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George Washington (April 1789 - March 1797)

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George Washington (April 1789 - March 1797)

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Foreign Policy Event: On April 22, 1793, Washington proclaimed American neutrality in regards to the war in Europe between Great Britain and France. Neutrality became a mark of Washington as in his farewell address he advised America to stay neutral in foreign affairs.

Domestic Policy Event: The 1790 Indian Intercourse Act let the government have control of all Native American actions. This ensured that the federal government, and not the states could purchase land, regulate trade or travel in their specific land.

Internal Conflict: Whiskey Rebellion - America was deep in debt, so to solve this, in 1791, Congress approved a bill to tax whiskey. This infuriated farmers as they felt it was unfair against them. Protests ensued and got increasingly more violent. Washington tried to stop the rebellious protestors with a proclamation but to no avail. He invoked the Militia Act of 1972 which brought thousands of troops to arrest rebels and settle the rebellion.

Political Event: Jefferson and Hamilton, Washington cabinet advisors, debated over wether the United States should have a national bank. Washington agreed with Hamilton, that it was necessary and proper to create a bank to benefit the country. The bank was chartered by the federal government, but privately owned.

https://www.fortbendisd.com/cms/lib/TX01917858/Centricity/Domain/9978/Washington%20Stations%20Documents.pdf

https://guides.loc.gov/this-month-in-business-history/august/whiskey-rebellion#:~:text=Approximately%2013%2C000%20militiamen%20from%20surrounding,treason%20and%20then%20later%20pardoned.

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Foreign Policy Event: XYZ Affair - The Quasi War from 1796-1800 was an undeclared war between France and the United States. This "war" was due to the fact that France and Britain were still actively fighting and France said that any ships/vessels containing British goods were another target for France. Because America traded with Britain often, and France called off it's 1778 treaty with the US, hundreds of American ships were seized by the French. In response, the United States built up their navy.

Domestic Policy Event: Alien and Sedition Acts- These acts created in 1798 were implemented to restrict the political opponent (Democratic-Republicans). The Alien Acts gave the president the power to deport aliens and detain any he wanted to in times of war. This helped restrict Democratic Republicans because most immigrants tended to vote that way. The Sedition Act made it illegal for newspapers to criticize the president or Congress, and if they did the punishment was imprisonment or they would be fined.

Internal Conflict: Fries Rebellion in 1799- As an effect of the XYZ affair, Congress needed money so they enforced property taxes. This infuriated many farmers in Pennsylvania, and under the leadership of John Fries, hundreds of farmers took up arms. Adams sent in militia to settle the rebellion as farmers were arrested, including Fries who was tried and sentenced to hanging (but was later pardoned).

Political Event: The Eleventh amendment became fully ratified and adopted into the Constitution on January 8, 1798, with a message from Adams to Congress of it's adoption. This amendment protects the states from lawsuits filed by citizens of other states or countries.

https://millercenter.org/president/adams/domestic-affairs

https://www.britannica.com/event/Friess-Rebellion

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-ushistory1/chapter/foreign-relations-in-the-early-republic/

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Thomas Jefferson (March 1801 - March 1809)

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Thomas Jefferson (March 1801 - March 1809)

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Foreign Policy Event: The Louisiana Territory- Jefferson originally sent ministers up to France with $10 million to offer for New Orleans and a strip of land off of it because of the need they had for the use of the Mississippi River. Because France needed money from being in war, they offered the whole Louisiana territory for only $15 million. Because it was such a shocking and amazing deal, the American ministers did beyond what they were instructed to do and purchased the land. Doing so caused a slight constitutional issue, as it was never stated that a President could purchase land, but the senate ratified the purchase anyway. This purchase more than doubled the size of the US and increased support for Jefferson.

Domestic Policy Event: The Lewis And Clark Expedition- Captain Meriwether Lewis and Lieutenant William Clark set out from Saint Louis, Missouri in 1804 to explore the west; over the rockies, to Oregon and the pacific ocean and completed their expedition in 1806. This journey helped map out America, create a better relationship with Native Americans and strengthen the U.S claims on the Oregon Territory.

Internal Conflict: Jefferson's vice president Aaron Burr killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel after being offended by and insulting remark that Hamilton made and challenging him in a duel. This was crushing for Federalists, as they lost their last great leader and caused hatred to Burr.

Political Event: John Marshall was appointed as chief justice of the Supreme court at the end of Adam's presidency but had a strong influence throughout Jeffersons presidency. He made many decisions in cases that showed the relationship between states and the central government. For example, the case of Marbury and Madison in 1803 established the principle of judicial review.

caldwellschools.com/cms/lib/NC01811136/Centricity/Domain/397/PERIOD%20FOUR%20PRESIDENTS.pdf

AMSCO United States History Book

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Foreign Policy Event: Britain was still abusing American seaman and that combined with pressure from Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun, Madison asked Congress to declare war on Britain on June 1st, 1812. The nation was still young and vulnerable, not prepared for war, but came out victorious at the battle in New Orleans. The worst Britain did was set fire to the White House. This victory caused a huge increase in nationalism throughout the U.S.

Domestic Policy Event: The re-chartering of the US bank. The bank was scheduled to be rechartered in 1812, but because of the opposition met at this decision, it was not rechartered. This posed an issue when the US went into war with Britain as they had no means to finance the war. To solve this issue, Madison rechartered the bank in 1816 with a 20 year limit on it.

Internal Conflict: On July 27, 1814, The Battle of the Burnt Corn was fought in what is now Mississippi. It was conflict between the Creek Indians and the United States. This battle led to the Creek War.

Economic Event: On April 15, 1812, Louisiana was officially admitted into the United States becoming the 18th state.

https://millercenter.org/president/james-madison/key-events

whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/james-madison/#:~:text=During%20the%20first%20year%20of,trade%20with%20the%20other%20nation.

https://millercenter.org/president/madison/domestic-affairs

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Foreign Policy Event: The 1823 Monroe Doctrine depicted American Foreign Policy. The three main parts of the doctrine were the separation of the sphere of influence between the US and Europe, non-colonization and non- intervention. This doctrine established a definite split between America and Europe and became the United States Foreign Policy position.

Domestic Policy Event: The Missouri Compromise (enacted March 2, 1820)- The growth of the United States through the expansion of the west raised the question- Should slavery be legal in these new states? The Missouri compromise admitted Missouri in as a slave state and Maine in as a free state. It also prohibited slavery in the land north of the 36 parallel.

Economic Event: The Panic of 1819- The end of the wars in Europe caused European countries not to depend on American production as much. This combined with credit debt caused a failure in the banks across states and in the national bank. This was the first nationwide, authentic financial crisis in the United States that lead to a collapse in the economy.

Social Event: The era of Good Feelings described the time of Monroes presidency from 1816-1819, the time after the war but before the Panic of 1819. This time was called the era of good feelings because the nation was filled with nationalism, optimism, goodwill, unity and harmony. This came from the joy of winning the war or 1812, and the politically peaceful domination of the Democratic-Republican party.

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1801-1829/monroe#:~:text=The%20three%20main%20concepts%20of,the%20autocratic%20realm%20of%20Europe.

https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=3531#:~:text=In%201819%20a%20financial%20panic,agricultural%20prices%20fell%20by%20half.

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John Quincy Adams (March 1825 - March 1829)

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John Quincy Adams (March 1825 - March 1829)

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Foreign Policy Event: The Eerie Canal was finished during the presidency of Adams. This canal connected between the East coast and the Great lakes. This enabled the flow of grain, whiskey and other farm products to the east coast.

Domestic Policy Event: In 1828, Adams proposed the idea of connecting roads to create highways and canals. In 1828, he development the 185-mile C&0 canal.

Artistic Event: Adams wanted to develop America's arts. To do this he established a national university, financed scientific exploring and created observatories.

Political Event: Adams appointed Henry Clay as the secretary of state. This was met with a lot of opposition as supporters of Andrew Jackson (the man running against Adams) thought that Clay and Adams were apart of a corrupt bargain, because Clay helped Adams win presidency by supporting him in the election.

https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/john-quincy-adams/

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Andrew Jackson (March 1829 - March 1837)

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Andrew Jackson (March 1829 - March 1837)

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Foreign Policy Event: In 1835, emigrants to what is now Texas, revolted against Mexico (which was whose land they were in). This revolt was led by Sam Houston and was very successful as these emigrants then declared their independence. President Jackson decided not to recognize Texas or annex because there was no prior approval within Congress for this takeover of Mexican land.

Domestic Policy Event: As Americans moved westward, Native Americans became a roadblock. President Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act of May 28, 1830. This act forced established Native Americans out of their homes pushing them more and more west. He also enacted the "Trail of Tears"(from the 1830s-50s) which forced the Cherokee Natives out of their home.

Social Event: The Market Revolution- American society developed transportation and technology advanced consumerism. People had access to get more things faster. This caused an upward shift in the economy as more money was being spent and goods produced. This shifted American culture and the workforce to factory work and began the bargain for wages. It caused a shift in the roles of women and the population grew. Most importantly, this was a rise of capitalism.

Religious Movement: The Second Great Awakening- these religious revivals spread throughout the country. This included the revival of the Puritan teachings and new developments in Christianity. It began among the more highly educated people like Timothy Dwight and spread to young men pushing them to become evangelists. New denominations of religions spread like Baptist, Methodists, and Mormons.

AMSCO Advanced Placement Edition United States History

https://millercenter.org/president/jackson/foreign-affairs#:~:text=In%201835%2C%20American%20emigrants%20to,republic%20without%20prior%20congressional%20approval.

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Martin Van Buren (March 1837 - March 1841)

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Martin Van Buren (March 1837 - March 1841)

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Foreign Policy Event: The Caroline Affair- On December 28, 1837, British-Canadian militia attacked an American boat that was in the Niagara waters on the Canadian side because it had supplies for British-Canadian rebels. The ship was set on fire and an American was killed. To retaliate, a group of Americans attacked a British ship in American waters, and Americans desired war to be declared. This incident established "anticipatory self-defense", which gave people the right to fight back if in immediate, threatening danger.

Domestic Policy Event: Panic of 1837- banks started to close after Jacksons decision to not recharter the national bank.

Economic Event: Van Buren decides not to annex Texas, just like Jackson before him. He does this to keep peace between Mexico and to avoid debate/issues about slavery and if it should exist there.

Social Event: Status of African Americans- Slavery was still a very common and highly used practice. Van Buren himself owned at least one slave even though he publicly said it was morally wrong and evil. During the 1830s the south still profited off of slaves, and their economy revolved around them. Abolitionism in the north continued to grow, and by the 1840s, American Antislavery Society had over 250,000 members.

https://millercenter.org/president/vanburen/the-american-franchise

https://millercenter.org/president/martin-van-buren/key-events

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroline_affair

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William Henry Harrison (March 1841 - April 1841)

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William Henry Harrison (March 1841 - April 1841)

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Foreign Policy Event: He only served for 32 days, so he had no foreign policy events. In his inaugurations speech, he hinted at a strong defensive country with limited government influence.

Domestic Policy Event: While governor, He signed multiple treaties with Native Americans. For example the Treaty of Fort Wayne of 1809. This treaty gave the U.S millions of acres of land.

Political Event: His 1840 campaign was very enticing to Americans at the time. The newly formed Whig party used Harrison as their first Presidential candidate. Their campaign was interactive with the people, using songs, slogans, and advertisements. Harrison also gave out free hard cider.

Social Event: Harrison's presidency was very short lived. He came into presidency as the oldest yet, being 68 years old. He caught a cold, most likely pneumonia, and died 32 days after being inaugurated. His son, Benjamin Harrison, took office years after him.

https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/foreign-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/harrison/life-in-brief#:~:text=For%20example%2C%20when%20Harrison%20signed,acres%20to%20the%20United%20States.

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Foreign Policy Event: In Tyler's 1842 message to congress, he issued a statement defending the Hawaiian islands and letting Europe know that if they tried to take them, or interfere, it would be seen as a hostile act. This extended the Monroe doctrine to Hawaii and became known as the Tyler Doctrine.

Domestic Policy Event: Tyler had a strong desire to annex Texas into a state of the U.S. He himself was pro-slavery and he wanted to form a new political party by annexing Texas. After battling with Congress his whole presidency, he was able to sign the Texas statehood bill into law on March 1st, 1845, just 3 days before the ending of his presidency.

Political Event: Tyler was hated by all of Congress, even by his own political party. He didn't recharter the bank, vetoed many bills of congress, disagreed on tariff issues and most importantly, told Henry Clay that he would be more responsible/in charge/ powerful than Congress. This was all highly offensive to the Whig party and so they kicked him out. Almost all the cabinet also resigned. Congress even thought to impeach him, but it never fully went through.

Economic Event: Oregon was split up between Spain, Britain and America. So few Spanish and British people occupied the land though. As Americans continued to move westward, so did they move into parts of Oregon that didn't belong to the US. By the election of 1844, many American's believed it was part of their Manifest Destiny to annex all of Oregon.

https://millercenter.org/president/tyler/domestic-affairs

https://www.lawfaremedia.org/article/tyler-doctrine-and-war-powers

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Foreign Policy Event: The Mexican-American war was fought in the U.S from April 1846 to February 1848. In April 1846, Mexican troops crossed the Rio Grande and killed 11 U.S soldiers. So Polk requested war be declared, and so by May they were in war. The United States were victorious and they ended up gaining more than 500,000 square miles of Mexican land west of the Rio Grande.

Domestic Policy Event: The Wilmont Provisio was an amendment created by congressman David Wilmont. This provisio banned slavery in all the land acquired from Mexico. It ultimately failed because the senate was equal divided between pro-slavery and anti-slavery states, so their wasn't a majority decision able to be made.

Economic Event: Manifest Destiny- This was a phrase that represented the westward expansion in the 19th century. It was the belief that Americans were destined to expand westward. Polk pushed this idea and gave the U.S permission to do whatever they need to conquer lands.

Religious Event: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

https://millercenter.org/president/polk/domestic-affairs

https://millercenter.org/president/james-k-polk/key-events

https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=3269#:~:text=Congressman%20David%20Wilmot%2C%20a%20Pennsylvania,any%20territory%20acquired%20from%20Mexico.

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Foreign Policy Event: The Clayton Bulwer Treaty- this treaty said that any port/canal connecting the Atlantic to the pacific would be open to the British and American ships and would not be fortified.

Domestic Policy Event: Slavery was a huge issue during Taylors short lived presidency. The Compromise of 1850 was created on May 1st, 1850 to keep tension on the issue of slavery down. This compromise admitted California as a free state, the Fugitive Slave Act was amended and the slave trade in Washington, D.C., was abolished.

Economic Event: The California Gold Rush was from 1848-1855. Gold was found by James W. Marshall at Sutter's Mill in Coloma, California, and this finding brought around 300,000 settlers to California all in hope of finding gold.

Political Event: Taylors presidency came to an abrupt end on July 9, 1850 when he got sick and died. He only served in office for a little over a year. His vice president, Millard Fillmore became president following his death.

https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/presidents-taylor/#:~:text=Foreign%20Affairs,and%20would%20not%20be%20fortified.

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Millard Fillmore (July 1850 - March 1853)

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Millard Fillmore (July 1850 - March 1853)

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Foreign Policy Event: Millard Fillmore authorized Matthew Perry's expedition to Japan. On July 8, 1853, Perry took four ships and went to Japan to try to establish a friendship and trade with Japan. This would be the first time Japan worked with the western world. In 1854, he signed the Treaty of Kanagawa which opened up trade between the U.S and Japan.

Domestic Policy Event: The passage of the Compromise of 1850 defined Fillmore's Domestic Policy. The passage of this compromise admitted California as a free state, strengthened the Fugitive Slave Act and introduced popular sovereignty in new territories.

Social Event: On October 24, 1850, a national women's rights conference is held in Massachusetts. It is attended by delegates from 9 states. This convention attracts hundreds of people as they discuss employment, educational rights, political rights, rights after marriage and legal rights.

Literary Event: On June 5, 1851, Uncle Toms cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe was published. This book sold over 300,000 copies as people around the world read it. It supported abolitionism and showed the evils of slavery. Later, Abe Lincoln called the author "the little lady who caused the civil war" because of how influential and controversial the book was.

https://millercenter.org/president/millard-fillmore/key-events

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Franklin Pierce (March 1853 - March 1857)

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Franklin Pierce (March 1853 - March 1857)

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Foreign Policy Event: The Gadsden Purchase of 1854- This was an agreement between the U.S and Mexico where the US bought a portion of land (29,670 sq miles) for $10 million. That land became part of what is now New Mexico and Arizona. The purpose of buying this land however, was so that the U.S could build a railroad through it, into California.

Domestic Policy Event: The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854. This act repealed the Missouri compromise as it added two new states into the country & it allowed for popular sovereignty. The effects were incredible. Bleeding Kansas occurred, which was a violent uprise based off of pro and anti slavery people flooding the state to sway the vote.

Political Event: The party of Native Americans was previously called the know-nothing party, but on June 5, 1855, they switched their name to the American Party.

Social Event: John Brown's raid occurred on May 24, 1856, when Brown and his followers killed 5 unarmed pro-slavery people in Kansas. This was a retaliation for the pro-slavery raid on Lawrence, Kansas.

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/gadsden-purchase#:~:text=The%20Gadsden%20Purchase%2C%20or%20Treaty,of%20Arizona%20and%20New%20Mexico.

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James Buchanan (March 1857 - March 1861)

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James Buchanan (March 1857 - March 1861)

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Foreign Policy Event: 1854 Ostend Manifesto. It was a document that outlined a plan to purchase Cuba from Spain, and if that didn't work, to take it by force. It was met with strong opposition so it was ultimately abandoned.

Domestic Policy Event: The 1857 Dred Scott v. Standford Supreme Court Case. This was a huge controversial case. The ruling came out to be that African Americas, either enslaved or free were not considered American citizens and could not sue federal court. The effect of this case ruling only further intensified the growing tension between the North (Anti-Slavery) and the South (Pro-Slavery).

Social Event: Another John Brown scandal- He led a raid on a federal arsenal at Harper's Ferry from October 16-18 1859. The point of this raid was to encourage a slave revolt in the south. 16 people were killed in the raid. As a punishment, John Brown is hung.

Economic Event: The Panic of 1857. This was a financial crisis caused by the decline in the economy and the over-expansion. Because of the telegraph, this crisis was able to spread much more quickly than previous crisis'.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panic_of_1857#:~:text=The%20Panic%20of%201857%20was,rapidly%20throughout%20the%20United%20States.

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Abraham Lincoln (March 1861 - April 1865)

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Abraham Lincoln (March 1861 - April 1865)

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Foreign Policy Event: The Trent Affair in 1861. This was an incident where the Union seized a British mail ship, the Trent, and captured two confederate Americans who were on board. This caused a strained relationship between Britain and the United States. But, Lincoln handled the situation well and kept them from a even greater potential conflict.

Domestic Policy Event: The Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. This was a historic document that set all enslaved people free. This gave the civil war a meaning, as the south (confederates) fought the north (union) to fight for the right to own slaves.

Economic Event: The Homestead Act of 1862 encouraged western settlement. It gave the head of households 160 acres of western land for free, as long as they farmed it. Other acts like Revenue Act of 182 (US first income tax) and Morrill Act of 1862 (established system for state universities) were created.

Social Event: Lincoln officially made thanksgiving a holiday on October 3rd, 1863 in a proclamation.

https://www.battlefields.org/learn/biographies/abraham-lincoln

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Andrew Johnson (April 1865 - March 1869)

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Andrew Johnson (April 1865 - March 1869)

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Foreign Policy Event: On October 18, 1867, Alaska was officially purchased by the U.S. Russia offered to sell the territory, which was 600,000 square miles for $7.2 million. This purchased helped expand U.S territory and got Russia completely out of North America.

Domestic Policy Event: Reconstruction Plan- Johnson's reconstruction plan was met with a lot of opposition from Congress and ultimately led to his impeachment. In May of 1865, he offered a pardon to all white southerners except for Confederate leaders and wealthy planters. He wanted to restore their political rights and all their property, as long as they pledged loyalty to the U.S. Southerners were required to follow the 13th amendment which which abolished slavery, swore loyalty to the Union and made sure they paid off their war debt.

Social Event: Johnson's reconstruction plan was relaxed enough to give way to Black Codes that were first created in December of 1865. These were laws created throughout the south that enforced segregation and restricted rights for Black Americans, including voting rights.

Political Event: On June 6, 1866, congress drafts the 14th amendment and sends it to the states for ratification. The fourteenth amendment states that all people born in the U.S are designated citizens and also prevents ex-confederates from holding office.

https://millercenter.org/president/andrew-johnson/key-events

https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/black-codes-and-jim-crow-laws/

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Ulysses S. Grant (March 1869 - March 1877)

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Ulysses S. Grant (March 1869 - March 1877)

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Foreign Policy Event: The Treaty of Washington in 1871- It was signed and ratified by the UK and the US in 1871. This treaty settled the issues of fishing in the Canadian/American border waters, boundaries and the settlement of the Alabama Claims. The Alabama claims were that the British violated their neutrality by allowing 5 ships to be constructed knowing that it would lead to aid for the confederacy. Britain had to owe the U.S $15.5 million for this.

Domestic Policy Event: Enforcement Acts of 1870 & 1871- These were 3 bills passed by Congress to protect the voting rights of Black Americans, ensure their rights to hold office, serve on jury and have equal protection.

Social Event: From 1868-1870s the KKK was a legal organization that violently attacked African Americans. Harassment, and killings were very common from this group. The Enforcement acts tried to shut them down as the military was given the okay to use power to stop them.

Economic Event: On September 24, 1869, the gold standard collapsed, and that day became known as Black Friday. The scandal happened because two financiers, Jay Gould and James Fisk to attempted to corner the gold market. It resulted in the price of gold plummeting, and the markets crashing.

https://www.britannica.com/money/Black-Friday-1869

https://www.usgrantlibrary.org/usgrant/presidency/timeline

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Rutherford B. Hayes (March 1877 - March 1881)

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Rutherford B. Hayes (March 1877 - March 1881)

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Foreign Policy Event: In California, the asian population was growing rapidly. In response, Hayes made negotiations with China to revise the Burlingame Treaty. The revision of the treaty enabled the U.S to regulate, limit, and suspend, but not prohibit, the coming of Chinese laborers. The commerce treaty also prohibited the trade of opium to both countries. These treaties got ratified after Hayes' presidency.

Domestic Policy Event: Civil Service reform- In these reforms, Hayes prohibited civil servants to manage political parties, conventions and campaigns. He believed in meritocracy, the belief that high positions should be earned based on merit.

Social Event: In 1877, Thomas Edison invents the light bulb. That invention changes history and introduces the US into a new era of producing higher technological things.

Economic Event: The Gilded Age was happening in this time. This was a point in time in American history where immigration increased, technological productions increased and there were big political opinions being held.

https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/presidents-hayes/

https://millercenter.org/president/hayes/foreign-affairs

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James A. Garfield (March 1881 - September 1881)

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James A. Garfield (March 1881 - September 1881)

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Foreign Policy Event: Pan-American Conference- meetings between representatives of American states. In these meetings they discussed self defense, treaties with Latin American countries and overall tried to promote cooperation between the countries of Latin America and the U.S.

Domestic Policy Event: He publicly supported African American rights. He believed that race should not determine ones right to vote.

Social Event: On May 21, 1881, The American Association of the Red Cross is formed by Clara Barton. The association is a humanitarian organization dedicated to helping those in need.

Political Event: Garfield was shot at the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station in Washington, D.C., on Saturday, July 2, 1881, by Charles J. Guiteau. He died two months later on September 19, 1881.

https://millercenter.org/president/james-garfield/key-events

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_James_A._Garfield#:~:text=Article-,James%20A.,into%20his%20term%20as%20president.

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Chester A. Arthur (September 1881 - March 1885)

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Chester A. Arthur (September 1881 - March 1885)

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Foreign Policy Event: On May 6th, 1882, The Chinese Exclusion Act was passed. This act put a ten year restriction/ban on Chinese immigrants to the United States. This act was enacted because Americans were blaming the Chinese for the economic decline and many wanted to pursue racial "purity".

Domestic Policy Event: The Pendleton Act, approved January 1883. This act made sure that to obtain a federal job, it was based on merit, and employees had to selected through competitive exams. This act also made it un lawful to fire an employee based off of political reasons.

Economic Event: On May, 24 1883, the Brooklyn Bridge is opened. It was the first bridge that was built over the east river, as it connected New York City and Brooklyn. When opened, it was the largest suspension bridge in the world and was revolutionary to the era.

Social Event: The Statue of Liberty was presented to the United States in a ceremony in Paris as a gift from France on July 4, 1884.

https://millercenter.org/president/chester-arthur/key-events

https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/chinese-exclusion-act#:~:text=It%20was%20the%20first%20significant,immigrating%20to%20the%20United%20States.

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Grover Cleveland (March 1885 - March 1889)

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Grover Cleveland (March 1885 - March 1889)

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Foreign Policy Event: The Samoan Crisis of 1889 was a standoff between the US, Germany and Britain, all competing for control of the Samoan Islands. The three nations almost went to war over them, but they ended up signing a treaty, called the Tripartite Convention in 1889 which divided the islands into spheres of influence.

Domestic Policy Event: Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 addressed the problem of growing monopolies within the railroad buisness. This act was a step in regulating big businesses. To solve the railroad issue, rules were set for how they could do business. The ICC (interstate commerce commission) was established to oversee railroad businesses.

Social Event: The Haymarket Affair, in Chicago in 1886, started out as a labor demonstration, with civilians striking for an 8-hour workday. It turned very violent when a bomb was thrown at the police. Chaos ensued and in result, civilians and police died. This incident highlighted the tension between laborers and management.

Economic Event: The Dawes Act of 1887- This act regulated the land provided for Native Americans. Their tribal lands were divided into individual allotments. The goal behind this act was to create Native Americans to be responsible farmers and emphasized severalty, which is the treatment of Natives as individuals rather than members of tribes.

https://study.com/academy/lesson/interstate-commerce-act-of-1887-definition-passage.html#:~:text=The%20purpose%20of%20the%20Interstate%20Commerce%20Act%20of%201887%20was,farmers%2C%20and%20small%20business%20owners.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samoan_crisis

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Benjamin Harrison (March 1889- March 1893)

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Benjamin Harrison (March 1889- March 1893)

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Foreign Policy Event: The Pan-American conference in 1889- This was a conference held between the United States and Latin American countries with a goal to create between relationships with those countries, emphasizing trade. Harrison wanted to expand American influence all throughout the western hemisphere.

Domestic Policy Event: Sherman Antitrust Act in 1889- This was a federal statute that aimed to prohibit activities that restricted interstate commerce/trading and promoted equal competition in the marketplace. It outlaws formal cartels and monopolies.

Economic Event: To protect American businesses, the McKinley Tariff was created on October 1, 1890. This raised the taxes to almost 50% on most imported goods besides luxury goods (coffee, sugar, tea, etc.). This promoted protectionism, which was a policy of Republicans, but hated by democrats.

Social Event: The opening of the worlds first national park, Yellowstone, was in 1891. This event marked a significant step in the nations conservation movement.

https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/sherman_antitrust_act#:~:text=Sherman%20Antitrust%20Act%20of%201890,is%20codified%20in%2015%20U.S.C.

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Grover Cleveland (March 1893- March 1897)

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Grover Cleveland (March 1893- March 1897)

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Foreign Policy: Venezuelan Crisis of 1895- This was a territorial dispute between Venezuela and Great Britain. Because the Monroe doctrine stated that European nations should not mess with western countries, President Cleveland issued the Venezuela Ultimatum, which established the US support for Venezuela.

Domestic Policy: The Panic of 1893- This was another economic depression in the United States that resulted in unemployment, business failures and financial hardships. The cause of this depression is pointed to the 1890 Sherman Silver Purchase Act. That act increased the amount of silver that the government was required to purchase.

Social Event: World's Columbian Exchange- This was the world first fair, held in Chicago in 1893, as it celebrated the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's arrival in the Americas. In the fair there were cultural exhibits, technological innovations, and artistic achievements from all over the world. This event heavily impacted American culture.

Economic Event: The Pullman Strike of 1894. This was a labor strike that started off against wage cuts and high rents in the town of Pullman Illinois but quickly spread throughout the whole country to involve railroad workers. This strike disrupted rail travel and commerce and ended up having to be stopped by federal troops sent out by Cleveland.

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William McKinley (March 1897 - September 1901)

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William McKinley (March 1897 - September 1901)

# data[].attributes.body
Foreign Policy Event: The Spanish-American war in 1898. Originally this war was between Cuba and Spain, as Cuba was fighting for their independence. Popular support from US citizens to intervene in the war spread quickly because of sympathy based off of similar experience, yellow journalism and the want Americans had to rid European power from the western hemisphere. War was declared on April 20, 1898 for humanitarian reasons. Spain, unprepared for American forces, lost and the US emerged as a world power. Following the war, the U.S. gained the Philippines, Guam, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and assured that Hawaii would also remain in its control.

Domestic Policy Event: The Gold Standard act in 1900 solidified the U.S dollar being backed by gold. This stabilized the countries money system. The Gold Standard maintained the value of the dollar and promoted economic growth by establishing a fixed exchange rate with gold.

Political Event: The open door policy in China- This was a statement of policies created by the united states in 1899 and 1900. These statements called for the protection of equal privileges for all countries trading with China.

Economic Event: In 1898, Hawaii was officially brought into the United States as a territory. Hawaii then became a state in 1959.

https://guides.loc.gov/spanish-american-war#:~:text=The%20Spanish%2DAmerican%20War%20(1898,emerging%20as%20a%20world%20power.

https://www.britannica.com/event/Open-Door-policy

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Theodore Roosevelt (September 1901 - March 1909)

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Theodore Roosevelt (September 1901 - March 1909)

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Foreign Policy Event: Panama Canal, built between 1904 and 1914- Teddy Roosevelt supported Panama's independence from Columbia and negotiated a treaty with Panama to build a canal. The construction of this canal was a major feat that benefited global trade and transportation.

Domestic Policy Event: Trust busting- Roosevelt used the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 and the Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914 to enforce his trust busting policies. These policies aimed to break up monopolies like Northern Securities Company and Standard Oil. Most importantly, Teddy Roosevelt had the SQUARE DEAL, which focused on labor and regulating businesses.

Social Event: Pure Food and Drug Act & Meat Inspection Act- Teddy Roosevelt enacted these acts after seeing the unsanitary conditions for food being produced. The Pure Food and Drug act regulated the labeling of food and drugs, while the Meat inspection made sure the meatpacking plants were sanitary. These acts were established in 1906.

Political Event: Ending the Russo-Japanese War- In 1905, Teddy Roosevelt facilitated peace talks in New Hampshire, which led to the treaty of Portsmouth. Leading these peace negotiations won him the Nobel Peace Prize.

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1899-1913/panama-canal#:~:text=President%20Theodore%20Roosevelt%20oversaw%20the,the%20Atlantic%20and%20Pacific%20coasts.

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William Howard Taft (March 1909 - March 1913)

# data[].attributes.subject
William Howard Taft (March 1909 - March 1913)

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Foreign Policy Event: Dollar Diplomacy- Taft used his financial resources to exert control over foreign markets and governments. It encouraged Americans to invest in other countries as they increased their influence abroad.

Domestic Policy Event: President Taft passed the 16th amendment. This amendment put a income tax of 2% on corporations. This was the first nationwide income tax.

Social Event: The thick of the Progressive Era (1897-1920). Taft's presidency fell right in between this era. The Progressive era was a time when America focused on social and political reforms, trying to end political corruption caused by political machines, and trying to end the enormous influence of big businesses.

Political Event: On June 19, 1912, Congress passes a law that gives laborers an 8 hour work day. This law is for all workers with a federal contract.

https://www.albert.io/blog/dollar-diplomacy-ap-us-history-crash-course/

https://millercenter.org/president/william-taft/key-events

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Woodrow Wilson (March 1913- March 1921) 

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Woodrow Wilson (March 1913- March 1921) 

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Foreign Policy Event: Wilson brought the US into World War 2 by declaring war on Germany in 1917. He tried to keep America neutral, but after the sinking of the Lusitania and the Zimmerman telegraph, which violated the Roosevelt Corollary, we entered the war.

Domestic Policy Event: The Federal Reserve System- This was created in 1913 to promote maximum employment and stable prices in the U.S. economy, to create a more stable and flexible financial system. It set interest rates, managed the money supply and regulated financial markets.

Economic Event: The Clayton Antitrust Act- this was a law that expanded the Sherman Antitrust act. It prevented unfair practices in businesses that could hurt consumers and promoted equal competition within businesses.

Social Event: Wilson created child labor laws. In 1916, he created the Keaton-Owen child labor act which limited the hours children could work and prohibited the interstate sale of goods produced by children. In 1918, the Dagenhart, 247 was a supreme court case where the court struck down a law regulating child labor.

https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/what-us-federal-reserve#:~:text=The%20U.S.%20central%20banking%20system,supply%2C%20and%20regulating%20financial%20markets.

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Warren G. Harding (March 1921 - August 1923)

# data[].attributes.subject
Warren G. Harding (March 1921 - August 1923)

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Foreign Policy Event: Washington Naval Conference in 1921- this was when the world's largest naval powers gathered in Washington, D.C. for a conference to discuss naval disarmament and ways to relieve growing tensions in East Asia.

Domestic Policy Event: Teapot Dome Scandal- this was a bribery scandal involving government officials leasing oil-rich public lands to private companies in exchange for personal profit. It highlighted the political corruption at the time.

Social/Political Event: Pro-buisness policies- these policies included tax cuts for the wealthy, deregulation of industries and a focus no economic growth through buisness expansion.

Social/Political Event: Veterans Bureau- this agency provided support and services to American veterans, especially those that served in WW1. It involved programs to assist veterans with healthcare, education and other benefits.

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/naval-conference#:~:text=Between%201921%20and%201922%2C%20the,the%20possibility%20of%20another%20war.

https://department.va.gov/history/featured-stories/veterans-bureau/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teapot_Dome_scandal

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Calvin Coolidge (August 1923 - March 1929)

# data[].attributes.subject
Calvin Coolidge (August 1923 - March 1929)

# data[].attributes.body
Foreign Policy Event: Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928- this was an international agreement to NOT choose war when resolving disputes between countries. It was signed by many nations, including the U.S. to promote world peace.

Domestic Policy Event: Revenue Act of 1921- This was tax legislation that reduced the income tax rates and put other tax reforms to help improve economic growth and reduce the taxes on individuals and businesses.

Social/Economic Event: Immigration Act of 1924- This act restricted immigration to the U.S using the quota system based on national origins. It limited the immigration from certain countries, specifically Southern and Eastern Europe.

Political Event: Dawes Plan of 1924- This was an agreement made between the U.S and Germany to help stabilize Germany's economy after World War 1.

https://diplomacy.state.gov/the-kellogg-briand-pact/#:~:text=The%20agreement%20became%20known%20as,settle%20disputes%20by%20peaceful%20means.

https://www.finance.senate.gov/download/revenue-bill-of-1921-report-67-486

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/immigration-act#:~:text=The%20Immigration%20Act%20of%201924%20limited%20the%20number%20of%20immigrants,of%20the%201890%20national%20census.

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/dawes#:~:text=Under%20the%20Dawes%20Plan%2C%20Germany's,currency%2C%20the%20Reichsmark%2C%20adopted.

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Herbert Hoover (March 1929 - March 1933)

# data[].attributes.subject
Herbert Hoover (March 1929 - March 1933)

# data[].attributes.body
Foreign Policy Event: Stimson Doctrine in 1932- This doctrine was a policy that stated if Japan should forcefully take/change the territory of China, the United States would not recognize it. This enforced the peaceful resolution agreement.

Domestic Policy Event: Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act 1930- This act increased the tariffs on a plethora of imported goods, leading to a decrease in international trade and emphasizing the effects of the Great Depression.

Economic Event: Reconstruction Finance Corporation in 1932- this was established to provide financial support to state and local governments, to banks, railroads and other businesses during the Great Depression. It's goal was to start economic recovery and stabilize the financial system.

Social Event: Bonus Army March in 1932- this was a protest within the United States, where jobless World War 1 veterans marched out to protest a demand for the payment bonus they were promised in exchange for their services in the war. This protest ended in a violent confrontation between the marches and authorities.

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/mukden-incident#:~:text=Appeals%20based%20on%20the%20pact%2C%20however%2C%20proved%20ineffective.&text=Therefore%20Secretary%20Stimson%20issued%20the,which%20the%20United%20States%20subscribed.

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/smoot-hawley-tariff-act.asp#:~:text=The%20Smoot%2DHawley%20Tariff%20Act%20of%201930%20was%20enacted%20to,other%20industries%20from%20foreign%20competitors.

https://www.federalreservehistory.org/essays/reconstruction-finance-corporation

https://www.nps.gov/articles/bonus-expeditionary-forces-march-on-washington.htm#:~:text=In%20May%201932%2C%20jobless%20WWI,Led%20by%20Walter%20W.

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Franklin D. Roosevelt (March 1933 - April 1945)

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Franklin D. Roosevelt (March 1933 - April 1945)

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Foreign Policy Event: The Lend lease act in 1941. This act allowed the United States to provide military aid to foreign nations during WW2 to support the Allied powers without directly entering the war.

Domestic Policy Event: The New Deal- Focusing on the 3 r's: Relief, Recovery and Reform. The New deal was in place to help the nation recover from the Great Depression. Examples of relief would be CCC, Civilians Corporations Core, recovery would be FDIC (banking act), and reform would be the creation of social security.

Economic Event: The Dust Bowl- in the 1930s-60s, there were huge droughts resulting in dust storms in the midwest. This was very damaging to the agriculture and economy as this also happened during the Great depression.

Political Event: FDR had a court-packing plan. He proposed this plan in 1937. It was to expand the Supreme Court by 15 more justices. This would be good for him as he could put justices that were sympathetic to his New Deal policies and therefore get more legislature passed.

https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/great-depression-and-world-war-ii-1929-1945/franklin-delano-roosevelt-and-the-new-deal/#:~:text=In%20the%20short%20term%2C%20New,social%20affairs%20of%20the%20nation.

https://history.iowa.gov/history/education/educator-resources/primary-source-sets/great-depression#:~:text=Download%20Resource-,Description,largest%20migration%20in%20American%20history.

https://quizlet.com/explanations/questions/what-was-roosevelts-court-packing-plan-e127ab35-0ba2ae7e-a10b-4dae-b5bd-2e6054a9b9ac#:~:text=President%20Roosevelt%20devised%20the%20court,increase%20the%20number%20of%20judges.

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Harry S. Truman (April 1945 - January 1953)

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Harry S. Truman (April 1945 - January 1953)

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Foreign Policy Event: The 1947 Truman Doctrine. This doctrine ensured that the United States would provide political, military, and economic assistance to all the democratic nations under the threat from outside communist forces. This was an effort to stop the spread of communism.

Domestic Policy Event: The Fair Deal- this was a set of proposals made by Truman to congress to continue FDR's New Deal policies. The legislation aimed to raise the minimum wage, provide education to Americans, provide health care to all Americans and provide equal rights.

Political Event: On May 8, 1945, Germany surrenders, but fighting continues in Japan. On August 6th, 1945, the United States drops an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, and again on the 9th a bomb is dropped in Nagasaki, leading to Japan surrendering, thus ending the fighting in Asia. This is pivotal in the nations history with the introductions of atomic bombs.

Political Event: NATO is formed in 1949. North Atlantic Treaty Organization. This was a treaty signed by 12 other countries. Together they stood in defense against the Soviet Union and communism. It was the first peacetime military alliance the United States entered into outside of the Western Hemisphere.

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/nato#:~:text=The%20North%20Atlantic%20Treaty%20Organization,security%20against%20the%20Soviet%20Union.&text=NATO%20was%20the%20first%20peacetime,outside%20of%20the%20Western%20Hemisphere.

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/truman-doctrine#:~:text=With%20the%20Truman%20Doctrine%2C%20President,external%20or%20internal%20authoritarian%20forces.

https://millercenter.org/president/harry-s-truman/key-events

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Dwight D. Eisenhower (January 1953 - January 1961)

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Dwight D. Eisenhower (January 1953 - January 1961)

# data[].attributes.body
Foreign Policy Event: Eisenhower Doctrine- this doctrine promised military or economic aid to any middle eastern country requesting help from communist aggression. Eisenhower announced this doctrine in January of 1957, and Congress approved it just two months later.

Domestic Policy Event: Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956. This authorized the construction of the interstate highway system in the United States. This prompted economic growth and improved and expanded transportation throughout the country.

Social Event: Brown v Board of Education- in this court ruling, it was proved unconstitutional for children to be segregated in schools based off of race. This started the desegregation of schools, which was met with immense opposition. The famous Little Rock Nine were the first 9 Black American students to attend an all white school.

Internal Conflict: McCarthyism and the Red Scare- this happened in 1950-54. This was when John McCarthy was going around accusing many people of being undercover communists. This caused a wave of fear within the United States as many people also started to fear the government. McCarthy was not only accusing civilians but also high standing government working people as well.

https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/educational-resources/age-of-eisenhower/mcarthyism-red-scare

https://millercenter.org/president/dwight-d-eisenhower/key-events

https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/brown-v-board-of-education#:~:text=In%20this%20milestone%20decision%2C%20the,1896%20Plessy%20v.%20Ferguson%20case.

https://highways.dot.gov/public-roads/summer-1996/federal-aid-highway-act-1956-creating-interstate-system

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1953-1960/eisenhower-doctrine#:~:text=Eisenhower%20announced%20the%20Eisenhower%20Doctrine,armed%20aggression%20from%20another%20state.

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John F. Kennedy (January 1961 - November 1963)

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John F. Kennedy (January 1961 - November 1963)

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Foreign Policy Event: The Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. In October, 1962, The U.S and Soviet Union came very close to a nuclear conflict. This was because nuclear missile sites were photographed being built by the Soviet Union in Cuba. This led to the Soviet Union removing their sites and Kennedy removing the U.S.'s site in Turkey.

Domestic Policy Event: Creation of the Peace Corps in 1961. This was created to promote world peace. It's three goals were to 1) supplying trained men and women to needy countries, 2) Help the countries being served better understand Americans, and 3) Help Americans understand the people they are serving.

Internal Conflict/Social Event: The Civil Rights movement was steadily increasing within Kennedy's presidency. Kennedy supported this movement calling it moral, legal and constitutional. In 1963, he requested Congress enact legislature to help with the movement, like strengthening voting laws and helping schools that were actively desegregating.

Social/Political Event: The Space program was emphasized and American entered the space race. In 1961, Kennedy challenged American to land a man on the moon before the end of the decade.

https://www.whitehousehistory.org/educational-resources/john-f-kennedy-and-the-space-race

https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/the-kennedys-and-civil-rights.htm

https://www.ucmo.edu/offices/peace-corps/index.php#:~:text=The%20mission%20of%20the%20Peace,to%20help%20promote%20a%20better

https://www.nti.org/atomic-pulse/ask-the-experts-the-60th-anniversary-of-the-cuban-missile-crisis/#:~:text=Kennedy%20and%20Soviet%20premier%20Nikita,capable%20missiles%20out%20of%20Turkey.

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Lyndon B. Johnson (November 1963 - January 1969)

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Lyndon B. Johnson (November 1963 - January 1969)

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Foreign Policy Event: Lyndon B. Johnson escalated the American presence in the Vietnam War, by putting over 500,000 troops into the war by 1968. He strongly believed in containment and put a lot of effort into the war to contain communism.

Domestic Policy Event: The Great Society- This was a bunch of programs with the goal of ending poverty and racial injustice throughout the United States. Programs like Medicare, Medicaid and the Civil Rights Act of 1946, Elementary and Secondary Education Act, beautification and conservation were all apart of this Great Society.

Political Event: Voting Rights Act of 1965- this act gave direct federal intervention to let African Americans vote without the restrictions/requirements forced upon them that had kept them from voting.

Economic Event: The Department of Transportation Act of 1966- this department would manage all things transportation, lead and solve problems and develop transportation policies and programs.

https://www.faa.gov/sites/faa.gov/files/about/history/milestones/FAA_and_Creation_of_DOT.pdf

https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/Senate_Passes_Voting_Rights_Act.htm#:~:text=Following%20Bloody%20Sunday%2C%20President%20Lyndon,keep%20them%20from%20the%20polls.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Society#:~:text=insufficient%20and%20uneven.-,Education,months%20after%20it%20was%20introduced.

https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/1600/presidents/lyndonbjohnson#:~:text=The%20Great%20Society%20program%20became,removal%20of%20obstacles%20to%20the

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Richard M. Nixon (January 1969 - August 1974)

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Richard M. Nixon (January 1969 - August 1974)

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Foreign Policy Event: In 1972, Nixon visited China. This created good relations with China and opened up trade with them for the first time. This was a huge turning point for American economics and foreign relationships. This was known as the "Opening of China"

Domestic Policy Event: Nixon created the EPA- The Environmental Protection Agency in 1970. This was created to protect human health and environmental health.

Political Event: SALT 1 with the Soviet Union- The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks was extended from November 1969- May 1972. This was the first negotiation between the US and Soviet Union to limit the amount of nuclear missiles/ missile sites each country could have.

Internal Conflict: Watergate Scandal- This was a break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters in D.C. Nixon's administration was caught helping this break-in and doing other illegal things. The break-in was a group of "plumbers" who were actually spies, spying on the party running against Nixon. This scandal ultimately led to Nixon resigning in 1974, before he was able to be impeached.

https://www.britannica.com/event/Watergate-Scandal

https://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/library/exhibits/salt/salt.asp#:~:text=By%20signing%20SALT%20I%2C%20the,and%20respect%20for%20national%20sovereignty.

https://www.doi.gov/recovery/about-us/primary-agencies/EPA#:~:text=The%20U.S.%20Environmental%20Protection%20Agency,as%20waste%20water%20treatment%20plants.

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Gerald R. Ford (August 1974 - January 1977)

# data[].attributes.subject
Gerald R. Ford (August 1974 - January 1977)

# data[].attributes.body
Foreign Policy Event: Helsinki Accords 1975- this was a series of agreements signed by 35 nations, with the goals of improving the relationship between Eastern and Western Europe during the Cold War.

Domestic Policy Event: WIN campaign 1974- Whip Inflation Now- this campaign was an attempt to address the issue of inflation in the U.S. The campaign encouraged citizens to reduce spending and save energy to combat rising inflation.

Political Event: Fall of Saigon in 1975- this was the end of the Vietnam War. This was a defeat for the United States because communism took over Vietnam.

Social Event: Pardon of Nixon- Ford issued a full pardon to Nixon for any of the crimes he committed while President. This was very controversial within the United States as many people thought he deserved consequences. This affected the way Ford was viewed as he lost popularity and people became suspicious of his nobleness.

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1969-1976/helsinki

https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/the-nixon-pardon-in-retrospect

https://www.britannica.com/event/Fall-of-Saigon#:~:text=Fall%20of%20Saigon%2C%20capture%20of,bitterly%20contested%20unification%20of%20Vietnam.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whip_inflation_now

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Jimmy Carter (January 1977 - January 1981)

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Jimmy Carter (January 1977 - January 1981)

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Foreign Policy Event: Camp David Accords in 1978- This was a significant agreement signed in 1978 between Egypt and Israel, brokered by the President of the U.S, Jimmy Carter. The accords led to a peace treaty between the two countries. This was significant because it was the first time and Arab country recognized Israel.

Domestic Policy Event: Department of Energy in 1977- This was established in 1977 as a response to the energy crisis of 1970. It's goal was to consolidate various energy-related responsibilities under one department.

Political/Economic Event: Panama Canal Treaty in 1977- This agreement between the United State and Panama eventually led to the transfer of control of the Panama Canal to Panama from the U.S. This helped relations with Panama and the management of that vital waterway.

Social Event: Department of Education in 1979- This was created to enhance the education policies and provide better coordination of federal education programs.

https://www.britannica.com/event/Camp-David-Accords

https://2001-2009.state.gov/p/wha/rlnks/11936.htm#:~:text=President%20Jimmy%20Carter%20and%20Panamanian,2000%20and%20guarantees%20its%20neutrality.

https://graylinedc.com/birth-united-states-department-education/#:~:text=The%20United%20States%20Department%20of%20Education%20(often%20referred%20to%20as,on%20October%2017th%2C%201979.

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Ronald Reagan (January 1981 - January 1989)

# data[].attributes.subject
Ronald Reagan (January 1981 - January 1989)

# data[].attributes.body
Foreign Policy Event: Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) aka Star Wars- This was a proposed missile defense system intended to protect the United States from attack by ballistic strategic nuclear weapons.

Domestic Policy Event: REAGANOMICS- These were policies enacted by Ronald Reagan that cut federal income taxes, cut the governments spending budget, scaled down the government workforce, kept low interest rates. These were helpful because unemployment and inflation rates dropped but it kept a wealth gap.

Political Event: On June 12, 1987, Ronald Reagan gave the famous Berlin Wall speech saying "Tear down this wall". This speech displayed the United States anti-communist position and challenged the Soviet Union communists to end their control over Germany. This speech showed the United States want to peace and unity in Germany.

Social/Political Event: Reagan appointed Sandra Day O'connor to the Supreme Court in 1974. This was a big deal, as she was the first woman to join the Supreme Court. This showed Reagan's support of women's rights.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative#:~:text=The%20Strategic%20Defense%20Initiative%20(SDI,submarine%2Dlaunched%20ballistic%20missiles).

https://millercenter.org/president/ronald-reagan/key-events

https://share.america.gov/speech-that-helped-bring-down-berlin-wall/#:~:text=the%20Berlin%20Wall.-,%E2%80%9CMr.,%2C%20on%20November%209%2C%201989.

https://www.supremecourt.gov/visiting/exhibitions/SOCExhibit/Section3.aspx

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George Bush (January 1989 - January 1993)

# data[].attributes.subject
George Bush (January 1989 - January 1993)

# data[].attributes.body
Foreign Policy Event: The U.S. invades Panama- the U.S. invaded Panama in 1989 to depose the de facto ruler of Panama, General Manuel Noriega, who was wanted by U.S. authorities for racketeering and drug trafficking.

Domestic Policy Event: Americans with disabilities act- This civil rights legislation prohibited the discrimination of people with disabilities. They were not allowed to be discriminated against in the workforce, school, transportation and all public and private places. It was signed into law in 1990.

Social Event: Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990- these laws addressed air pollution. They were made to improve air quality. To do this they added new provisions to regulate the products being omitted into the air. They attacked acid rain, urban air pollution, and toxic air emissions.

Political Event: START 1- The Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty- this treaty was between the U.S. and Soviet union to reduce and limit strategic offensive arms. It was signed in 1991 but enforced in 1994.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_invasion_of_Panama

https://www.dol.gov/general/topic/disability/ada

https://www.epa.gov/clean-air-act-overview/1990-clean-air-act-amendment-summary

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/START_I#:~:text=START%20I%20(Strategic%20Arms%20Reduction,force%20on%205%20December%201994.

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William J.(Bill) Clinton (January 1993- January 2001)

# data[].attributes.subject
William J.(Bill) Clinton (January 1993- January 2001)

# data[].attributes.body
Foreign Policy Event: NATO intervention in Kosovo in 1999- Nato intervened in the bloody battle in Kosovo when Yugoslav forces struck against the ethnic Albanian population in Kosovo. This was an effort to protect the civilians and bring an end to the conflict there.

Domestic Policy Event: Family and Medical Leave Act 1993- this law provided eligible employees up to 12 weeks of unpaid leave per year for medical reasons, birth or adoption of a child or to care for sick family members, while ensuring their job security.

Economic Event: Signing of NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) in 1993- this event established trade between the U.S., Canada and Mexico. This was done to promote economic cooperation and reduce trade barriers among those countries.

Social/Political/Internal Conflict: Monica Lewinsky scandal- President Bill Clinton had an affair with the White House intern Monica Lewinsky. Clinton denied the accusations against him, but based off of evidence, he was found guilty. This meant he also was found guilty of lying (after swearing on oath). This ultimately led to his impeachment.

https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_48818.htm#:~:text=courtesy%20of%20KFOR-,NATO%20has%20been%20leading%20a%20peace%2Dsupport%20operation%20in%20Kosovo,violence%20in%20Kosovo%2C%20was%20over.

https://nationalpartnership.org/economic-justice/family-medical-leave-act/#:~:text=Celebrating%2031%20years%20of%20job,demands%20of%20work%20and%20family.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinton%E2%80%93Lewinsky_scandal#:~:text=September%2011%20attacks.-,Perjury%20charges,testimony%20was%20false%20and%20perjurious.

https://www.cbp.gov/trade/north-american-free-trade-agreement#:~:text=North%20American%20Free%20Trade%20Agreement%20(NAFTA)%20established%20a%20free%2D,produced%20by%20the%20signatory%20nations.

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George W. Bush (January 2001 - January 2009)

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George W. Bush (January 2001 - January 2009)

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Foreign Policy Event: Invasion of Iraq in 2003- this event led to the overthrow of Saddam Hussein's regime by a coalition led by the U.S. The invasion was based on the belief that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction, but those weapons were never found.

Domestic Policy Event: No child left behind act in 2001- This was an educational reform law to improve the academic standards in the school systems in America. It required states to develop assessments in basic skills to receive federal funding and tried to close the achievement gap amongst students.

Internal Conflict: Terrorist attack in 2001- The 9/11 terrorist attack was a devastating attack on the Twin Towers in New York City. Muslim extremists from the Taliban hijacked two planes and crashed them into the towers killing all the people aboard the plane and thousand other's working in the buildings and around the area. In response, the U.S. launched military operations in Afghanistan to dismantle the Taliban regime. This event also prompted the U.S. to take higher security measures.

Economic Event: Financial crisis of 2008- This impacted global economy. It was triggered by the housing market bubble burst, subprime mortgage crisis and failures in the financial sector. This led to bank failures, the decline of the stock market and led to economic recession.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationale_for_the_Iraq_War#:~:text=The%20primary%20rationalization%20for%20the,to%20free%20the%20Iraqi%20people%22.

https://www.edweek.org/policy-politics/no-child-left-behind-an-overview/2015/04

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_financial_crisis#:~:text=Predatory%20lending%20in%20the%20form,led%20to%20the%20Great%20Recession.

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Barak Obama (January 2009 - January 2017)

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Barak Obama (January 2009 - January 2017)

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Foreign Policy Event: Operation to kill Osama bin Laden - On May 2, 2011, Osama bin Laden was shot and killed by the United States Navy SEALs of SEAL team 6, after being hunt down. He was the leader of al-Qaeda, the group that led the terrorist attack in 2001.

Domestic Policy Event: Obamacare- also known as the Affordable Care Act, this was used to reduce the cost of healthcare within the united states and ensure more people were able to access health insurance.

Political/Internal Event: First lady, Michelle Obama, made and impact on the policies in America. She advocated for healthy school lunches. President Barack Obama signed the Healthy Hunger-Free Kids Act in 2010, and thus started the healthy school lunch programs throughout America.

Political Event: Don't Ask Don't Tell Policy is Repealed- this act made one stay quiet on how they identified sexually while in the military. The repeal let people of the LGBTQ+ community be openly themselves in the military.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killing_of_Osama_bin_Laden#:~:text=The%20operation%2C%20code%2Dnamed%20Operation,Units%20involved%20in%20the%20raid.

https://www.ehealthinsurance.com/resources/affordable-care-act/understanding-obamacare#:~:text=In%202010%2C%20President%20Barack%20Obama,would%20face%20a%20tax%20penalty.

https://www.ordo.com/articles/100-years-of-school-lunches-whats-changed-what-hasnt#:~:text=In%202010%20school%20lunch%20programs,USDA's%20core%20child%20nutrition%20programs.

https://www.hrc.org/our-work/stories/repeal-of-dont-ask-dont-tell