# data[].attributes.body
Summary

The Berlin blockade was both ineffective and traumatizing. So, the Soviet Union had to lift it. The Berlin blockade was the first serious conflict of the Cold war. In short, after World War 2, the Soviets were scared that Germany would become powerful again and cause destruction like Hitler. So, they quickly tried to occupy it. They took East Germany and Berlin. Because of all the people leaving East Germany, the USSR imposed a blockade on all land and rail routes to the Western sectors. Basically, they outlawed all routes out of East Germany. This left more than 2 million people without resources and food. Starving and isolated from the rest of the world. The Western powers responded by imposing a huge airlift because the air routes were not forbidden. The airlift was nicknamed, Operation Vittles. It shipped more than 5000 tons per day of resources into East Berlin. This shows that the blockade did not isolate the East Germans because the Western powers kept on bringing in supplies from the air. Continuing->

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Race for the Superbomb | Article

The blockade of Berlin was the first serious crisis of the Cold War. By 1948, the Western allies began moving towards consolidating their occupation zones in Western Germany into a single independent German state. As part of that process, the U.S., France and Britain took steps to reform the currency in the parts of Germany they occupied, in order to promote economic recovery. The new currency, over which the Soviets would have no control, was also to become legal tender in the Western sectors of Berlin.

The USSR, which had been invaded twice by Germany, was alarmed at the prospect of a strong Germany. The Soviet leadership responded to the Western allies' currency reforms by installing their own new currency in East Berlin just 24 hours before the West mark was to go into circulation. They also imposed a blockade on West Berlin, cutting off all land and rail routes into the Western sectors. Lucius Clay, the military governor of the American zone of occupied Germany wrote: "When the order of the Soviet Military Administration to close all rail traffic from the western zones went into effect at 6:00AM on the morning of June 24, 1948, the three western sectors of Berlin, with a civilian population of about 2,500,000 people, became dependent on reserve stocks and airlift replacements. It was one of the most ruthless efforts in modern times to use mass starvation for political coercion... "

Initially the Soviet authorities thought the plan was working. "Our control and restrictive measures have dealt a strong blow at the prestige of the Americans and British in Germany. " The Soviet authorities reported. But the Western Allies responded immediately by mounting a tremendous airlift. Under the leadership of General Curtis LeMay, ten-ton capacity C-54s began supplying the city on July 1. By the fall the airlift, code-named "Operation Vittles "and often referred to as "LeMay's feed and coal company ," was bringing in an average of 5,000 tons of supplies a day.

Not only did the blockade turn out to be totally ineffective, it ended up backfiring on the Soviets in other ways. It provoked genuine fears of war in the West. And instead of preventing the establishment of an independent West Germany, it accelerated the Allies plans to set up the state. It also hastened the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, an American-Western European military alliance. In May 1949, Stalin had little choice but to lift the blockade.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Berlin Blockade | American Experience | PBS

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Race for the Superbomb | Article The blockade of Berlin was the first serious crisis of the Cold War. By 1948, the Western allies began moving towards consolidating their occupation zones in Western Germany into a single independent German state.

# data[].attributes.body
Summary

When WW2 was over, Germany was split into two zones by the United States, France, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union. The east of Germany was occupied by the Soviets, and the west was occupied by the other allies.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Two years after the construction of the Berlin Wall, President Kennedy paid a historic visit to Berlin to challenge Soviet oppression and offer hope to the people of the divided city.

At the end of World War II, the main Allied powers-the United States, France, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union-divided Germany into two zones.

The Soviet Union occupied East Germany and installed a rigidly controlled communist state. The other three Allies shared the occupation of West Germany and helped rebuild the country as a capitalist democracy. The City of Berlin, located 200 miles inside East Germany, was also divided. Half of the city-West Berlin-was actually part of West Germany.

Many East Germans did not want to live in a communist country and crossed into West Berlin, where they could either settle or find transportation to West Germany and beyond. By 1961, four million East Germans had moved west. This exodus illustrated East Germans' dissatisfaction with their way of life, and posed an economic threat as well, since East Germany was losing its workers.

A Summit with the Soviets

In June 1961, President John F. Kennedy traveled to Vienna, Austria, for a summit with Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev. Not only was the summit unsuccessful in its goal of building trust, but it also increased tensions between the two superpowers-particularly in discussions regarding the divided city of Berlin.

During the summit, Khrushchev threatened to cut off Allied access to West Berlin. Kennedy was startled by Khrushchev's combative style and tone and unsettled by the threat. In an address to the American people on July 25, President Kennedy announced that the United States might need to defend its rights in Berlin militarily:

So long as the communists insist that they are preparing to end by themselves unilaterally our rights in West Berlin and our commitments to its people, we must be prepared to defend those rights and those commitments. We will at times be ready to talk, if talk will help. But we must also be ready to resist with force, if force is used upon us. Either alone would fail. Together, they can serve the cause of freedom and peace.

President Kennedy ordered substantial increases in American intercontinental ballistic missile forces, added five new army divisions, and increased the nation's air power and military reserves.

The Berlin Wall

In the early morning hours of August 13, 1961, the people of East Berlin were awakened by the rumbling of heavy machinery barreling down their streets toward the line that divided the eastern and western parts of the city.

Groggy citizens looked on as work details began digging holes and jackhammering sidewalks, clearing the way for the barbed wire that would eventually be strung across the dividing line. Armed troops manned the crossing points between the two sides and, by morning, a ring of Soviet troops surrounded the city. Overnight, the freedom to pass between the two sections of Berlin ended.

Running across cemeteries and along canals, zigzagging through the city streets, the Berlin Wall was a chilling symbol of the Iron Curtain that divided all of Europe between communism and democracy. Berlin was at the heart of the Cold War.

In 1962, the Soviets and East Germans added a second barrier, about 100 yards behind the original wall, creating a tightly policed no man's land between the walls. After the wall went up, more than 260 people died attempting to flee to the West.

Though Kennedy chose not to challenge directly the Soviet Union's building of the Berlin Wall, he reluctantly resumed testing nuclear weapons in early 1962, following the lead of the Soviet Union.

"Let Them Come to Berlin"

In the summer of 1963, President Kennedy visited Berlin and was greeted by ecstatic crowds who showered his entourage with flowers, rice, and torn paper. In the Rudolph Wilde Platz, Kennedy gave one of his most memorable speeches to a rapt audience.

There are many people in the world who really don't understand, or say they don't, what is the great issue between the free world and the Communist world. Let them come to Berlin. There are some who say that communism is the wave of the future. Let them come to Berlin. And there are some who say in Europe and elsewhere we can work with the Communists. Let them come to Berlin. And there are even a few who say that it is true that communism is an evil system, but it permits us to make economic progress. Lass'sie nach Berlin kommen. Let them come to Berlin.

No other American politician had met with such joy and enthusiasm on a visit to Germany. Shortly after President Kennedy's death in November of 1963, the square where he had made his famous speech was renamed the John F. Kennedy Platz.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In the early morning hours of August 13, 1961, the people of Berlin were awakened by the rumbling of heavy machinery barreling down their street toward the line that divided the eastern and western parts of the city.

# data[].attributes.body
Continuing->

The Berlin blockade was also traumatizing. Since the East Germans were isolated from the rest of the world, they experienced multiple mental problems. "After decades of isolation and division fueled by ideological propaganda, East and West Berliners perceived each other as the group from "the other side." When the euphoria that followed the precipitous fall of the Wall faded, the impact caused by the physical, emotional, and ideological division became evident" This shows that the East Germans believed their lives were the opposite of the West Germans. They thought the other side of the wall was like a utopia because the conditions are better and they are not starving. "Berliners experienced emotional shock when they got separated from their families, lost their jobs, and ultimately lost their freedom. The division and isolation that Berliners experienced, created mental disorders that developed silently over a long period of time. " This part of the text, states the examples of mental disorders that the East Germans had and the causes for them. This shows that the Berlin blockade had a negative effect on the East Germans.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
This article argues that the Berlin Wall caused mental disorders rooted in the division and isolation it created, leading to a new psychological phenomenon called "The Wall in the Head". Berliners crossed the border to work and to meet with family, maintaining to a certain degree, a sense of normalcy in the occupied city. The sudden closing of the border between East and West Berlin brought emotional shock and the immediate separation of families. After decades of isolation and division fueled by ideological propaganda, East and West Berliners perceived each other as the group from "the other side." When the euphoria that followed the precipitous fall of the Wall faded, the impact caused by the physical, emotional, and ideological division became evident: The outer group mentality had not been automatically erased. The Berlin Wall was built and demolished but it left behind bricks to build a new wall. A wall that continues to divide the world: The Wall in the Head.

I am going to talk about a specific psychological phenomenon that went undetected during the existence of the Berlin Wall. When the Wall was built, Berliners experienced emotional shock when they got separated from their families, lost their jobs, and ultimately lost their freedom. The division and isolation that Berliners experienced, created mental disorders that developed silently over a long period of time. When the Wall came down and Berliners got reunited, it became evident that the separation had had a significant impact on their behavior. East and West Berliners had developed different identities. Even though the Wall no longer existed as a physical object, it continued to live in their minds.

November 9, 1989. The Berlin Wall falls. One of the most iconic moments in world history was the fall of the Berlin Wall. A turbulent and oppressive era was coming to an end. Could Berliners simply forget the Wall ever existed? Let's explore together an intriguing phenomenon that surfaced from Cold War Berlin. A psychological phenomenon known as: The Wall in the Head.

August 13, 1961 . A bright summer day in Berlin turned into a dark time for humanity. Berliners woke up to a divided city. In the middle of the night, The East German army began the construction of the Berlin Wall. Overnight, barbwire and East German soldiers encircled West Berlin, stunning East, and West Berliners alike. Families became instantly separated bringing suffering to the entire city.

When East Germans saw that the Wall was to there to keep them from fleeing to the West, they began to escape as the Wall was being built. The East German army used military tanks, soldiers, and dogs to stop escapees. Lethal force was used by the border guards.

As conditions in East Berlin worsened, Wall construction workers and border guards alike, deflected to the West. East Berliners who were not able to escape became increasingly isolated. Some parts of the city allowed for West Berliners to talk to their East Berlin friends. But soon, the East German government sealed the windows of all buildings on the border.

Family members attempted to see their relatives by peeking through holes on the wall, standing as high as possible to wave at each other, to celebrate a birthday or to see their children.

In the end, East Germany built a lethal border that would become known as the death strip where many would die attempting to escape. Look closely at the death strip, and take a moment to reflect: What would you do? Would you risk your life to become free? Or would you stay behind without freedom?

When people realized that the Wall was there to stay, they began to coexist with it. Adults started drinking, others embraced music, dancing, or art. When artists were no longer able to stand looking at the Wall, they began painting it. Children grew accustomed to seeing the Wall. It became a "normal" part of their lives and they began to see people on the "other side" as different.

How does Psychology fit into all of this?

There are multiple theories in Social Psychology that explain human behavior but I will discuss only some that apply to the Berlin experience: Social Identity Theory (us versus them attitude) , Realistic Conflict Theory (ingroup versus outgroup), and Classical Conditioning which was done with the use of divisive propaganda and the Wall.

How does Classical Conditioning Work?

There are three phases in Classical Conditioning illustrated in this example: Before Conditioning , the dog is exposed to tasty food, and it salivates. Then the dog is exposed to the sound of a bell by itself, and nothing happens. During Conditioning , the dog is exposed to both tasty food and the sound of the bell for an extended period of time. After Conditioning , when the dog is exposed to just the sound of the bell, it still salivates. At this point, the dog has learned to associate the sound of the bell with tasty food. The dog has been conditioned to "see" food in its head.

How does Classical Conditioning relate to the impact of the Berlin Wall on human behavior?

In the Berlin context the Wall is the visible object while the divisive propaganda represents the bell. The Wall by itself produced many forms of emotional pain. The East versus West propaganda by itself converted some people to socialism but not the entire population (The youth resented the lack of freedom.) But when the East German government used propaganda, and elaborate rituals to defend the existence of the Wall as a tool to "protect" the East German nation from the "evil West", many citizens believed the socialist State. After 28 years of propaganda and the physical presence of the Wall, East Germans believed the socialist narrative. When the Wall came down, their ideology did not come down. East and West Berliners continued to look at each other as "the other group." And while the physical Wall no longer existed, the attitude toward each other did not change. The Wall in the Head had been built.

In his 2011 film BEHIND THE WALL Michael Patrick Kelly interviews many Berliners who lived on both sides of the border, but I am going to mention only three. "BEHIND THE WALL tells the stories of ordinary people living on both sides of the Wall and what life was like for them before, during and after the Wall fell. All politics being local, who else but the people who experienced it could tell us what it was really like living there?" (Kelly, 2011).

In the film, Barbara Degner (first person from left to right) shares her experience as a kindergarten teacher married to an East German officer. She lived isolated and separated from her family. She suffered from loneliness, depression, and neglect from a husband whose priority was the military service, and not his family. She also shares her experience of crossing to West Berlin after the Wall fell, and her impression of seeing bananas, clementines, and other fruit for the first time. She entered a world she didn't know existed.

Hartmut Müller-Mitschke, an artist, (third person, left to right) tells the story about his mother leaving him behind in East Germany when he was a child, as she fled to the West. He reflects of growing up without knowing her, his loneliness, depression, and isolation. But when the Wall fell, he chose to remain in the East and to not see the West, so the experience wouldn't "shatter his dream."

Florian Havemann, a writer/artist, and former State Court Judge, (fifth person, left to right) tells us about experiencing constant East German propaganda defending the existence of the Wall. He tells about how he was turned into a believer of socialism, how he then developed thoughts of freedom, and how he escaped to the West inside a tanker truck. He tells about the fear, hopelessness and depression that he felt living in the East. When he realized that the image of socialism he believed in, was a false reality, he decided to escape.

While all the people that Kelly interviewed in his film talk about their adult experience of fear, hopelessness, depression, and isolation, many of them began that experience in their younger years. As children, the Wall became a normal part of their lives, seeing people from "the other side" as different became normal. Ultimately, seeing each other as the enemy, also became normal.This became evident when children played "border guards killing the other people."

Then, euphoria came on November 9, 1989 . The Wall fell unexpectedly. East and West Germans could now become ONE once again. Could they?

Even as the Wall was crumbling down, the division that had kept East and West Germans divided was visible, s ome East German soldiers kept "protecting" the East German State that no longer existed but that still existed in their heads.

Fast forward to 2009 Berlin. 2 decades after the fall of the Berlin Wall, residents used the former death strip in various ways. In this part of the city, Berliners decided to build a highway with a tall wall where the former Berlin Wall once stood. A reunited Berlin became divided once again.

Through the use of historical evidence, Social Psychology tools, and the stories of Berliners, we uncovered the causes of the severe psychological damage suffered by Est and West Berliners. Furthermore, we followed the gradual development of the two different German identities that were fueled by divisive propaganda. Evidence showed that after reunification, Germans continued to struggle with the invisible barrier built by the Berlin Wall.

The story of the Berlin Wall is not just a history lesson for all of us but an invitation to become better human beings. Understanding the Berlin experience will help us to find ways to become free from other invisible walls that exist in cases of depression, imprisonment, epidemic lockdowns, the workplace, and society in general.

We tore down the Berlin Wall. Let us tear down "The Wall in the Head."

Bach. (2016). The Berlin Wall after the Berlin Wall: Site into sight. Memory Studies, 9(1), 48-62. https://doi.org/10.1177/1750698015613972

Berlin Wall|View Description: West side of wall with graffiti; "dead zone" with tank traps and East Berlin beyond. (1961). Society of Architectural Historians Architecture Resources Archive (SAHARA).

Branscombe, & Baron, R. A. (2017). Social Psychology, Global Edition. Pearson Education UK.

Burt Glinn. (1961). BERLIN/ RUSSIA/ POLAND. GERMANY, BERLIN, 1961. Westerners waving across the wall while it is still low enough to see over.

Burt Glinn. (1961). BERLIN/ RUSSIA/ POLAND. GERMANY, BERLIN, 1961. Westerners waving across the wall while it is still low enough to see over.

Burt Glinn. (1961). BERLIN/ RUSSIA/ POLAND. GERMANY, WEST BERLIN,1961. Watching the beginning of the wall go up.

Burt Glinn. (1961). BERLIN/ RUSSIA/ POLAND. GERMANY, BERLIN, 1961. Westerners watching through a chink in the wall during its first days.

Burt Glinn. (1961). BERLIN/ RUSSIA/ POLAND. GERMANY, WEST BERLIN,1961. East German workman bricking up window that is to become part of the wall dividing the city.

Burt Glinn. (1961). BERLIN/ RUSSIA/ POLAND. GERMANY. West Berlin. 1961. Western lady talks to Eastern friend Who has the advantage of a still unblocked window in the beginning days of the erection of the wall. Two days later this window was bricked up.

Cartier-Bresson. (1962). Berlin Wall, West Germany. Museum of Fine Arts, Houston.

Gilles Peress. (1989). GERMANY. Berlin. Fall of Berlin wall. Throughout East Germany, tens of thousands of East Germans resumed marches, demanding free speech, free elections, and the abolition of the Communist Party's leading role in society. Many of the protesters demounced Egon Krenz, the Communist Party leader, as unfit to steer the country toward a more liberal and open society. In East Berlin the protesters marched to parliament, waving placards that called for free elections and the abolition of repressive secu.

Henri Cartier-Bresson. (1962). WEST GERMANY. 1962. The East German authorities (German Democratic Republic) authorised in 1961 the building of a wall separating the two sectors of the the city. WEST GERMANY. 1962. West Berlin. The Berlin wall.

Hofmann. (1969). West Berlin - The Isolated City in the Twentieth Century. Journal of Contemporary History, 4(3), 77-93.

Kelly, M. (Director). (2011). Behind The Wall [Video file]. MVD Entertainment Group. Retrieved April 17, 2022, from Kanopy.

Leonard Freed. (1965). GERMANY. The Berlin wall. The Berlin Wall was constructed by the East German government in August 1961 to halt the vast numbers of East Berliners defecting to the West and to prevent East Berliners from commuting to jobs in West Berlin, thus depleting the supply of labor in the East. In the last 28 years, 5.000 East Germans failed in their attempts. Another 5.000 managed to cross the wall ; 191 died in their attempts. Another 5.000 managed to cross safely . On November 9, the East German governm.

Leonard Freed. (1965). GERMANY. The Berlin wall. The Berlin Wall was constructed by the East German government in August 1961 to halt the vast numbers of East Berliners defecting to the West and to prevent East Berliners from commuting to jobs in West Berlin, thus depleting the supply of labor in the East. In the last 28 years, 5.000 East Germans failed in their attempts. Another 5.000 managed to cross the wall ; 191 died in their attempts. Another 5.000 managed to cross safely . On November 9, the East German governm.

Leonard Freed. (1965). GERMANY. The Berlin wall. The Berlin Wall was constructed by the East German government in August 1961 to halt the vast numbers of East Berliners defecting to the West and to prevent East Berliners from commuting to jobs in West Berlin, thus depleting the supply of labor in the East. In the last 28 years, 5.000 East Germans failed in their attempts. Another 5.000 managed to cross the wall ; 191 died in their attempts. Another 5.000 managed to cross safely . On November 9, the East German governm.

Leonard Freed. (1965). GERMANY. The Berlin wall. The Berlin Wall was constructed by the East German government in August 1961 to halt the vast numbers of East Berliners defecting to the West and to prevent East Berliners from commuting to jobs in West Berlin, thus depleting the supply of labor in the East. In the last 28 years, 5.000 East Germans failed in their attempts. Another 5.000 managed to cross the wall ; 191 died in their attempts. Another 5.000 managed to cross safely . On November 9, the East German governm.

Leonard Freed. (1965). GERMANY. The Berlin wall. The Berlin Wall was constructed by the East German government in August 1961 to halt the vast numbers of East Berliners defecting to the West and to prevent East Berliners from commuting to jobs in West Berlin, thus depleting the supply of labor in the East. In the last 28 years, 5.000 East Germans failed in their attempts. Another 5.000 managed to cross the wall ; 191 died in their attempts. Another 5.000 managed to cross safely . On November 9, the East German governm.

Leonard Freed. (1965). GERMANY. The Berlin wall. The Berlin Wall was constructed by the East German government in August 1961 to halt the vast numbers of East Berliners defecting to the West and to prevent East Berliners from commuting to jobs in West Berlin, thus depleting the supply of labor in the East. In the last 28 years, 5.000 East Germans failed in their attempts. Another 5.000 managed to cross the wall ; 191 died in their attempts. Another 5.000 managed to cross safely . On November 9, the East German governm.

Lemke. (1987). BERLIN WEST - BERLIN EAST A MIRROR OF THE GERMAN SEARCH FOR IDENTITY. German Politics and Society, 12, 3-11.

Leuenberger. (2006). Constructions of the Berlin Wall: How Material Culture Is Used in Psychological Theory. Social Problems (Berkeley, Calif.), 53(1), 18-37. https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2006.53.1.18

Mark Power. (1989). GERMANY. Berlin Wall. 1989. GERMANY. West Berlin. The Fall of the Berlin Wall. West Germans climb the Wall. November 10th 1989.

Piotr Malecki. (2009). A house situated in Treptow. It sits by the wall of a motorway that has been built along the no man's land of the former Berlin Wall. When the wall fell, the eastern neighbourhood of Treptow was united with the western side of Berlin at Rudow. Although now part of the same Germany, with the building of this motorway, they are now separated again.

Piotr Malecki. (2009). A girl cycles on her bike by the wall of a motorway in Rudow that has been built along the no man's land of the former Berlin Wall. When the wall fell, the western neighbourhood of Rudow was united with the eastern side of Berlin at Treptow. Although now part of the same Germany, with the building of this motorway, they are now separated again.

Thomas Hoepker. (1963). GERMANY. Berlin. Children at the Berlin Wall. GERMANY. Berlin. Children playing at the Berlin Wall in Berlin-Wedding. 1963.

Thomas Hoepker. (1963). GERMANY. Berlin. Children at the Berlin Wall. GERMANY. Berlin. 1963. Children playing at the Berlin Wall in Berlin Wedding.

Thomas Hoepker. (1963). GERMANY. Berlin. Children at the Berlin Wall. GERMANY. West Berlin. 1963. A man takes souvenir photos of his sons at the Berlin Wall near Bernauer Strasse. West-Berlin Wedding.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Wall in the Head: Impact of the Berlin Wall on Human Behavior

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
By Javier D'Carlo Garcia This article argues that the Berlin Wall caused mental disorders rooted in the division and isolation it created, leading to a new psychological phenomenon called "The Wall in the Head". Berliners crossed the border to work and to meet with family, maintaining to a certain d

# data[].attributes.body
Summary

Communism is like socialism, a political and economic theory of social organization which advocates that the means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a whole. Communism means a political theory that advocates for community ownership of all property, with the benefits distributed according to each person's needs. Socialism and Communism are practically the same because both of these governments believe that the people should have more power. it is said to be a more organized system. But, it is also viewed as oppressive. This also brings the main idea that Communism is doubtful. The Communist economy positions itself in opposition to liberal democracy and capitalism. It advocates a classless system in which the means of production are owned by the people and private property does not exist. It seems like a utopia to some people. But, this type of ruling might lead to poor economy, restrictions to rights, and political repression. This shows the good and bad sides of Communism. It is very alike to Socialism and is doubtful.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Which countries are communist?

communism, political and economic doctrine that aims to replace private property and a profit-based economy with public ownership and communal control of at least the major means of production (e.g., mines, mills, and factories) and the natural resources of a society. Communism is thus a form of socialism-a higher and more advanced form, according to its advocates. Exactly how communism differs from socialism has long been a matter of debate, but the distinction rests largely on the communists' adherence to the revolutionary socialism of Karl Marx.
(Read Leon Trotsky's 1926 Britannica essay on Lenin.)
Like most writers of the 19th century, Marx tended to use the terms communism and socialism interchangeably. In his Critique of the Gotha Programme (1875), however, Marx identified two phases of communism that would follow the predicted overthrow of capitalism: the first would be a transitional system in which the working class would control the government and economy yet still find it necessary to pay people according to how long, hard, or well they worked, and the second would be fully realized communism-a society without class divisions or government, in which the production and distribution of goods would be based upon the principle "From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs." Marx's followers, especially the Russian revolutionary Vladimir Ilich Lenin, took up this distinction.

In State and Revolution (1917), Lenin asserted that socialism corresponds to Marx's first phase of communist society and communism proper to the second. Lenin and the Bolshevik wing of the Russian Social-Democratic Workers' Party reinforced this distinction in 1918, the year after they seized power in Russia, by taking the name All- Russian Communist Party. Since then, communism has been largely, if not exclusively, identified with the form of political and economic organization developed in the Soviet Union and adopted subsequently in the People's Republic of China and other countries ruled by communist parties.

For much of the 20th century, in fact, about one-third of the world's population lived under communist regimes. These regimes were characterized by the rule of a single party that tolerated no opposition and little dissent. In place of a capitalist economy, in which individuals compete for profits, moreover, party leaders established a command economy in which the state controlled property and its bureaucrats determined wages, prices, and production goals. The inefficiency of these economies played a large part in the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, and the remaining communist countries (excepting North Korea) are now allowing greater economic competition while holding fast to one-party rule. Whether they will succeed in this endeavour remains to be seen. Succeed or fail, however, communism is clearly not the world-shaking force it was in the 20th century.

Historical background

Although the term communism did not come into use until the 1840s-it is derived from the Latin communis, meaning "shared" or "common"-visions of a society that may be considered communist appeared as long ago as the 4th century bce. In the ideal state described in Plato's , the governing class of guardians devotes itself to serving the interests of the whole community. Because private ownership of goods would corrupt their owners by encouraging selfishness, Plato argued, the guardians must live as a large family that shares common ownership not only of material goods but also of spouses and children.

Other early visions of communism drew their inspiration from religion. The first Christians practiced a simple kind of communism-as described in Acts 4:32-37, for example-both as a form of solidarity and as a way of renouncing worldly possessions. Similar motives later inspired the formation of monastic orders in which monks took vows of poverty and promised to share their few worldly goods with each other and with the poor. The English humanist Sir Thomas More extended this monastic communism in (1516), which describes an imaginary society in which money is abolished and people share meals, houses, and other goods in common.

Other fictional communistic utopias followed, notably City of the Sun (1623), by the Italian philosopher Tommaso Campanella, as did attempts to put communist ideas into practice. Perhaps the most noteworthy (if not notorious) of the latter was the theocracy of the Anabaptists in the Westphalian city of Münster (1534-35), which ended with the military capture of the city and the execution of its leaders. The English Civil Wars (1642-51) prompted the Diggers to advocate a kind of agrarian communism in which the Earth would be "a common treasury," as Gerrard Winstanley envisioned in The Law of Freedom (1652) and other works. The vision was not shared by the Protectorate led by Oliver Cromwell, which harshly suppressed the Diggers in 1650.

It was neither a religious upheaval nor a civil war but a technological and economic revolution-the Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and early 19th centuries-that provided the impetus and inspiration for modern communism. This revolution, which achieved great gains in economic productivity at the expense of an increasingly miserable working class, encouraged Marx to think that the class struggles that dominated history were leading inevitably to a society in which prosperity would be shared by all through common ownership of the means of production.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Communism | Definition, History, Varieties, & Facts

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Communism, political and economic doctrine that aims to replace private property and a profit-based economy with public ownership and communal control of at least the major means of production (e.g., mines, mills, and factories) and the natural resources of a society.

# data[].attributes.body
Summary

Poverty is a word to describe a person who is extremely poor. There are many people in this world who live in poverty and barley have any money to get by. Poverty increased greatly during COVID-19. Natural disasters can also cause poverty. Because of climate change, these storms happen more often, causing houses and other establishments to get destroyed. Poverty is an extreme issue and causes problems for many families. The easiest was to stop poverty is giving people jobs and employment, but it is still out of our control. This shows what poverty is and the things that cause it.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The World Bank Group's goals are to end extreme poverty and promote shared prosperity. This mission underpins our analytical, operational, and convening work in about 140 client countries.

For three decades, the number of people living in extreme poverty- defined as those who live on less than $2.15 per person per day at 2017 purchasing power parity-was declining. But the trend was interrupted in 2020, when poverty rose due to the disruption caused by the COVID-19 crisis. The number of people in extreme poverty rose by 70 million to more than 700 million people. The global extreme poverty rate reached 9.3 percent, up from 8.4 percent in 2019.

The world's poorest people bore the steepest costs of the pandemic. Their income losses were twice as high as the world's richest, and global inequality rose for the first time in decades. The poorest also faced large setbacks in health and education which, if left unaddressed by policy action, will have lasting consequences for their lifetime income prospects.

The recovery since then has been uneven. Rising food and energy prices-fueled in part by the war in Ukraine and by climate shocks and conflict-have hindered a swift recovery. By the end of 2022, as many as 685 million people could still be living in extreme poverty.

The recent setbacks took place when the speed of progress toward poverty reduction was already slowing, in tandem with subdued global economic growth.

The recent crises have pushed the world further off track from the global goal of ending extreme poverty by 2030. Given current trends, 574 million people-nearly 7 percent of the world's population-will still be living on less than $2.15 a day in 2030. And the challenge is made harder by the fact that extreme poverty is concentrated in parts of the world where it will be hardest to eradicate: in Sub-Saharan Africa, in conflict-affected areas, and in rural areas.

Last Updated: Nov 30, 2022

The COVID-19 pandemic dealt the biggest setback to global poverty in decades. The economic recovery has been uneven, affected by rising food and energy prices-due to the war in Ukraine and climate change, among other factors-and high indebtedness in many countries. In addition, extreme poverty is now more concentrated in places where it will be hardest to eradicate, including in conflict-affected and rural areas.

Strategies to reach the least well-off must be tailored to each country's context, considering the latest data and analysis, and the needs of the population. How the world responds to these major challenges today will have a direct bearing on whether the current reversals in global poverty reduction can be turned around.

The World Bank provides recommendations for a complementary two-track approach: responding effectively to the urgent crisis in the short run, while continuing to focus on foundational development problems, including conflict and climate change.
Closing the gaps between policy aspiration and attainment
Too often, there is a wide gap between policies as articulated and their attainment in practice-between what citizens rightfully expect, and what they experience daily. Policy aspirations can be laudable, but there is likely to be considerable variation in the extent to which they can be realized, and in which groups benefit from them. For example, at the local level, those who have the least influence in a community might not be able to access basic services. It is critical to forge implementation strategies that can rapidly and flexibly respond to close the gaps.
Enhancing learning, improving data
From information gathered in household surveys to pixels captured by satellite images, data can inform policies and spur economic activity, serving as a powerful weapon in the fight against poverty. More data is available today than ever before, yet its value is largely untapped. Data is also a double-edged sword, requiring a social contract that builds trust by protecting people against misuse and harm, and works toward equal access and representation.
Investing in preparedness and prevention
The COVID-19 pandemic demonstrated that years of progress in reducing poverty can quickly disappear when a crisis strikes. Prevention measures often have low political payoff, with little credit given for disasters averted. Over time, populations with no lived experience of calamity can become complacent, presuming that such risks have been eliminated or can readily be addressed if they happen. COVID-19, together with climate change and enduring conflicts, is reminding us of the importance of investing in preparedness and prevention measures comprehensively and proactively.
Expanding cooperation and coordination
Contributing to and maintaining public goods require extensive cooperation and coordination. This is crucial for promoting widespread learning and improving the data-driven foundations of policymaking. It is also important for forming a sense of shared solidarity during crises and ensuring that the difficult policy choices by officials are both trusted and trustworthy.

Overall, with more than 60 percent of the world's extreme poor living in middle-income countries, we cannot focus solely on low-income countries if we want to end extreme poverty. We need to focus on the poorest people, regardless of where they live, and work with countries at all income levels to invest in their well-being and their future.

The goal to end extreme poverty works hand in hand with the World Bank Group's goal to promote shared prosperity, focused on increasing income growth among the bottom 40 percent in every country. Boosting shared prosperity broadly translates into improving the welfare of the least well-off in each country and includes a strong emphasis on tackling persistent inequalities that keep people in poverty from generation to generation.

Our work at the World Bank Group is based on strong country-led programs to improve living conditions-to drive growth, raise median incomes, create jobs, fully incorporate women and young people into economies, address environmental and climate challenges, and support stronger, more stable economies for everyone.

We continue to work closely with countries to help them find the best ways to improve the lives of their least advantaged citizens.

Last Updated: Nov 30, 2022

The World Bank Group works to end poverty in several ways:

Funding projects that can have transformational impacts on communities.

Collecting and analyzing the critical data and evidence needed to target these programs to reach the poorest and most vulnerable.

Helping governments create more inclusive, effective policies that can benefit entire populations and lay the groundwork for prosperity for future generations.

Some examples:

Cambodia has achieved remarkable progress in reducing poverty and boosting shared prosperity, but key reforms are needed to sustain pro-poor growth. The World Bank is supporting Cambodia to help address the country's challenges of limited economic diversification, rapidly increasing urbanization, human capital deficiencies, and infrastructure gaps.

Mexico has experienced high income inequality and concentration of poverty in a few states. The World Bank Group has supported Mexico's efforts to develop a more inclusive, effective, and integrated social protection system including relaunching a conditional cash transfer program to help improve access to higher education and formal employment.

In one of India's poorest states, Bihar, a program financed by the World Bank has transformed livelihoods by mobilizing almost 10 million rural women into self-help groups and granting them access to finance and markets to start and expand their businesses.

A pilot program in Ecuador used text messages to relay information and encouragement to caregivers in an impoverished region of the country and saw a significant improvement in the nutrition and health of children.

Since 2007, a team of experts from the World Bank has been helping Kenya strengthen statistical capacity by reshaping its National Bureau of Statistics. With World Bank's support, the bureau implemented a range of surveys to update key indicators of official statistics and improved the data ecosystem. The project is funded by $50 million from the World Bank's International Development Association (IDA).

In-depth maps in countries such as Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Croatia, Republic of Serbia, and Vietnam show where economic diversity and gaps in services exist within a country. This, as part of the poverty assessment process, helps policymakers better target policies and programs to reach and benefit the poor.

Yemen's high malnutrition rates have drawn global attention, highlighting the impact the country's five-and-half-year civil war has had on its population. The Emergency Crisis Response Project gives pregnant women and women with children under the age of five money to buy food and teaches them about child nutrition. It has been able to reach more than 165,000 pregnant or lactating women and 175,000 children so far.

Conflict-affected communities in Mindanao are among the poorest in the Philippines, suffering from poor infrastructure and lack of basic services. The World Bank along with other partners have aimed to enhance access to services and economic opportunities and build social cohesion. These projects have help build water systems, community centers, sanitation facilities, access roads, post-harvest facilities, and farming and fishing equipment, benefiting 650,000 people in 284 villages in a decade.

An innovative series of rapid survey methodologies were pioneered in Somalia, one of the poorest countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. The surveys overcame significant security and implementation obstacles to yield the most comprehensive analysis of the welfare of the Somali people in decades and is now being used in other countries.

Last Updated: Nov 30, 2022

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Fighting poverty in all of its dimensions lies at the core of the World Bank's work. We work closely with governments to develop sound policies so that poor people can improve their livelihoods, and access social and infrastructure services and good jobs.

# data[].attributes.body
This helps you understand the book because it gives you background information for the conflict. You would need to know the background information and know entirely why this happened and how it did. This connects to the book because it is the reason Gail Halvorsen is in Germany in the first place. This also connects to the book because it is the conflict. Reading these articles before you read the book would be helpful. You should read these articles before you pick up the book.

# data[].attributes.body
This helps understand the book because it tells the tensions during the Cold war. It also gets into more detail about the Separation of Berlin. This connects to the book because it gets into a topic of post-war Germany. It gets into the causes for the conflicts and effects of it. This article would be helpful to read after chapter 2.

# data[].attributes.body
This helps understand the book because it shows the origins of the separation of Germany and Berlin. It also shows why the Western powers and people were so afraid of Communism. This caused tensions between the Communist countries and the ones that are against Communism. There are still Communist tensions today. This connects to the book because it shows why the East Germans did not want to be in a Communist country and left. This is the reason they blocked off the land and rail routes to other places. This is the reason for the tensions between the two governments. Finally, this is why the Air force tried to help East Germany. This would be helpful to read before you read the book or at the beginning in the introduction.

# data[].attributes.body
This helped me understand my book because many of the people in Berlin lived in poverty, and it helped me understand what they had to go through. Because of the war, people lost their homes and kids became orphans. This helps me understand how good of a deed this was. This source is helpful in chapter two because that's when they show the German orphans. It's when Gail Halvorsen offers them candy, so it shows how helpful this was to them. This connects to the book because many people in Berlin lived in poverty. It shows how they live and connects to the book because they were extremely poor. They couldn't even eat, which is why they dropped candy and other food items. This shows what the people in Berlin had to go through after the war.

# data[].attributes.body
In the video "Christmas at Peace (1945)", to gives information about how Christmas was after the war. Christmas was a peaceful time in Berlin, compared to everything else happening. In the video it says "in the toy factories, the wheels are turning again." This quote shows that despite the war, they are able to do this to make the kids happy. In the video, it shows people joyously opening presents, cooking meals, and singing. The people of Berlin are coming together for Christmas. At the beginning of the video, it showed a team of people working in toy factories and selling the toys to children. There were people selling stuff on the streets. It seemed like the Berlin's thought Christmas was a time to be happy.

# data[].attributes.body
In conclusion, we can see that in this video the people in Berlin seemed happy during Christmas. In the book, it says "On the afternoon of Christmas Eve, the German Youth Association and the US military threw several big parties for the kids of West Berlin and gave the candy away." This shows how this topic connects to my book. This helped me understand my book because it helps me see how happy the candy and other food made everyone, even after a war. This would be helpful in chapter four of the book.