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Microscopes are a common tool in biology as a lot of the things that we deal with in biology are too small to see with the naked eye. They are often used to study cells and smaller parts of cells. An example of them being used scientifically was with cell theory. We saw that cells divide through mitosis. It was originally an idea which then with microscopes was able to be called cell theory. 
Dissections are a common thing to do in biology as it helps us to understand how organisms work. It often involves cutting open an organism then observing many different things inside of the organism. For example if you cut open an animal’s stomach, you can observe its diet and use that to try to create a better environment for the animal, or even what other animals it eats to try to construct a food chain for that ecosystem. Another thing that dissections helped with was supporting evolution. Analyzing structures in an animal can let us see what other kinds of animals it could have possibly been related to through homologous structures.

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On the Origin of Species: This book, once condemned by the Catholic church, sought to explain the origin of species and humanity. This became the starting point of evolutionary theory, which explains that humanity and all species diverged through small changes over a long period of time. This was also the beginning of secular anthropology as it suggests a world without a divine benefactor, but rather a phenomenon of development through billions of years. Darwin’s work is now a focal point in biology and is the basis of many new discoveries and innovations in the field. 

Germ Theory: Developed by a myriad of scientists through the 14-17th century, it proposed that the transmission of pathogens causes disease, contrary to the dominant miasma theory at the time. Middle Eastern and Asian scholars had written about pathogens such as the physician Avicenna, but this theory was not popularized in the west until a German priest named Athanasius Kircher proved the existence of bacteria with a microscope.

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The study of living things. (bio=life, ology=study of)

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Cell biology, neurology, zoology, forensic sciences, molecular genetics, evolution 

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Homeostasis: The maintenance of a delicate equilibrium on a cellular and systemic scale to maintain proper functioning, Life: metabolism, responsiveness, reproduction, maintaining homeostasis, Form follows function: The structure of biological apparatus is subsequent to maximizing its purpose, Evolution: Through natural selection of randomly mutated genes, life diverges as it adapts to its environment. This suggests a common ancestor for all life, of which we are not aware of yet. Causality: Evolution, growth, speciation, etc. does not occur without a disturbance in the environment. Things are caused by things. 

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Bio chem, Chemical physics, Astro physics, nutritional biology, Human Biology,  

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Burret 
Burrets are used to accurately pur specific amounts of a given compound into another compound to help determine the concentration of unknowns substances 

PH Indicator 
Is a chemical compound that is used to determine the acidity or basicity of the solution visually.

Calorimeter 
A Calorimeter is a specific tool that is used to determine the specific amount of heat involved in a chemical or physical process 

Volumetric flask
A volumetric flask is used to take very accurate volumes of liquid materials but you shouldn’t heat it up because it is made out of glass and will break when it gets too hot.  
 

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Jobert Bunsen: Invented the Bunsen burner which is still being used in chemistry abs today as well as being an important contributor to the discovery and creation of the emission spectra 

Robert Openheimer: as well as making many contributions to the field of physics including the invention of the atomic bomb Robert Openheimer also paved the way to a important modern chemistry called quantum chemistry

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The Atomic Theory: John Dalton discovered the atomic theory in 1803. He created an experiment that consisted of oxygen mixed with 2 volumes of nitric oxide in a closed vessel structure over water. The experiment was able to prove all matter is made of particles, and explained conservation of mass along with other laws.   Boyle's law;  Robert Boyle discovered in 1662 that the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure of the gas. This discoveries by Robert boyle is still used today in the calculations of Ideal gasses which is used in many aspects of modern Chemistry 

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Chemistry is the study of diversity and complexity of the relationship between matter and energy. Inside of the study of chemistry 

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There are many different specializations that you can go into. The most common specializations are organic Chemistry, inorganic Chemistry, analytical chemistry, and chemical engineering.  

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Stoichiometry: This concept is used for measuring to reach a conclusion on the amount of a substance, from a chemical reaction. 

Matter: Matter is a key concept in chemistry since matter is made of particles and atoms. Matter can be in the form of a solid, liquid gas or be aqueous. 

Chemical bonds: Is the change from atoms and ions to molecules, which creates a chemical bond. Creating and forming new products based on the reactants. 

Acidity and basicity: The pH level of substances, and how they may react with other substances. The pH of substances is important when cooking, baking and experimenting. 

Atom: Atoms are molecules, the basic unit of a chemical element, the center of chemistry. Atoms make up humans, animals, everything. 

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Economic history, economic sociology, economic geography, economic anthropology, and political economy. 

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Charts - economics graphs, such as product market, land market, and capital market graphs depict relationships, datacetes, and shifts between variables in the economy. 

Graphs - economics utiliz graphs as models to visually represent relationships in connection in data, providing a concise, readable presentation of data. 

Mean - a mena is an average of past returns offered by a stock, fund, or community, used to predict future returns based on available data. 

Median - The median is a more accurate measure of income inequality, as it indicates that a country's middle class is not fully benefiting from economic growth. 

Mode- is the most frequently occurring value in a set, one of three measures of central tendencies, alongside mean and median.  

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Daniel Kahneman, a psychologist and economist, won the Nobel prize in economics in 2002 for his work on behavioral economics. His research focuses on how many people make decisions under uncertainty, challenging the ideas of purely rational decision making. Kahneman's discoveries highlighted cognitive bias that influence human behavior, reshaping our understanding of economics and decision making processes Edmund Phelps, a Nobel Prize-winning economist, is the head of the Center on Capitalism & Society at Columbia University, which conducts and promotes research on capitalism. He is recognized for his pioneering work on economic growth, inflation, unemployment, and business fluctuations. Phelps' current work focuses on the benefits and sources of a country's structural dynamism, including the enterprise and creativity of entrepreneurs, the skill of financiers in selecting and supporting the best projects, and the knowledge managers draw upon in evaluating and making use of new methods and products. He has been elected to membership in the National Academy of Sciences, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the Econometric Society. Phelps has six honorary doctorates and was named an honorary professor at Renmin University in Beijing in 2004.

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The Wealth of Nations, published by Adam Smith in 1776, summarizes some of the key advancements in classical economics. The "invisible hand" hypothesis, which provided the foundation for both domestic and global supply and demand in their early phases, and free trade were the main topics of his revelations.According to this theory, the market advances toward equilibrium in terms of price and production due to the opposing pressures of the sell-side and demand-side. Smith's research led to more effective and sensible pricing in the product markets based on supply and demand, which in turn helped to boost domestic commerce.Efficient market hypothesis 
Eugene Fama put forth the Efficient Market Hypothesis (EMH) in the 1960s, which holds that financial markets are efficient at reflecting all available information. Put differently, it asserts that all available information is already factored into asset values, hence rendering it unfeasible for investors to regularly beat the market through stock selection or market timing

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To comprehend individual markets, the overall economy and government policies, one must study supply and demand, perfect and imperfect competition taxation, international trade, price controls, monetary policy, exchange rates, interest rates, employment, and inflation. 

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 Econometrics , experimental economics, labour economics, industrial organization, internations economics, game theory, macroeconomics, behavioral economics, public policy, health economics, development economics, ecological economics.

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The key concepts of economics are the creation, use, and transfer of wealth. Scarcity relates to the limited quantity of resources that can be used for human consumption in economics, with finite resources supporting finite populations. Scarcity limits the use of scarce resources like cold oil, requiring sophisticated allocation methods.
Supply and demand - concept is crucial in economics, where supply refers to the number of goods and services available for consumers and demand represents the number of consumers willing to purchase. The law of supply states that as price increases, supply increases, and vice versa. 
Incentives - a consumer decision - making factor , can be intrinsic or extrinsic, originating from within or external rewards.
Trade- off and opportunity costs - a trade-off occurs when a decision leaves to choosing one option over another, with the opportunity cost representing the loss incurred by not selecting the other option. 
Economic systems - an economic system, like capitalism, consists of businesses, resources, capital goods, and labor owned by private entities. This social structure enables efficient production, resource allocation, and community exchange, maximizing production activity. 

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Franz Boas / Ruth Benedict / Margaret Mead / Zora Neale Hurston / Claude Levi-Strauss

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The discovery that humans actually spread from africa rather than asia. It was originally believed that humans first appeared in asia and spread to the rest of the globe, but Louis Leaky discovered human remains that proved we originated from africa. / Discovery of pompeii- ash covered pompeii after the eruption of mt. vesuvius. Due to the lack of moisture everything was well preserved- most of what we know about ancient Rome is due to pompeii. / Margret mead-studied gender roles in samoa and challenged western gender roles. She proved that gender roles are not fixed and vary across cultures. / Marcel Mauss- founder of french. Theorized that culture was also a system of beliefs and values and not just a set of practices

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The study of all aspects of humanity at all times. The study of human behavior, biology, cultures, societies and linguistics both past and present.

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Biological anthropology focuses on the non-cultural aspects of near-humans (primates) and humans. The doctrine studies genetic inheritance patterns, environmental stressors that might’ve led to certain evolutionary characteristics, and other evolutionary factors from early humans and non-human environments./ Cultural anthropology focuses on non-biological, cultural anthropologists concentrating their studies in societal aspects and political institutions present in cultures all over the world. Their study mainly focuses on contemporary societies./ Linguistic anthropology focuses on the study of language and communication as the years progress. The doctrine studies not only speech, but also non verbal communication./ Archaeology studies primarily ancient civilizations and has the objective of recovering evidence of them.

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Culture is arguably the main idea in anthropology, it refers to the shared knowledge, beliefs, customs , arts and institutions that define a particular society or group. Culture is learned symbolic shared integrated and constantly evolving / Evolution: Anthropologists study human evolution in the broadest sense studying anything from biological, cultural and social development, this includes understanding how our species developed physically. / Structure: Anthropologists examine the social structures within human societies, including family systems kinship networks political organizations and economic systems these structures shaped how individuals interact and how societies functioned / Function: Anthropologists look at how different cultural elements and social structures serve specific purposes within society the analysis of how these elements contribute to the overall well-being and survival of the group / Relativism this principle emphasizes the importance of understanding cultural phenomena within their own specific context avoiding ethnocentrism Anthropologists strive to see the world through the eyes of the people they study 

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Geological physics: involves the use of physics and mathematics to understand the history, structure and processes of Earth and other planets           Biophysics:  It explains various aspects and systems of the body from a physical and mathematical perspective. Examples are fluid dynamics of blood flow, gas physics of respiration, radiation in diagnostics/treatment and much more.                 

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Experimental Techniques: To gather data and test theoretical predictions, physics needs skills such as designing experiments, collecting and analysing data, and interpreting results.: Scientific because experiments test ideas, data collection gathers information, data analysis looks for patterns, and interpreting data draws conclusions, all essential steps to the scientific method.

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Galileo Galilei started the study of the stars called astronomy which led into the physic study of gravitational fields.

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Natural Sciences-physics                            Gravitational physics has Newton's law of gravitational energy states that all particles with masses attract each other. This can be calculated by the formula of Fg=G(Mm)/r2. This is Important because it explains why there is orbits and Gravity on earth. Optic physics has the electromagnetic spectrum which covers what we can see from red to blue and everything from inferred x-rays microwaves and radio waves all things we use in our daily lives from seeing.       

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Physics:Physics studies various natural phenomena, including the motion of objects, the behaviour of particles at the atomic and subatomic levels, the properties of waves and fields, the interactions of matter and energy, and the structure and evolution of the universe. It seeks to uncover the fundamental laws and principles governing these phenomena, such as Newton's laws of motion, Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism, and Einstein's theory of relativity.

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Physics: including behavioural neuroscience and biological, cognitive, developmental, health, neuro, biological, physiological, personality, school, sports, and clinical psychology.      

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Mechanics: This is the branch of physics dealing with the study of motion when subjected to forces or displacements, and the subsequent effects of the bodies on their environment.                               Thermal physics: Thermal physics is the combined study of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and kinetic theory of gasses.                                       Waves: A wave is a propagating dynamic disturbance (change from equilibrium) of one or more quantities. Energy production: Energy production refers to how much primary energy a country extracts from nature. Electricity and magnetism:                                Electricity is basically the presence and motion of charged particles. On the other hand, magnetism refers to the force which the magnets exert when they attract or repel each other.                 

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Political Sociology: Political sociology is a branch of sociology that explores the relationship between politics and society. It examines how power, authority, and governance are distributed and exercised within societies, as well as how political structures and processes impact social structures, institutions, and individual behaviour.             Sociology of Health and Medicine: This field investigates the social factors influencing health, illness, and healthcare systems. It overlaps with medical anthropology, public health, and health psychology. 

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Experiments: Seeks to establish a cause-effect relationship between two variables by testing a hypothesis.                                                        Surveys: To gather data from respondents by asking a series of questions about their opinions or human behaviour                                                                Field research: Gathering primary data from a natural environment without doing a lab experiment or dataTextual                                                  Analysis: Used to describe and interpret the characteristics of a recorded or visual data. The purpose is to describe the content, structure, and functions of the messages contained in texts. The two general categories of text are transcripts of communication and outputs of communication. Transcripts of communication are verbatim recordings, and outputs of communication are messages produced by communicators.

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Jürgen Habermas identified the tradition of critical theory and communication with human spheres, language to philosophy of religion, and epistemology.

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The explanation social behavior in a group dynamics where theres stages of contribution to compleat a task and stages to prevent the completion of goal. From creating a group, finding similarities, creating norms, doing the task, and separation.
The theory of social comparison this is looking at the people around us and comparing them to our lives this can be looking up to someone called upward social comparison this can be good to set goals but also make one feel bad comparing there status compared to said person. Lateral comparison is comparing yourself to the people around you to define success, failure, and equality. And downward comparison is looking at people who are below you and this boost your moral but this can be from low self-esteem

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Sociology:Sociology studies a wide range of human behaviors, including socialization, group dynamics, conformity, deviance, social stratification, prejudice, discrimination, and social movements. It examines how individuals are influenced by social norms, values, and institutions, and how these factors shape patterns of behavior and social interactions within society.

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Sociology: include social psychology; deviance; social inequality; medical sociology; and the study of the family, schools, gender roles, ethnic and racial groups, and social classes.

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Demography-  This is the statistical study of the human population, in particular their size and composition, and how they change through fertility (births), migration, aging, and mortality (deaths).  Class system- The class system is a system of stratification of society on the basis of education, property, business/work etc.                               Social patterns- These consist of forms of social actions that are repeated and have some probability of recurring again                                            Majority- A social majority refers to the group with the greatest power in a particular place.      Minority- This refers to any group of people who, because of their physical or cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in the society in which they live for differential and unequal treatment, and who therefore regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination.

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Mann Whitney U Test- clinical trial - The Mann Whitney test is a statistical test used to identify comparisons between two independent groups. Used when the data is not normally distributed .                                                                 Case studies: Are considered scientific due to the systematic approach and rigorous analysis of individual cases. They require in-depth observations and they accumulate various types of data such as interviews, observations and psychological testing. This allows us to delve into complex phenomena that may not easily be studied through other methods.            

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Sigmund Freud(1856-1939):The founder of psychoanalysis which led to the predominant theories about the conscious and unconscious minds have heavily influenced the entire discipline of psychology. Also his model of the psyche divided into the id, ego, and superego has vastly shaped our understanding and interpretation of the human mind.                                      Daniel Kahneman: He is known for his exquisite work on the psychology of judgement and decision making, along with behavioural economics. Kahneman, alongside Amos Trversky, created The Prospect Theory, which evaluates and examines how people make their decisions in perilous or uncertain instances. Their theory contradicted the unaltered rational-agent model in economics, which brought forth the concept of loss aversion and the endowment effect.  

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Working Memory Model: This is a model used to understand memory, using a system of connections in the brain. Gives information on Memory is directly correlated to the amygdala in the brain, and flashbulb memories aren't so reliable,Piaget’s Schema theory: A theory that tells us about how we organize knowledge in our minds, designing mental frameworks or concepts to help us arrange and understand information, as well as, the world around us.

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Psychology studies the mind, the psyche and behaviour.. It focuses on what people are involved in, and psychologists are active in studying and interpreting human behaviour, mental processes and brain functions

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Social psych, Forensic psych, Developmental psych.

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Cognitive: Focuses on the mental processes within the brain like memory and language.             Behavioral: relates to how humans behave in certain systems. School business society. Connects with Anthropology in the idea of human society.                        Humanistic: looks at the entire human person and discusses free will, self-efficiency and self actualization                                            Psychodynamic:Focuses on unconscious thinking within the mind                                                   Biological: studies the relationship between the body and the brain. Biology focuses on the nervous system, hormones, and genetics.                

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Disciplines that overlap with earth science are chemistry, biology, and atmospheric science.

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Inferences are made about the natural world, such as the theory of plate tectonics. Experiments are also used to analyze natural phenomena, such as analysis of climate data to infer the change of our climate. The study of many geological processes is done through models and spectrographs, such as the molten rock in our earth and earthquakes.

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 James Hutton (1726 - 1797):
"Father of Modern Geology," He was the founder of the theory that earth's oceans, mountains and valleys were formed over long periods of time, that the earth is continually being formed. He is also an accredited geologist, discovering the basics of sedimentation, as well as igneous rock, but he wasn't focused on studying them.

Eunice Newton Foote (1819 - 1888):
She first theorized that gasses heat up when exposed to sunrise, and rise to the atmosphere, contributing to warming the atmosphere, now known as the greenhouse effect. She was the only American woman to have a paper published ( 2 physics papers) until 1889. Her work was the founding theories of the guy (joseph Fourier) who fully defined the greenhouse affect. 

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Climate change:
An obvious world changing discovery made by discovering the earth's systems. The discovery of the greenhouse effect, and how humans actions are adding to it and how our actions are having devastating effects on the earth. The original discovery of the greenhouse effect led to the discovery of ocean acidification, changes in the conveyor belt, migration patterns of the biosphere, and many more changes in the environmental systems.

Continental drift theory:
The theory that major land masses had been “floating” around the earth and hitting each other. Over time, the continents move and shift positions, resulting in changing the earth's terrain. Another key idea is that there was once a supercontinent, called Pangea, that was once a mass of all the continents. 

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Earth science attempts to explain the natural phenomenon and behaviors of the planet, by investigating and categorizing various parts of the earth's natural processes. The scope of this study is limited to just our planet, study of things outside the planet is considered outside of the scope of earth science. Earth science was created specifically explain our planet.

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Biosphere, . The biological category of living organisms from eukaryote to prokaryote creatures. 
hydrosphere, The hydrosphere is the entirety of the water load on earth. it has been present for over 4 billion years yet continues to develop. it includes the system and rotation of water in all of its states of matter. 
the atmosphere is the final layer outside all planets and some stars. It consists of gas that is being held within the layer.
Cryosphere  include the large mass of ice sheets and frozen deserts found far north, and south of the earth. this is important as up to %70 of the world's water is in the form of ice or snow.  
Geosphere includes the solid parts of the earth. Fossils are also part of the geosphere. Crucial concepts are the tectonic plates movements, soil formation, resource explanation.