the teaching of processes and when pupils have sufficient opportunities to practise using them.

Fieldwork is a mainstay of geography education. Through first-hand data-gathering, analysis and presentation, pupils gain an insight into the discipline of geography. The connections between processes and location are revealed and pupils remember more of what they have been taught.

The literature shows that a well-planned curriculum is implemented successfully when it is accompanied by effective teaching approaches. Research identifies the range of different approaches and specific considerations that teachers reflect on when planning their teaching. The research also notes the risk of misusing popular contemporary media representations when teaching geography as this can limit or skew the content that is taught.

The importance of accurate assessment to ensure that pupils have learned the components of the curriculum is a common feature in the literature. By using assessment information to shape (and sometimes reshape) the curriculum, teaching ensures that pupils remember the content.

The research also highlights the impact of decisions made by leaders and those responsible for governance. Their allocation of resources, time and investment in professional development, as well as their operational decisions, such as timetabling and who teaches which class, all contribute to the quality of geography education in a school.

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This review explores the literature relating to the field of geography education. Its purpose is to identify the nature of high-quality geography education in schools. We review pedagogical approaches, assessment practices and the impact whole-school policies and systems have on geography education.

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Visit the Northumbria library online resources to access this journal. You have free access to 20 years worth of journals, each one written by teachers for teachers about Geography learning.

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Geography at the heart of the Curriculum

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Geography at the heart of the Curriculum

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In the primary curriculum, geography is referred to, unsurprisingly, as the 'umbrella' subject because of its capacity to make tangible and effective connections across subjects. Geography's fundamental role lies in helping children to understand the world, its environments and places near and far, and the processes that create and affect them. It encourages a holistic appreciation of how the world works and of the interconnections between concepts such as scale, community, cultural The recognition of individual differences in terms of race, ... More , interdependence and sustainability. Geography is a subject that contextualises and extends the possibilities for developing and applying language and mathematics, and enriches understanding of, and in, subjects from science and history to art and design.

As a required curriculum subject, it is important that geography is not only given appropriate time, equivalent to at least its hour a week, but is also identified clearly and taught effectively. This article outlines important aspects of the subject and advocates teachers' agency in shaping their geography curriculum.

Primary geography with context

High-quality geography boasts an impressive pedagogical repertoire, which is illustrated below by reference to its aspects of geographical enquiry, outdoor learning and fieldwork, children's personal geographies, spatial awareness, mapwork and graphicacy, learning technologies and environmental geography. These should be used to deepen children's understanding of challenging and, at times, controversial realities, events and concepts.

The enquiry approach to learning is one of geography's strongest assets (Pike, 2016). Conducting geographical enquiries develops proficiency in asking relevant questions, collecting and analysing data, and drawing conclusions. Children aged four and five can make simple tally charts about features passed on their journey to school and consider what this information tells them, while 10-11-year-olds can interrogate sophisticated data by comparing weather and climate charts to explain local seasonal variations. Geographical enquiry is thoughtful and creative, enabling children of all ages to engage in constructive and imaginative ways to learn (Scoffham, 2017).

Enquiry is often facilitated and exemplified through outdoor learning, by employing fieldwork skills. Geography provides transformative opportunities for learning in the environment as well as from it, about it and for it (Pickering, 2017). For example, investigating problems affecting traffic and parking or the accessibility for everyone of public transport and to shops and services is best undertaken through well-planned fieldwork in the local area and, if possible, through a visit to another locality. Fieldwork contributes to learning about the outdoor environment, through children developing their knowledge and understanding in the environment and their sense of responsibility and a desire to care for - even improve - what is around them.

Children's personal geographies - individual to each child - can be compared, contrasted and brought together through collaboration to provide insight into the nature, variety and lives of the neighbourhoods and communities in a school's catchment area and beyond (Blundell, 2016) (Malone, 2018) (Nairn and Kraftl, 2016). This involves the consideration of resolutions for potential issues (linking with social, moral, spiritual and cultural (SMSC) education), and encourages articulation and expression through writing, debating and persuasion. Scientific and mathematical investigations contribute to understanding the physical environment when investigating the location and distribution of local flora in local stream, river or coastal studies, and in mapping patterns of housing and services. Learning that interconnects subjects gives greater meaning and significance to enquiries and, in presenting findings, subjects such as art and design are engaged through modelling, map-making and informative displays. Children can apply and adapt their developing subject understanding and skills to propose ideas and solutions to topics as diverse as conflicting proposals for local improvements, the need to provide additional energy sources nationally, and ways in which international fair trade may develop communities across the world. Through heir geographical studies, children develop autonomy and empowerment, applicable across their lives (Catling and Willy, 2018).

An important aspect of the primary geography curriculum is the development of children's spatial awareness in and about the environment. Studying locations, places and environments develops children's sense of place and space in the world at a range of scales. Studies of human and natural features and phenomena develop children's spatial awareness. They may examine the location and distribution of features, whether of local postboxes or of volcanoes globally, to notice and map their patterns, leading them to consider the reasons for and impacts of these and to ask further questions to investigate. Spatial learning is enhanced, for instance, through considering where other players are around them in a team sport such as netball or football. Children can observe where they and others are in a class or playground and look at how best to navigate their way around, considering the routes they might use, what obstacles may require detours and how they might describe the geography of these familiar places.

Maps are the 'tool' of the geographer - the medium through which geography is recorded, analysed and communicated. Developing the skills of decoding, interpreting, comprehending and analysing information and messages from maps is invaluable, not simply to understand where you are and find your way but to recognise the features and aspects of an urban, rural or wild area (Wiegand, 2016). Historical contexts can provide opportunities for good geography. Studying maps alongside descriptive texts and pictures about a battle involves recognising and appreciating the relief and state of the landscape where it was fought, how the armies were aligned on the battlefield and how they made use of the terrain for attack and defence. This is as important as understanding the politics of the time. Reading maps is one of the skills of graphicacy, which is about interpreting visual images such as pictures, graphs, sketches, charts, photographs and diagrams. It stands alongside oracy, literacy and numeracy (Boardman, 1983). Graphicacy skills enable children to demonstrate their understanding through non-text media, a vital skill that appeals to children in an increasingly visual age. Harnessing such skills alongside using maps helps children to understand what is happening in an area, tying together the past, the present and what may occur in the future.

Geography is well served by accessible graphic learning technologies. Google maps, OS maps and geographic information systems (GIS) motivate and enable children to delve into and enhance their understanding of places and environments, helping to develop their geographical awareness and articulate their geographical learning. Websites such as Google My Maps can enrich children's understanding of the world around them at all scales, engaging and encouraging their curiosity. Vujakovic (Vujakovic, 2016) explains how sites like Meaningful Maps enable children to articulate their sense of local place and understand their social and personal history through creating maps. Similarly, the use of green screens and virtual reality (VR) with simple Google Cardboard headsets opens the world to children and gives them a sense of places they may never visit but of which they can become aware and begin to appreciate. Lawrie (Lawrie, 2017) shows how such technology may be used with secondary children, and many of these examples can be adapted for primary schools.

Environmental geography fulfils children's desire to know more about their physical and human world and the interplay of those two for environmental management and sustainability. Children can begin to understand the potential of their role and the impact that they might have through their actions and interests, as primary geography takes them beyond their immediate world and what they currently know to deepen their environmental knowledge and nurture their stewardship of places (Nolet, 2016).

A pertinent topical illustration is our use and disposal of plastics. This can be the focus for an engaging geography-led enquiry, employing collaborative skills and fostering positive values. Plastics are invaluable in our modern lives, yet carelessness with them creates potential harm. Children could investigate what plastic is and why it is so widely used. In science, they can study materials as they examine the uses and distribution of plastic items and wrappings. Using maps, photographs and videos, children can build an understanding of plastic manufacture, its sources, its global distribution, the problem of its perceived 'throwaway' nature and its impact on natural and urban environments. Importantly, children can start to consider possible solutions, from reuse and safe recycling to ways in which they and their families can reduce their use of plastics, as well as looking into how they might replace it. Working together to share their findings, using oracy, literacy, numeracy and graphicacy skills, children can be encouraged to make creative and insightful proposals and decisions, connecting their studies with SMSC and citizenship, to explore how they may make a difference.

Primary geography curriculum making

To help children to understand their 'powerful' geographical knowledge - powerful because it helps to empower their lives (Catling and Martin, 2011) (Young et al., 2014) - we, their teachers, need to recognise and appreciate that we are incorporating and teaching geography in topics and to ensure that the children know that they are doing geography (Scoffham and Owens, 2017). Children can then meaningfully develop and deepen their understanding and application of geographical knowledge and skills. This is liberating for us as teachers and for children, and is the basis for good primary geography 'curriculum making' - creating geographical studies that have meaning and value for children.

Geography curriculum making is premised on teachers and children having agency in developing their geographical studies within subject or cross-curricular topics (Catling, 2013) (Catling and Willy, 2018). Teachers who are good at creating their geography curriculum use a wide variety of the subject's pedagogical repertoire. They listen to and are actively engaged as a 'critical friend' to children's perspectives and ideas, valuing and engaging with children's personal geographies. They provide an informed sense of direction in and for children's graphical studies, as the person with clarity about where their geographical learning needs to go - teachers hold the curriculum 'map' for their learning, provide the overview of its landscape, and discern and help their children select effective routes to realise their potential.

To be effective curriculum makers - providing rich, broad and balanced learning for children and opportunities for them to apply and adapt their learning for other subjects - we must be clear about just what geography is and why it is important to learn. Through active engagement in primary geography, children are enabled to learn not only about the world but also how it works, how it fits together and how to make a difference and become positive contributors to it.

References

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Geography at the heart of the primary curriculum

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In the primary curriculum, geography is referred to, unsurprisingly, as the 'umbrella' subject because of its capacity to make tangible and effective connections across subjects. Geography's fundamental role lies in helping children to understand the world, its environments and places near and far, and the processes that create and affect them.

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Our Kids World Travel Guide shall tell you about countries and people and will provide great tips and advice for your family holidays around the world.

See the World through Children's Eyes

In this world travel guide for kids the travel information for children was researched thoroughly by parents and children who love to travel.

What you will find on
Kids World Travel Guide

Why Kids World Travel Guide?

Children are naturally very curious about new countries and are excited to learn new things and always want to know more about the interesting places you can visit, the food you will taste or the activities you can enjoy abroad.

Children always want to know more than the usual facts about a country and here you will discover exciting travel facts and find some astonishing answers to kids questions like these:

Our kids guide will showcase the work of a large cohort of pupils and teachers in private and public schools and homeschoolers around the world. On the Kids World Travel Guide and KWTGNews platforms we share country guides, kids news, kids travel stories, kids interviews and kids travel experiences and so much more.

Win - win - win
Join our annual writing competition

On this Children's Travel Guide site you will also find many pictures about life in the different countries - taken by pupils and parents travelling the worlds as well as professional photographers.

To help visualise we have access to the Shutterstock photo stock platform. There are many photos of the wildlife, population, attractions, food, customs, festivals, holiday activities for kids as well as a kids world map and flags for children, many fun quizzes and travel trivia questions for kids, so let us know if you miss anything.

This family travel guide is based on a unique travel guide concept: This guide is written and maintained by children, parents and teachers for children, their parents and teachers.

Parents who want to prepare their kids and teenagers for travels anywhere in the world will find child-adequate information in our guide. And there is a big section on travel planning and travelling with children in it for the parents as well.

So travel around the world with us and have fun to explore the world with our

Kids World T﻿ravel Guide

Enjoy, join in and share!

Popular Pages

KidsWorldTravels is an education consultancy based in Cape Town/South Africa.

Competition 2023 closed

Watch this space
Competition 2024 will be announced in February

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Kids World Travel Guide | Geography for Kids | Travel Guide | Quizzes

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Learning about our world and travelling with Kids always is exciting! With our Kids World Travel Guide you will see our beautiful world through childrens eyes. By KidsWorldTravels Cape Town/South Africa

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Features School Trip Planning Advice for Educational Visits Coordinators
Chances are you are an EVC or party leader. You have been given responsibility for organising the school trip for year seven and you are wondering where on earth to begin. It couldn't be as simple as choosing a fun sounding venue and letting everyone know the date could it? No, unfortunately there is a bit more to it than that, especially for residential trips. This article deals specifically with day trips, and while the following is not exhaustive, it will hopefully give you some ideas for what you need to think about when it comes to planning your next school trip.

Educational Value

As a class teacher and Educational Visits Coordinator, one of the first things you need to do is justify the trip in terms of educational value. A day, half day or week out of the classroom is going to cost time and money, so it has to have an educational benefit to the children you are planning to take. Your planning should be aimed at getting the school trip proposal passed by your head teacher.

Consult the school policy and Local Education Authority guidelines for school outings. You may well find there is already a set procedure you need to work to. This should also help you research everything you need to get that head teacher to nod in approval.

The Cost

School budgets are tight so you will need to carefully work out the cost of transport and entry to the venue. Some venues are free for educational visits, but most will have a small cost to each pupil, and your chances of finding a coach operator willing to offer you free travel are about as likely as getting through the day without one of the children getting travel sick. Click for a selection of budget friendly trips

Cost is always a difficult one. For a lot of schools and LEAs, any contributions have to be voluntary, but without full payment from all parents, the trip may not be able to go ahead, so the letter you will send out to the children's parents has to be worded carefully, and try to point this out. You will always have a few parents who interpreted the words 'voluntary contribution' as meaning that they don't need to pay. Click for funding ideas or our new free trips for schools with a high pupil premium!

Risk Assessments

As an Educational Visits Coordinator, you will know that Risk assessments are a big part of any school visit. As the visit organizer you should complete any additional generic risk assessment forms that might apply, as well as a specific visit risk assessment to address any further issues relevant to the specific venue being visited. Completed risk assessments will probably have to be handed in to the office or head teacher. The purpose of the risk assessment is to highlight any hazards and control measures associated with general locations or activities. The best school trip locations will then offer you their own risk assessments, which will identify the specific risks and measures for their venue - all the venues we work with on this website will indicate where risk assessments are available!.

Getting assistance from the trip venue

Before the trip, you will need to liaise with the people at the place you are intending to visit, to make sure that they understood what you require and to check whether they can help deliver the learning experience you need for your class. They often have information for you to be aware of, and sometimes forms you will need to sign. Most of the better school trip venues will offer free inspection visits. A lot of venues these days have websites that give virtual tours, show lots of photographs, and describe what they do really well, but you may need to see a venue with your own eyes to know whether or not it is suitable for your trip.

Once you know where you are going, and what you are planning to do when you get there, you need to make notes, both for the guides or helpers, and for the children. Again, the best school trip venues will have worked with many school groups before yours. They will probably have a dedicated educational officer, and quite possibly the kinds of study materials that will help you plan your lessons.

Access

The SEN and Disability Act 2001 extended the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 (DDA) to cover education. Schools are required to ensure pupils with disabilities or special educational needs are not treated less favourably both in the classroom, and during extra curricular activities, including school trips. Ensuring reasonable access on school trips for pupils with disabilities should therefore form part of your planning strategy if your class or school group includes pupils covered by the act. Include in your risk assessments any pupils with disabilities so that reasonable adjustments can be made. You may need to provide disabled transport, or consult with specialist teaching assistants regarding care plans. And you should speak to the education officer at the venue to check that they have the appropriate disabled facilities or access.

Adult to Pupil Ratios

The ratio of adults to children is a very important consideration for school visits. The ratio will vary with age and with the activity being undertaken. Check those LEA school trip guidelines and make with the venue themselves. You may need to find volunteers to accompany you, perhaps even some parents if your school cannot spare enough members of staff to accompany the trip.

Eating

Food is another important consideration. Most parents will provide a packed lunch for their child, but a free packed lunch may need to be provided for the children on free school dinners so they need to be ordered in advance. Some venues may offer to provide lunches either as an additional cost or as part of the booking price, but most will make provision for an eating area, or a lunch break period if you are taking part in a guided tour. If the parents send them all with cans of fizzy pop, bags of crisp and various other e-number stuffed snacks, it may be better to plan the more intense learning parts of the trip into the morning.

Plan B

Here is one you may not have thought of. Contingency plans in case of poor weather, or any other unforeseen circumstances! If you are unfortunate enough to find a venue is suddenly closed for urgent repairs, or the weather is bad enough to make travel unwise, it will pay to have a back-up plan. It probably will not happen, but if it should, make sure you are prepared.

Prepare the children

Another thing to prepare before the trip takes place is the children. This may involve them doing some research, or learning something about the place you are visiting. Think about your own holidays. If you jet off to Rome without knowing the first thing about the place, you'll see lots of buildings in ruins. But if you do some reading before you travel, you will know what you want to look at, and you will know what you are looking at when you do get there. Prepare the children before the visit and they will get a lot more out of the trip.

Prepare the parents

After all the groundwork has been done, you have to write to parents, giving details and purpose of the trip. We said earlier that you were trying to convince the head teacher to agree to the trip, well you are also trying to convince the parents. This isn't always easy, especially if your school is in a rather less than prosperous area where the parents may not have the money to send their children on a school trip. Permission slips then have to be collected in, and a final date given for payment. Don't forget, you need written details from the parents of any medical information regarding their child. Also travel sickness information.

Parents need to be advised on how their children ought to be dressed: uniform or no uniform (depended where you are going); sturdy shoes for walking; hooded coat in case of rain, sunhat or cream. If you do not tell the parents to prepare their children, no doubt it will be your fault if they got sunburnt or soaked!

Advise them to pack lunches in disposable bags so that the children do not have to lug a huge bag around all day. And they had to be advised on what they could or couldn't bring, for example, sweets, spending money, cameras, etc.

It may seem obvious, and to most sensible parents it probably is, but if you do not spell it out for them, you will get girls turning up in flimsy, 'holiday clothes', strappy high-heeled sandals and no coat, and the boys with forty quid stuffed in their back pockets, back packs big enough to carry all the equipment for a major expedition up Mount Everest, and 'borrowing' their dad's camera!

--- Disclaimer ---
It isn't really possible to write a guide that will be suitable for every school. Each will have different needs and requirements. The above is intended to give a few ideas to teachers who are perhaps not so familiar with the task of school trip planning. Click here for more information about trip planning, or for national guidance, please visit: oeapng.info

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You have been given responsibility for organising the school trip for year seven and you are wondering where on earth to begin. It couldn't be as simple as choosing a fun sounding venue and letting everyone know the date could it?

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Variety of games, and homework help for children about mapping and geography.

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Boats and boating--Equipment and supplies

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KS2 Geography learning resources for adults, children, parents and teachers.

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1. The 2 main types of trips

1.1 Routine visits

These involve no more than an everyday level of risk, such as slips and trips and are covered by a school's current policies and procedures. They only need a little extra planning beyond the educational aspect of the trip. They can be considered as lessons in a different classroom.

1.2 Trips that need a risk assessment and extra planning

These are trips not covered by current policies. This could be due to things like:

the distance from school

the type of activity

the location

needing staff with specialist skills

Sometimes a school may just need to review its current plans or arrangements that were successful on previous trips. However, some trips will need risk assessments, detailed planning and informed approval of headteachers or governing boards. The person given the job of managing this should:

Plans should be proportionate and sensible, focusing on how to manage genuine risks.

2. When to get consent from parents

A school must always get written consent for nursery age children.

For children over nursery age, written consent is not needed for most trips, as they're part of the curriculum. However, it's good practice to tell parents about them.

Written consent is usually only needed for trips that:

need a higher level of risk assessment

are outside normal school hours

Ask parents to sign a copy of our consent form when their child enrols. This will cover them for their whole time at the school.

Schools should still tell parents about these trips and give them the opportunity to withdraw their child.

3. Using outside organisations

Schools using an outside organisation to provide an activity must check they have appropriate safety standards and liability insurance.

The Council for Learning Outside the Classroom ( LOtC) awards the Learning Outside the Classroom Quality Badge to organisations who meet nationally recognised standards.

If an organisation does not hold the badge, the school must check that they're an appropriate organisation to use. This could include checking:

their insurance

that they meet legal requirements

their health and safety and emergency policies

their risk assessments

control measures

their use of vehicles

staff competence

safeguarding

accommodation

any sub-contracting arrangements they have

that they have a licence where needed

The school should have an agreement with them that makes it clear what everyone is responsible for. This is especially important if they'll be taking over supervision of the children.

4. Adventure activities: caving, climbing, trekking, and watersports

These kind of activities should be identified and risk assessed as part of the visit beforehand. Staff managing or leading visits must not decide to add such activities during the trip.

Always consider the abilities of the children when assessing risk.

Organisations need a licence to provide some adventure activities. Organisations who hold the LOtC Quality Badge should hold a licence for the activity they provide.

Find out more about licensing on the Health and Safety Executive ( HSE) website.

Watersports

When planning watersports, consider the need for:

Schools should take particular care when using hotel swimming pools and other water leisure activities which may not have a trained lifeguard. Although there are no swimming pool specific health and safety laws, the Outdoor Education Advisers' Panel ( OEAP) provides advice when undertaking adventure specialist activities, including swimming.

5. Trips abroad

Trips abroad can have extra risks and need a higher level of risk assessment.

Schools should make sure any organisation that is providing activities holds the LOtC Quality badge or similar local accreditation.

The HSE does not cover incidents overseas. However, it can investigate work done in Britain to support the trip, like risk assessments. School staff could also be liable under civil law for any injuries to the children due to negligence.

If the trip includes significant risks, such as challenging terrain, going to remote places or extreme climates, follow the guide to the British Standard for adventurous activities outside the United Kingdom as the basis for the planning and risk assessment. Organisations employed by the school should follow this too. If they have LOtC Quality Badge then they follow this standard.

Schools should consider the Foreign and Commonwealth Office's detailed guidance on safer adventure travel and volunteering overseas when organising adventure visits abroad. A teachers' pack is also available.

6. Knowing what to do in an emergency

Schools should have an emergency response plan that covers what to do if there is an incident away from school. Schools should also have a communications plan that covers how routine communications should be handled, including regular check-ins and calls to reassure people.

Trip leaders should be familiar with these plans.

Schools can get advice on these plans from their outdoor activity adviser or the OEAP website.

7. Evaluating trips

Set up a clear process for evaluating all visits once they have been concluded from the planning through to the visit itself. Schools should keep a record of any incidents, accidents and near misses.

This will help the school:

evaluate whether its planning has worked

learn from any incidents which took place

8. Educational visits coordinators

Schools should appoint an educational visits coordinator and make sure they have the training they need. The headteacher has this duty if there is no coordinator. Local authorities or academy trust outdoor education advisers can advise on appointing and training coordinators.

The coordinator works with the local outdoor education adviser to help their colleagues in schools to assess and manage risks.

The coordinator should:

be an experienced visits leader

have the status to be able to guide the working practices of other staff

be confident in assessing the ability of other staff to lead visits

be confident in assessing outside activity providers

be able to advise headteachers and governors when they're approving trips

have access to training, advice and guidance

Coordinators can also get guidance on the OEAP website.

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These involve no more than an everyday level of risk, such as slips and trips and are covered by a school's current policies and procedures. They only need a little extra planning beyond the educational aspect of the trip. They can be considered as lessons in a different classroom.

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Accessibility, assistive technology and inclusive practice

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Between a rock and a hard place – making fieldwork accessible to disabled learners - Accessibility, assistive technology and inclusive practice

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Fieldwork is often the high point of a course but for many learners it is also most challenging, taking them beyond their comfort zones. Stepping up to – and overcoming – the challenges often contributes to the sense of personal achievement the learners gain. This is especially the case with disable…

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Health & Safety Tool for Planning Outdoor Learning

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Health & Safety Tool for Planning Outdoor Learning

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Interactive Risk Assessments for Primary Schools

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Interactive Risk Assessments for Primary Schools