# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Visit the world of the ancient Egyptians and read about the Natural Resources of Ancient Egypt. Discover fascinating facts and information about the Natural Resources of Ancient Egypt. Interesting facts about the Natural Resources of Ancient Egypt, ideal for kids, research and schools.

# data[].attributes.headline
Ancient Civilizations and Their Use of Natural Resources

# data[].attributes.subject
Ancient Civilizations and Their Use of Natural Resources

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Ancient Civilizations and Their Use of Natural Resources

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Roman Empire was the world's first superpower and controlled millions of square miles at its height - everything between modern-day Spain up to England and across to Armenia, down through Egypt and over to Morocco. Millions of people from different tribes and cultures were governed by Roman law, mixing and mingling their respective religions, technology, customs and knowledge. Roman thinkers, artists, writers and philosophers helped expand our understanding of engineering, agriculture, architecture, law and the arts.

At its most populated, the city of Rome had more than 1 million citizens living within its borders. Most people lived in apartment buildings, and the city held a number of industrial businesses like blacksmiths, tanneries, slaughterhouses and concrete manufacturers. The dense concentration of people and industry created a lot of pollution - especially with thousands of smoky fires for cooking and heating burning daily.

The Romans wouldn't have lasted more than a few decades if they hadn't worked out some solutions to their environmental problems - problems that continue to plague civilization today. They adopted, adapted, invented and built their way through ecological roadblocks and became one of the world's great empires. Here are some green decisions the ancient Romans were making thousands of years ago.

1. Treated Water and Air as Shared Resources

The Greek historian and essayist Plutarch, who became a Roman citizen and took up the name Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus, wrote extensively about environmental issues and was quoted as saying "Water is the principle, or the element, of things. All things are water." Romans took great pride in their extensive water distribution and sewage networks. They built aqueducts that carried clean water hundreds of miles to population centers where it was distributed to the homes and businesses of those who could afford it.

Roman law decreed that cheese-making manufacturers be built in a location where the wood smoke wouldn't affect other buildings and recognized the rights of citizens not to be exposed to excessive air pollution. The air was still terribly dirty and polluted in the densest parts of the city, but leaders did make a difference. The legal code of Roman emperor Justinian declared that, "By the law of nature these thing are common to mankind - the air, running water, the sea and consequently the shores of the sea."

2. Practiced Vegetarianism

Plutarch's essay "On the Eating of Animal Flesh" explored the issue of animal intelligence and later influenced the dietary decisions of Ralph Waldo Emerson, Louisa May Alcott and Henry David Thoreau. Plutarch went so far as to start a successful vegetarian commune, which was an influence on a vegetarian commune called Fruitlands in 1843. The Roman philosopher Seneca also followed a vegetarian diet, and a study on gladiators' bones suggests that they ate a diet almost entirely derived from plants.

3. Used Passive Solar Technology

It was expensive to heat a home in ancient Rome - wood is a bulky fuel that wasn't readily available in much of the Roman Empire. The Romans burned coal, but that was also expensive - and dirty. It was the ancient Greeks who first developed the passive solar concepts that the Romans adopted, but the Romans used their engineering and design skills to improve the technique.

Passive-solar buildings are built based on the orientation of the sun's path and use the sun's rays to heat the interiors. Romans used glass to boost the solar gain of their buildings even further, capturing and storing the heat with masonry inside their homes, bathhouses and businesses.

MNN tease photo of aquaduct: Shutterstock

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Roman Empire was the world's first superpower and controlled millions of square miles at its height - everything between modern-day Spain up to England and across to Armenia, down through Egypt and over to Morocco. Millions of people from different tribes and cultures were governed by Roman law, mixing and mingling their respective religions, technology, customs and knowledge.

# data[].attributes.headline
How Ancient Civilizations Lived with Nature and the Environment

# data[].attributes.subject
How Ancient Civilizations Lived with Nature and the Environment

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
 How Ancient Civilizations Lived with Nature and the Environment

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
People move to new homes all the time. But when they move a long way, say to a whole new part of the world, it is called migration. Migrating animals generally go back and…

# data[].attributes.headline
In Their Footsteps: Human Migration Out of Africa

# data[].attributes.subject
In Their Footsteps: Human Migration Out of Africa

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Image

Photograph by John Stanmeyer/National Geographic

Paul Salopek is an award-winning journalist and National Geographic Explorer. He is also a walker. And he is on a very long walk. One that will last at least 10 years. One some of our human ancestors took about 60,000 years ago, by some estimates.

In 2013, Paul Salopek set out to walk the path some of our ancestors walked when they migrated out of Africa. He has named his expedition the Out of Eden Walk. His route will take him from Ethiopia to the Middle East, through Central and Southeast Asia, and across China. The land bridge our ancestors used to cross from Asia to North America has long since disappeared. So Salopek will take a ship across the Pacific Ocean. He will then walk through the West Coast of the United States and Mexico. He will cross Central America to South America and walk along its western coast to Tierra del Fuego-the southernmost tip of the continent. Just as some of our ancestors did, Salopek will travel mostly along the outside edges of the continents, near oceans, and seas.

As he walks, Salopek is documenting the places he travels and the people he meets. Salopek is also telling the stories of our human history, from the earliest humans to our more recent past. Some of the places he has walked through have clues that can help us understand early humans and our even-earlier hominin ancestors.

In the Beginning

Salopek chose Herto Bouri, Ethiopia, for the starting point of the Out of Eden Walk. This desert site is a good place to start retracing the steps of early humans. It is the location of the 160,000-year-old Herto man fossil. Herto man is thought by many scientists to be the oldest fully recognizable, modern human ever found. It is one of the paths believed to have been taken by some of our early ancestors from Africa to Europe and Asia. Fossil evidence shows that these early humans made crude stone tools. They also possibly had rituals for their dead.

Herto man is proof that modern humans (starvation, and humans were driven to near extinction before they ever had a chance to explore the world. A climate shift and greening in the Middle East probably helped to draw the first humans out of Africa.

Food Is Life

The finding and processing of food was very important to our human ancestors. It isn't surprising that they made tools to help them with this task. Gona, in the Great Rift Valley of Ethiopia, is the earliest known stone tool site. It is littered with artifacts of 2.6-million-year-old tools. Homo sapiens) lived in Africa at least 160,000 years ago. And they seem to have stayed there for a long time. Though it is unclear when some modern humans first left Africa, evidence shows that these modern humans did not leave Africa until between 60,000 and 90,000 years ago. Most likely, a change in climate helped to push them out. Experts suggest that droughts in Africa led to

The tools found at Gona were crude, sharp objects. They weren't made by the modern humans such as Herto man. Instead, they were created by earlier hominins. And they weren't used to hunt the antelopes whose fossils are found scattered nearby. Scientists do not think these early hominins were brave hunters. Instead, they were likely scavengers. They used their tools to cut up carcasses and break bones to get to the nutritious bone marrow. Scientists do not know for sure how much meat these early toolmakers ate or if they cooked it. But it is likely that most of their food was plants.

Settling Down

Early humans were mobile. They were hunter-gatherers. But about 10,000 to 13,000 years ago, something changed. In a valley called Wadi Natuf in what is now the West Bank, in the Palestinian territories, some humans stopped their roaming and settled down in one place. They developed tools to harvest the abundant local grains. Eventually, these Natufians began to grow food instead of just gathering it. The concept of claiming land was born.

The change from hunting and gathering to farming had advantages for early humans. With greater food availability, some humans were able to focus time on doing activities other than looking for food. It also enabled the establishment of larger groups of humans. But there were also disadvangtages. Mass outbreaks of infectious diseases, like today's flu, were one of the by-products of human settlement. Large groups of people gathered in one place made it easier for disease to spread.

New Understandings

If you are interested in human migration, as Paul Salopek is, Dmanisi, Georgia, is an interesting place to be. A bridge between Europe and Asia, the site has been a popular crossroads for almost two million years. The evidence is in layers of archaeological remains. The 1,400-year-old remains of the medieval city of Dmanisi are found in the top layer. Below that are the remains of a 5,000-year-old Bronze Age settlement. And below that? The 1.8-million-year-old fossil remains of one of our early ancestors. They are among the earliest hominin remains found outside of Africa.

These fossil remains really captured Salopek's interest, and he visited the nearby National Museum to see them for himself. The skulls found at Dmanisi are important. Finding them changed scientists' understanding of human evolution. The fossils showed a mixture of features from three different hominin species. This helped scientists to better understand how these species related to each other.

Even more importantly, one of the skulls showed the earliest known evidence of compassionate behavior. The skull belonged to an older man. His jawbone showed that he had only one tooth while he lived. Almost two million years ago, he would not have been able to survive on his own without teeth. Yet, his bones show that he lived for years after losing them. This tells scientists that someone-another hominin-had bothered to take care of him.

Something in Common

The Out of Eden Walk will take Salopek at least 10 years and 33,796 kilometers (21,000 miles). He will cross five continents and more than 30 countries. Along the way, he will encounter many different languages, ethnicities, and cultures. He will hear stories from thousands of people. But everyone he talks to, from the nomadic Afar herders in Ethiopia, the refugees in Turkey, and the policeman in Pakistan, all have something in common. They share some of the same ancestors. Salopek walks the route some early humans took as they migrated out of Africa. And every person he meets along the way can trace their own ancestral path back there.

Media Credits

The audio, illustrations, photos, and videos are credited beneath the media asset, except for promotional images, which generally link to another page that contains the media credit. The Rights Holder for media is the person or group credited.

Writer

Cassandra Love, Educator and Curriculum Developer

Production Manager

Jeanna Sullivan, National Geographic Society

Producer

Sarah Appleton, National Geographic Society, National Geographic Society

other

Last Updated

February 9, 2024

For information on user permissions, please read our Terms of Service. If you have questions about how to cite anything on our website in your project or classroom presentation, please contact your teacher. They will best know the preferred format. When you reach out to them, you will need the page title, URL, and the date you accessed the resource.

Media

If a media asset is downloadable, a download button appears in the corner of the media viewer. If no button appears, you cannot download or save the media.

Text

Text on this page is printable and can be used according to our Terms of Service.

Interactives

Any interactives on this page can only be played while you are visiting our website. You cannot download interactives.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
In Their Footsteps: Human Migration Out of Africa

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Paul Salopek is an award-winning journalist and National Geographic Explorer, who is following the footsteps of our ancestors out of Africa. As he walks, Salopek is documenting the places he travels, the people he meets, and telling the stories of our human history, from the very earliest humans to our more recent past.

# data[].attributes.headline
On the Move: Ancient and Modern Migrations and Settlements

# data[].attributes.subject
On the Move: Ancient and Modern Migrations and Settlements

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
On the Move: Ancient and Modern Migrations and Settlements

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Ancient Egyptian History for Kids: Government

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Kids learn about Ancient Egyptian Government. The history of this world civilization.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Build on What You Know You have already learned that Rome overthrew its kings and formed a republic. This change to self-rule would not only affect Rome's government. It would also affect Roman society.
Early Strengths of Roman Society
ESSENTIAL QUESTION How was Roman society structured?

As Rome developed into a complex civilization, two classes arose. Inequalities between them would lead to conflict. This conflict, however, would eventually define Roman citizenship and the rights of citizens under Roman law.

Patricians and Plebeians
The upper-class patricians(puh*TRIHSH*uhnz) were wealthy landowners who held all of the highest positions in government. The plebeians(plih*BEE*uhnz) were mostly common farmers. Like all male Roman citizens, they could vote, but they couldn't hold important government positions.

Resentment over the patricians' power caused tension. Finally, the patricians passed a written constitution, called the Twelve Tables, around 450 B.C. The Twelve Tables established basic rights and duties for Roman citizens.

ESSENTIAL QUESTION How was the republican government organized?

The leaders of the Roman Republic established a tripartite (try*PAHR*tyt) government. This type of government has three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. The executive branch enforces a country's laws. The legislative branch makes the laws. And the judicial branch interprets the laws in court.

Legislative and Judicial
The legislative branch of Roman government included the Senate and the assemblies. The Senate was a powerful body of 300 members that advised Roman leaders. Most senators were patricians. The assemblies were mainly made up of plebeians. Their representatives protected the rights of plebeians.

The judicial branch consisted of eight judges who served for one year. They oversaw the courts and governed the provinces.

Executive
Two consuls led Rome's executive branch. They commanded the army and directed the government for one year. Each consul had the power to veto, or overrule, the other.

In times of crisis, the consuls could choose a dictator-a leader with absolute power-to rule in their place for a limited time. Around 460 B.C., a man named Cincinnatus(SIHN*suh*NAT*uhs) was made dictator to defend Rome from attack. According to legend, he defeated the enemy and returned power to the consuls in sixteen days.

Legacy of Roman Law
The U.S. government adopted several features of the Roman Republic. You can compare the two systems in the chart above. Like the Roman government, the United States has a tripartite system. The U.S. system of checks and balances makes sure that one branch of the government doesn't have too much power. This system is like the veto, which limited the power of Roman consuls. In addition, like Rome, the United States has a written constitution on which its government is based.

Citizenship is also an important part of a republican government. In the Roman Republic, only free adult males were citizens and could vote. Only these citizens enjoyed the protection of Roman law. They also were expected to perform civic duties. That means that they were expected to serve their nation. Cincinnatus showed civic duty by defeating the enemy and stepping down from power. American citizens show civic duty by voting, taking part in jury duty, and paying taxes.

ESSENTIAL QUESTION How did Rome expand?

For hundreds of years after the founding of the republic, Rome expanded its territories. By the 300s B.C., the Romans dominated central Italy. Eventually, they conquered the Etruscans to the north and the Greek city-states to the southeast. By 275 B.C., all of the Italian Peninsula was under Roman control.

In general, Rome did not impose harsh rule on conquered peoples. The republic offered Roman citizenship to most of the conquered peoples and allowed them to govern themselves. In return, they had to pay taxes and provide soldiers for the Roman army.

Rome needed these soldiers to fight in the The Punic Wars
Punic Wars, which began in 264 B.C. The Punic Wars were a series of three long wars against Carthage, a rich trading city in North Africa.

Rome won each of the Punic Wars but almost lost the second. Hannibal, a general from Carthage, crossed the Alps with a herd of elephants and nearly captured Rome. The Roman general Scipio (SIHP*ee*OH) defeated him in 202 B.C. In 146 B.C., Rome finally captured and destroyed Carthage. By the end of the wars, Roman territory extended from Spain to Greece. (See the map below.)

The specialized vocabulary term Punic Wars refers to the series of wars between Rome and Carthage. Carthage was once a colony of Phoenicia, a group of sea-trading city-states on the Mediterranean. Punic comes from the Latin word Phoenician.

Effects of Expansion
The Roman conquerors brought back great wealth and many slaves. They bought large estates and farmed them with slave labor. But because many small farmers couldn't compete, they lost their farms. As a result, unemployment and poverty increased. The gap between rich and poor grew wider. This, in turn, produced more anger and tension between the classes.

Lesson Summary

Early Rome was divided into two classes-patricians and plebeians.

The Roman Republic was a tripartite system that provided a model for the U.S. government.

Roman expansion brought new lands and great wealth for Rome.

Why It Matters Now . . .
Some of the most basic values and institutions of the United States, such as civic duty and a separate judicial branch, began in the Roman Republic.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Build on What You Know You have already learned that Rome overthrew its kings and formed a republic. This change to self-rule would not only affect Rome's government. It would also affect Roman society. Early Strengths of Roman Society ESSENTIAL QUESTION How was Roman society structured?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Tens of thousands of Romans take their seats in an enormous stadium made of stone and concrete. It's the year 80, and these people are entering the newly built Colosseum for the first time. Men wearing togas and women in long dresses called stolas will spend the next hundred days watching gladiator games and wild animal fights to celebrate the opening of this amphitheater.

These ancient people were living in the center of a vast empire that spanned across Europe, northern Africa, and parts of the Middle East. Lasting over a thousand years, the ancient Roman civilization contributed to modern languages, government, architecture, and more.

History of ancient Rome

Around the ninth or tenth century B.C., Rome was just a small town on the Tiber River in what's now central Italy. (One myth says that the town was founded by two brothers-Romulus and Remus-who were raised by a wolf.) For about 500 years, the area was ruled by a series of kings as it grew in strength and power.

But around the year 509 B.C., the last king was overthrown, and Rome became a republic. That meant that some citizens could vote for their leaders and other important matters. Only male Roman citizens could cast votes; women and enslaved people-often brought back as prisoners from military battles-could not.

Elected officials included two consuls who acted sort of like today's U.S. presidents and kept each other from taking too much power. Both consuls worked with senators, who advised the consuls and helped create laws. Senators were appointed by other officials and could hold their positions for life.

The Roman army fought many wars during this period, first conquering all of what's now Italy. In 146 B.C., they destroyed the city of Carthage (in modern-day Tunisia, in northern Africa), which was Rome's greatest rival for trade in the western Mediterranean Sea. Next they conquered Greece.

For 500 years, the republic system mostly worked. But then a series of civil wars divided the people. In 59 B.C., Gaius Julius Caesar, a politician and military general, used the chaos to take power. Serving as consul, Caesar made new laws that benefitted his troops and other regular citizens. Then he conquered what's now France and invaded Britain.

Even though his troops and many Roman citizens supported him, the Senate worried he was too powerful and wanted him gone. Knowing this, Caesar marched his loyal army into Rome. It was an illegal act that started a civil war, which Caesar would eventually win.

At first, he was named dictator for 10 years. (Before that, a dictator served during times of emergencies for only six months.) He canceled people's debts and granted Roman citizenship to people outside of Italy so they could vote. Caesar also traveled to Egypt, making an alliance with the pharaoh Cleopatra.

In 44 B.C., Caesar named himself dictator for life. Fearing he was becoming a king, a group of senators killed him on the floor of the Senate. Caesar was gone, but his supporters chased down the assassins. His heir and nephew, Octavian, and general Mark Anthony battled for power.

Octavian eventually won and renamed himself Augustus Caesar. (The family name, Caesar, would become a title that future emperors would use to connect themselves back to Gaius Julius Caesar.) He convinced the Senate to give him absolute power and served successfully for 45 years. After his death, he was declared a god.

For the rest of its existence, Rome was ruled by emperors who were not elected-they reigned for life. The Senate was still part of the government, but it had very little power. Some emperors, like Claudius, were good at their jobs; others, like Nero and Caligula, were so cruel that even their guards turned against them.

By A.D. 117, the Roman Empire included what's now France, Spain, Greece, Egypt, Turkey, parts of northern Africa, England, Romania, and more. At one point, one out of every four people in the world lived under Rome's control.

But emperors and the Senate found this vast empire difficult to rule from the city of Rome. In the year 285, it was split into a Western Roman Empire and an Eastern Roman Empire. Known as the Byzantine Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire was ruled from the city of Constantinople, now the modern-day city of Istanbul in Turkey.

The Byzantine Empire would last for almost another thousand years, but the Western Empire-Rome-began to fall apart. Civil wars, plagues, money troubles, and invasions from other groups made the empire unstable. In the year 476, a Germanic king overthrew Romulus Augustus, the last Roman emperor.

Life in ancient Rome

Most people in the city of Rome lived in crowded apartment buildings called insulae that were five to seven stories high. Wealthier Romans lived in houses called domus that had a dining room and an atrium-an open-air courtyard that often had a pool at the center. Some Romans even had vacation homes in Pompeii and Herculaneum, two Roman cities that were destroyed when Mount Vesuvius erupted in A.D. 79.

Rich or poor, Romans gathered to relax, socialize, and clean themselves at Roman baths. Like modern spas, these structures had exercise rooms, swimming pools, saunas, hot and cold plunge pools, and massage spaces. The people also gathered to watch plays, chariot races, and gladiator battles.

Roman citizens enjoyed relaxing, but enslaved people in ancient Rome had a much more difficult life. Many worked in fields, mines, and on ships. Others, like educated Greeks who tutored wealthy children, were forced to work in rich people's homes. However, some enslaved people were able to buy or earn their freedom and eventually become Roman citizens.

Roman women sometimes worked as midwives-helping to deliver babies-or became priestesses. But in Roman society, women's main role was to look after the home and family. Although Romans could easily get divorced, children legally belonged to the father (or a male relative if he was no longer living).

Romans believed in many gods, including the sky god Jupiter; Mars, a god who protected Romans in war; and Vesta, the goddess of the home. People would worship these gods and goddesses both at public temples and in their homes.

Why ancient Rome still matters

Today, the city of Rome is the capital of Italy, with around three million people. Visitors can still see many ancient Roman ruins, from the Colosseum to the Roman Forum, where much of ancient Roman politics took place.

But beyond the crumbling buildings, Rome's impact is seen all over the world today, from huge sports stadiums inspired by the Colosseum to the way that we vote for politicians. The republic's system of checks and balances on power even inspired the founders of the United States government.

If you drive in Europe or the Middle East today, you might be on a route created by the ancient Romans. Those engineers built a system of 50,000 miles of roads that connected the empire, allowing troops to easily conquer new land and traders to travel and bring back wealth. (It's where we get the saying, "All roads lead to Rome.")

You can also thank Roman engineers for perfecting a system for getting running water. They built aqueducts, which were long channels that delivered fresh water from up to 57 miles away for people's baths, fountains, and even toilets. (Some ancient aqueducts still provide water to modern-day Rome!)

Julius Caesar even gave the world its 365-day calendar with an extra day every fourth year, or leap year. The month of July is named after him, and August is named after his successor, Augustus.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Find out why this ancient civilization is still important more than 2,000 years after its fall.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Kids learn about the Government of Ancient Greece. The history of this world civilization.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
There was no central government in ancient Greece. Ancient Greece was never an empire. In fact, Greece, back then, was not even one country. People lived in city-states. Each city-state was an independent unit. Each city-state made their own laws, had their own coinage, and had their own way of doing things. But, they all spoke Greek, they all believed in the same gods, and they all shared a common history.

As time went on, there were probably over a thousand city-states established on the Greek peninsula, possibly even more. Some were very small. Others, like Athens, Corinth, Megara, Argos, and Sparta, were large and powerful. Be it big or small, the ancient Greeks were very loyal to their city-state, and very proud of their city-state's accomplishments.

City-states went to war with each other. They teamed up to fight another Greek city-state or to fight a common enemy from outside the Greek peninsula. They traded with each other. They negotiated with each other. They knew each other. But if you asked a Greek if he was a Greek, he would probably give you a puzzled look and identify himself by his city-state. He might say: "I am a man of Corinth" (or Olympia or whatever city-state he called home.)

There were three main forms of government used in ancient Greece by various city-states.

Ruled by a king: Some city-states were ruled by a king. This type of government is called a monarchy. The city-state of Corinth is an example; Corinth was ruled by a king.

Ruled by a small group: Some city-states were ruled by a small group of people. This type of government is called an oligarchy. The city-state of Sparta was ruled by a small group of retired and highly respected warriors.

Ruled by many: Athens experimented with direct democracy, or rule by many. For about 100 years, every citizen in Athens could directly vote in the assembly on issues. This form of government continued until Athens was conquered by Sparta.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
There was no central government in ancient Greece. Ancient Greece was never an empire. In fact, Greece, back then, was not even one country. People lived in city-states. Each city-state was an independent unit. Each city-state made their own laws, had their own coinage, and had their own way of doing things.

# data[].attributes.headline
The Court of Athens (Justice System) in Ancient Greece 

# data[].attributes.subject
The Court of Athens (Justice System) in Ancient Greece 

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
FIRST: You had tell the person that you were going to start an action against them to be heard in "court". You had to bring witnesses with you so your witnesses could testify that the person was told why you were bringing an action, and that you had given this person a date, time, and location that they had to appear in court to defend themselves.

SECOND: You had to post a written notice near the courthouse that clearly stated the names of both parties, the charges, and the date, time, and location of your first trip to court on this action.

FIRST TIME IN COURT: The first trip gave both parties a chance to speak before a judge. If the judge felt there was enough cause, that judge would assign a trial date. That trial date had to be posted as well.

JURY SELECTION, TRIAL BY JURY: To be on a jury, you had to be a citizen. You had to be over 30 years of age. You had to swear that you would be fair to both sides. You did get paid. Juries were selected from volunteers. The number of jurors could be huge. Some trials had as many as 500 jurors who had volunteered to judge a case. Only the jury could bring in a decision that someone was guilty or innocent. The judge only kept order, but could not decide a trial outcome.

THE TRIAL: Both sides presented their case. Then the jurors voted. Majority ruled.

PUNISHMENT: Punishments varied. If found guilty, both sides, the person bringing the charge and the person being charged, suggested a punishment. The jury could not choose a third choice. They had to choice one suggestion or the other.

FAMOUS ANCIENT GREEK TRIAL: The trial of Socrates. Nothing probably would have happened to Socrates if he had followed the rules. He knew how the court system worked in ancient Athens. But when the court him guilty, he was angry. The other side suggested death as punishment. Socrates, who found the charges against him ridiculous, suggested his fine be one piece of silver. He knew the jury would be angered by that. If Socrates had suggested a stronger punishment, the jury probably would have voted for it. But he left them little choice. By law, they had to pick one side's suggestion or the other, and be fair about it. Socrates had to treat the trial seriously. He did not, and it cost him his life.

Trial by jury was not invented by the ancient Greeks. But it was fine tuned. We use many of their steps in our court system today.

In the USA today, a defendant can choose to have a judge rather than a jury trial. But the right to trial by jury is the right of every American citizen. When a jury trial is selected, here's how it works:

Jury Selection. It is very citizens obligation to serve on a jury if called to do so. For jury trials, there are 6-12 jurors. Jurors are paid, very little, but they are paid around $10 a day plus mileage. To be on a jury, you have to be a citizen of the US, 18 or older, and you cannot be a convicted felon whose right to be a juror has been taken away.

After a jury has been selected, the jury hears opening statement by the attorneys. Then evidence is presented. There are closing arguments by the attorneys. Jury instruction is given by the judge. And the jurors are moved to a private room to discuss their decision among themselves. Once a jury reaches a decision, they go back into court and give their decision to the judge. In some types of trials, punishment is decided by the judge. In others, a jury decides it, but a judge can overrule their punishment if he or she thinks it is unreasonable or illegal.

QUIZ: Ancient Greek Government (Interactive with answers)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Court of Athens (Justice System) in Ancient Greece for Kids and Teachers - Ancient Greece for Kids

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
FIRST: You had tell the person that you were going to start an action against them to be heard in "court". You had to bring witnesses with you so your witnesses could testify that the person was told why you were bringing an action, and that you had given this person a date, time, and location that they had to appear in court to defend themselves.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Treasures of the UCLA Library: Cuneiform Tablets (Part 3 of 5)

# data[].attributes.headline
Wonders of Science and Technology in Ancient China

# data[].attributes.subject
Wonders of Science and Technology in Ancient China

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
​​Wonders of Science and Technology in Ancient China

# data[].attributes.headline
Ancient Inventions That Changed the World

# data[].attributes.subject
Ancient Inventions That Changed the World

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Ancient Inventions That Changed the World

# data[].attributes.headline
Education - Classical Cultures, Pedagogy, Literacy

# data[].attributes.subject
Education - Classical Cultures, Pedagogy, Literacy

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.authors[].name
Hugh F. Graham Professor of History, California State University, Bakersfield.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Education - Classical Cultures, Pedagogy, Literacy | Britannica

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Education - Classical Cultures, Pedagogy, Literacy: India is the site of one of the most ancient civilizations in the world. The Indo-European-speaking peoples who entered India in the 2nd millennium bce established large-scale settlements and founded powerful kingdoms. In the course of time, a group of intellectuals, the Brahmans, became priests and men of learning; another group, of nobles and soldiers, became the Kshatriyas; the agricultural and trading class was called the Vaishyas; and artisans and labourers became the Shudra. Such was the origin of the division of the Hindus into four varnas, or “classes.” Religion was the mainspring of all activities in ancient India. It

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Egyptian School

Formal education in ancient Egypt was mostly reserved for the boys of wealthier families.

Although there is some evidence that occasionally, girls did go to school and even became doctors.

Boys usually started school at the age of 7 and they were taught to read and write as well as mathematics.

A recent discovery in Egypt showed classrooms that were set up very similar to today's and there were inscriptions on the walls about the rules for behaving properly in class.

From the pictures and images, it seems that classrooms had tables for the children to use to write on and lessons were taught by teachers.

Some schools were designed for specific talents, such as 'Scribes'.

These were the people that would have the job of writing all of the history, letters and all communications.

Scribe students would spend hours writing and re-writing the hundreds of symbols that made up the Egyptian words.

There is evidence that the kids didn't always like doing the work and when they skipped school, they were punished.

What did they learn?

Most of the education for both boys and girls came from their mothers and fathers.

For boys, they learned the family trade.

For girls, they learned the household responsibilities including cooking, sewing and in some cases, even taking care of the family business.

If a boy was instructed in the art of building or sculpture, his father would hope that his talent was exceptional enough for him to be accepted as part of the tomb-builders.

If a boy failed to learn his trade well, he would be sent out of the village and would have to set up his life in another town.

Wisdom Texts in Ancient Egypt

If a boy attended a formal school they began at the lower grades, what we might consider kindergarten.

They would learn a number of lessons and these might include Egyptian literature.

These were called 'wisdom texts' and included many of the lessons on the way to get a good position in life.

The ultimate goal of the Egyptian student was to be good enough to be accepted in one of the high positions such as the royal palace, the temples or army, a government job, tax assessor or even medicine with the priests.

Learning to write

It seems that the lesson books, called 'Kemty' (which means completion) were not designed in the horizontal way we are taught, but instead, they used vertical (up and down) lines for children to learn and write in.

A majority of the Egyptian population did not receive any kind of formal education.

Many of the people worked in the fields and this type of job was passed down from father to son.

It was a rarity that anyone escaped the fate of their class and rose up to become educated or wealthy.

Girls and education

Some young girls were educated in both a formal manner and by their mothers.

Many Egyptian families required that the husband or father be away at various times, and this meant that the wife or mother had to run the family business.

In the royal families, girls received equal education to the boys and they were often advisors to the pharaoh.

It is said that in a lot of cases, it was the women that had the most influence over some of the major decisions that the pharaoh made.

This meant that the women had to be smart and aware of politics, history, the class writings, mathematics and all of the arts.

The children of royal families and the high officials and nobles had the opportunity to attend the Prince's School.

There is evidence that it was also open to other boys that showed excellent promise.

The school taught: Reading and writing and the Hieroglyphs, history, mathematics, geometry, geography, cartography (study of maps), science, ceremonial dance and music, astronomy, medicine, astrology and religious training.

Facts about Ancient Egyptian Education

School started for boys when they were 7 years old

Girls stayed at home to help around the home

Somethings girls did go to school, but many were home-schooled

Girls from lower-class backgrounds had very little education

Some lower-class and middle-class boy left school at 14 to work as apprentices to their father

Girls stayed at home to help with baking, cooking and running the home

Some boys trained to become scribes they got paid to write down information or read documents

Girls were not usually permitted to become scribes

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Ancient Egyptian Schools for Kids - Fun Facts

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Formal education in ancient Egypt was mostly reserved for the boys of wealthier families. Although there is some evidence that occasionally, girls did go to school and even became doctors. Boys usually started school at the age of 7 and they were taught to read and write as well as mathematics.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Roman Education

Most Roman education was based around Greek traditions, but it also included things like Roman politics and different religious beliefs.

The education that the Ancient Roman children had was a strong education. This education was important to Roman families and children that were from rich families would find tutors that would teach their children.

These tutors cost a lot of money and people that were poor, or slaves could not afford to have this type of education.

Children that were poor, most of the time, they had no education at all. This meant that those people would usually have jobs and would have to find work.

Most of the time, the children would be taught at home and most of them would not go inside of a school. If a family member was able to teach the child to read and write, that would be his or her job for a period of time.

Children that were not able to get a tutor or have someone in their family teach them education, they would be taught how to run a farm and how to work a business.

They would be taken out into society and would be taught how to act.

Girls were taught how to clean and how to be a good wife.

Roman Schools

The Romans picked up ideas about education from the Greeks. They felt that the Greeks had a great educational system and they wanted to try this out for themselves.

A school in Rome would be a very small school. These schools would be only one room and they would have one teacher. The teachers were not paid very good and they would work very long hours.

Learning would consist of the children learning to write and to read. They would have to learn to read and write because it was important for them to know how to do these things so that they could get into high paying jobs and into politics.

Other things that the teachers taught were Greek, literature and math. The main subjects in school were public speaking.

Most of the time, school started before it would get light out and the students would use candles or oil lamps in order to see in their classes and then around noon, they would take a break to eat lunch and then they would go back to work.

Discipline

If a child did not listen or was not able to answer the question in school, the children would be beaten by the teacher with a cane.

The teacher would beat the child if he spoke in class and was not given permission. The child could be beaten with a whip or a cane in front of the class for anything he did wrong.

Boys and Girls

The boys and girls were given a different kind of education and nothing was the same for them.

Boys were taught to read, write and would be given physical training that would make them strong. The boys were taught how to fight in case they ever had to go into the military.

Boys were also taught math, but it was usually simple math and they would learn to count, add and subtract numbers. It was hard to add numbers in the Roman system because the numbers were so difficult to write down.

When the boys turned around 12 or 13, most of them would be in grammar school. They would study things like Greek, Latin and literature and they would learn to speak properly.

When boys turned 16, they would go to another school where they would learn to speak publicly and work towards being an Orator or a public speaker.Advertisement

Girls were taught how to read and write and then they were also taught how to work inside of the home. Girls were expected to get married and to be able to run their home and take care of the children.

Facts About Ancient Roman Education:

Ancient Romans could speak, read and write very well.

Most Ancient Roman pottery is signed by the artist.

Most people in the Roman army could read and write.

School was not free and so sometimes the parents or the siblings would teach the school.

No learning was as important as learning to speak publicly.

Sometimes slaves were educated, and they could teach people in the home to read and write or they could become tutors.

What Did You Learn?

1. Was learning important to the Ancient Romans? Ancient Romans thought learning was very important.

2. Who was able to learn to read and write? People in rich homes were able to learn to read and write, but some poorer people could learn to read and write depending on who lived in the home.

3. What did poorer families do instead of education? Poorer families would teach their children to run farms, work in the home and run businesses.

4. What was the most important thing about education in Ancient Rome? The most important thing to do with education in Ancient Rome was public speaking.

5. Were girls and boys educated the same? Boys were taught to read, write and do math and to be physical so they could be warriors. Girls were taught only to read and write and to run the house.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Most Roman education was based around Greek traditions, but it also included things like Roman politics and different religious beliefs. The education that the Ancient Roman children had was a strong education. This education was important to Roman families and children that were from rich families would find tutors that would teach their children.

# data[].attributes.headline
A History of Education: Mesopotamia and the Sumerians

# data[].attributes.subject
A History of Education: Mesopotamia and the Sumerians

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A History of Education: Mesopotamia and the Sumerians

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Editor's Note: This is the 4th in a series of blogs that examine how education developed throughout history until the present. Links to previous blogs are included at the bottom of the post.] Scho...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Introduction
© RDS/Wellcome Trust Photographic Library

Animal rights are legal or moral rights to which nonhuman animals are believed to be entitled. Many people agree that an animal's basic right is to be free from ill-treatment and cruelty. As to what that entails, however, opinions differ. Some animal rights activists believe that animals should not be used in scientific and medical experiments. Others are against the use of animals as sources of entertainment-for example, in circuses, rodeos, and races. Some people also believe that it is wrong to keep animals in zoos or to kill them for food and clothing.

Philosophical Background
The proper treatment of animals has been debated in the West for centuries. Ancient Greek and Roman philosophers debated the place of animals in human morality. Some urged respect for animals' interests, primarily because they believed that the souls of animal and human bodies could transfer between each other after death.

Aristotle believed the world was filled with an infinity of beings arranged in ranks according to their complexity and perfection. In this Great Chain of Being, as it came to be known, humans occupied the highest position. All the other forms of life existed for the sake of those forms higher in the chain. The Great Chain of Being became one of the most persistent and powerful-although wrong-ways of conceiving the universe. It dominated scientific, philosophical, and religious thinking until the middle of the 19th century.

The ancient Greek and Roman philosophy known as Stoicism taught that all nonhuman animals were irrational. Practitioners thus regarded animals as slaves and treated them as beneath notice. St. Augustine (354-430) advocated these ideas, and they became embedded in Christian theology. They were absorbed into Roman law and eventually spread throughout Europe in the 11th century. Later these ideas were incorporated into English (and, much later, American) law. Meanwhile, arguments that urged respect for the interests of animals nearly disappeared. The idea of animal welfare did not become popular again until the final decades of the 20th century.

Animals and the Law
In the legal arena in the West, animals have long been categorized as things, not as persons. While legal persons have rights of their own, legal things do not. Legal things exist in the law solely as the objects of legal persons. However, as a possession, animals are often indirectly protected by laws intended to preserve the rights of animal owners. For example, some civil statutes permit owners to obtain payment for damages inflicted on their animals.

A legal thing can become a legal person. This happened whenever human slaves, who had been categorized legally as things, were freed. The former slaves then possessed their own legal rights and remedies. Scholars have frequently compared the legal status of animals and that of human slaves. In the 20th century the American jurist Roscoe Pound wrote that in ancient Rome a slave "was a thing, and as such, like animals could be the object of rights of property." The British historian of Roman law Barry Nicholas has pointed out that in Rome "the slave was a thing...he himself had no rights: he was merely an object of rights, like an animal."

It was not until the late 18th and early 19th centuries that the status of animals began to change. Humanitarian reformers in Britain and the United States, campaigning on behalf of the weak and defenseless, included the cruel treatment of animals in their protests. Abolitionist William Wilberforce was a major force in Britain. In the early 1800s he supported bills against bearbaiting (the setting of dogs on a chained bear) and the cruel treatment of cattle. By the mid-1900s all the states in the United States had anticruelty and animal welfare laws. Laws such as the federal Animal Welfare Act (1966), for example, regulate what humans may do to animals in such areas as agriculture, biomedical research, and entertainment. However, these animal-protection statutes did not alter the traditional legal status of animals as legal things.

Modern Animal Rights Debate
Since the 1970s the philosophical debate on animal rights has gotten stronger. Australian philosopher Peter Singer argued in his book Animal Liberation (1972) that the interests of humans and the interests of animals should be given equal consideration. He holds that the key consideration is whether an animal can suffer pain or experience pleasure. Since animals can, then humans have a moral obligation to minimize or to avoid causing suffering.

On the reverse side, some contemporary philosophical opponents argue that animals should not be held as highly as humans since they believe animals do not have an immortal soul. Another argument is that humans should not feel any obligation to animals because animals are irrational. Despite the objections, the traditional legal status of animals remains as things, and thus animals do not have the legal rights that humans do.

Physicians, writers, scientists, academics, lawyers, theologians, veterinarians, and other professionals have joined the debate. Some have established professional organizations to educate colleagues and the general public about the exploitation of animals. Dozens of law schools in Europe, the United States, and elsewhere began offering courses in animal law and animal rights.

Legal scholars began coming up with theories by which nonhuman animals could possess basic legal rights. They backed their arguments with sophisticated scientific investigations into the mental, emotional, and social capacities of animals. Many studies demonstrated that humans and animals share a broad range of behaviors, capacities, and genetic material.

Meanwhile, animal abuse in modern society continued to increase. People began objecting to previously accepted practices such as industrial factory farming and animal testing. In factory farming, livestock are raised indoors in crowded spaces, sometimes in unsanitary conditions and under a variety of evidently cruel practices. In animal testing, scientists experiment on animals to increase medical, biological, or psychological knowledge. In addition, pharmaceutical and other industrial laboratories routinely use animals to screen drugs, cosmetics, and other substances before selling them for human use.

Activists rallied against such practices and created thousands of animal rights groups. Some consisted of a few people interested in local animal-protection issues, such as animal shelters that care for stray dogs and cats. Others became large national and international organizations, such as PETA (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals). In the early 21st century, the Humane Society of the United States had millions of members and a multimillion-dollar annual budget. The animal rights groups began to demand regulation and reform. Many used creative advertising campaigns or celebrity spokespeople to deliver their messages. Among these groups' accomplishments, they were able to dissuade some cosmetic companies from testing their products on animals. Animal rights activists also convinced some well-known fashion designers to refrain from using fur in their clothing lines.

Activists also continued to pressure law-making bodies for changes in animal rights. In 2008 the Spanish parliament adopted resolutions urging the government to grant orangutans, chimpanzees, and gorillas some rights previously given only to humans. The resolutions also called for banning the use of apes in performances, harmful research, and trading. Although zoos would still be allowed to hold apes, they would be required to provide them with "optimal" living conditions. However, by 2020 these resolutions still had not been passed into law.

Legal activism was also strong in the United States. In 2013 the Nonhuman Rights Project (NhRP) filed petitions in three trial courts in the state of New York on behalf of four captive chimpanzees-Tommy, Kiko, Hercules, and Leo. The petitions asked that the courts recognize that chimpanzees are legal persons who possess the fundamental legal right to bodily liberty. All three petitions were denied. However, Hercules and Leo were eventually released to a chimpanzee sanctuary. The organization continued to file lawsuits on behalf of other chimpanzees and elephants.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Animal rights are legal or moral rights to which nonhuman animals are believed to be entitled. Many people agree that an animal's basic right is to be free from ill-treatment...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Old World civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and North China

The history of civilization started in the Middle East about 3000 bce, whereas the North China civilization began about a millennium and a half later. The Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations flourished almost simultaneously during the first civilizational phase (3000-1500 bce). Although these civilizations differed, they shared monumental literary achievements. The need for the perpetuation of these highly developed civilizations made writing and formal education indispensable.

Egypt

Egyptian culture and education were preserved and controlled chiefly by the priests, a powerful intellectual elite in the Egyptian theocracy who also served as the political bulwarks by preventing cultural diversity. The humanities as well as such practical subjects as science, medicine, mathematics, and geometry were in the hands of the priests, who taught in formal schools. Vocational skills relating to such fields as architecture, engineering, and sculpture were generally transmitted outside the context of formal schooling.

Egyptians developed two types of formal schools for privileged youth under the supervision of governmental officials and priests: one for scribes and the other for priest trainees. At the age of 5, pupils entered the writing school and continued their studies in reading and writing until the age of 16 or 17. At the age of 13 or 14 the schoolboys were also given practical training in offices for which they were being prepared. Priesthood training began at the temple college, which boys entered at the age of 17; the length of training depending upon the requirements for various priestly offices. It is not clear whether or not the practical sciences constituted a part of the systematically organized curriculum of the temple college.

Rigid method and severe discipline were applied to achieve uniformity in cultural transmission, since deviation from the traditional pattern of thought was strictly prohibited. Drill and memorization were the typical methods employed. But, as noted, Egyptians also used a work-study method in the final phase of the training for scribes.

Mesopotamia

As a civilization contemporary with Egyptian civilization, Mesopotamia developed education quite similar to that of its counterpart with respect to its purpose and training. Formal education was practical and aimed to train scribes and priests. It was extended from basic reading, writing, and religion to higher learning in law, medicine, and astrology. Generally, youth of the upper classes were prepared to become scribes, who ranged from copyists to librarians and teachers. The schools for priests were said to be as numerous as temples. This indicates not only the thoroughness but also the supremacy of priestly education. Very little is known about higher education, but the advancement of the priestly work sheds light upon the extensive nature of intellectual pursuit.

As in the case of Egypt, the priests in Mesopotamia dominated the intellectual and educational domain as well as the applied. The centre of intellectual activity and training was the library, which was usually housed in a temple under the supervision of influential priests. Methods of teaching and learning were memorization, oral repetition, copying models, and individual instruction. It is believed that the exact copying of scripts was the hardest and most strenuous and served as the test of excellence in learning. The period of education was long and rigorous, and discipline was harsh.

North China

In North China, the civilization of which began with the emergence of the Shang era, complex educational practices were in effect at a very early date. In fact, every important foundation of the formation of modern Chinese character was already established, to a great extent, more than 3,000 years ago.

Chinese ancient formal education was distinguished by its markedly secular and moral character. Its paramount purpose was to develop a sense of moral sensitivity and duty toward people and the state. Even in the early civilizational stage, harmonious human relations, rituals, and music formed the curriculum.

Formal colleges and schools probably antedate the Zhou dynasty of the 1st millennium bce, at least in the imperial capitals. Local states probably had less-organized institutions, such as halls of study, village schools, and district schools. With regard to actual methods of education, ancient Chinese learned from bamboo books and obtained moral training and practice in rituals by word of mouth and example. Rigid rote learning, which typified later Chinese education, seems to have been rather condemned. Education was regarded as the process of individual development from within.

The outstanding cultural achievements of the pre-Columbian civilizations are often compared with those of Old World civilizations. The ancient Mayan calendar, which surpassed Europe's Julian calendar in accuracy, was, for example, a great accomplishment demonstrating the extraordinary degree of knowledge of astronomy and mathematics possessed by the Maya. Equally impressive are the sophistication of the Incas' calendar and their highway construction, the development of the Mayan complex writing system, and the magnificent temples of the Aztecs. It is unfortunate that archaeological findings and written documents hardly shed sufficient light upon education among the Maya, Aztecs, and Incas. But from available documents it is evident that these pre-Columbian civilizations developed formal education for training the nobility and priests. The major purposes of education were cultural conservation, vocational training, moral and character training, and control of cultural deviation.

Being a highly religious culture, the Maya regarded the priesthood as one of the most influential factors in the development of their society. The priest enjoyed high prestige by virtue of his extensive knowledge, literate skills, and religious and moral leadership, and high priests served as major advisers of the rulers and the nobility. To obtain a priesthood, which was usually inherited from his father or another close relative, the trainee had to receive rigorous education in the school where priests taught history, writing, methods of divining, medicine, and the calendar system.

Character training was one of the salient features of Mayan education. The inculcation of self-restraint, cooperative work, and moderation was highly emphasized in various stages of socialization as well as on various occasions of religious festivals. In order to develop self-discipline, the future priest endured a long period of continence and abstinence and, to develop a sense of loyalty to community, he engaged in group labour.

Among the Aztecs, cultural preservation relied heavily upon oral transmission and rote memorization of important events, calendrical information, and religious knowledge. Priests and noble elders, who were called conservators, were in charge of education. Since one of the important responsibilities of the conservator was to censor new poems and songs, he took the greatest care in teaching poetry, particularly divine songs.

At the , the school for native learning where apprenticeship started at the age of 10, the history of Mexico and the content of the historical codices were systematically taught. The calmecac played the most vital role in ensuring oral transmission of history through oratory, poetry, and music, which were employed to make accurate memorization of events easier and to galvanize remembrance. Visual aids, such as simple graphic representations, were used to guide recitation phases, to sustain interest, and to increase comprehension of facts and dates.

The Incas did not possess a written or recorded language as far as is known. Like the Aztecs, they also depended largely on oral transmission as a means of maintaining the preservation of their culture. Inca education was divided into two distinct categories: vocational education for common Incas and highly formalized training for the nobility. As the Inca empire was a theocratic, imperial government based upon agrarian collectivism, the rulers were concerned about the vocational training of men and women in collective agriculture. Personal freedom, life, and work were subservient to the community. At birth an individual's place in the society was strictly ordained, and at five years of age every child was taken over by the government, and his socialization and vocational training were supervised by government surrogates.

Education for the nobility consisted of a four-year program that was clearly defined in terms of the curricula and rituals. In the first year the pupils learned Quechua, the language of the nobility. The second year was devoted to the study of religion and the third year to learning about the quipu ( khipu), a complex system of knotted coloured strings or cords used largely for accounting purposes. In the fourth year major attention was given to the study of history, with additional instruction in sciences, geometry, geography, and astronomy. The instructors were highly respected encyclopaedic scholars known as amautas. After the completion of this education, the pupils were required to pass a series of rigorous examinations in order to attain full status in the life of the Inca nobility.
Nobuo Shimahara

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Education - Ancient Societies, Literacy, Pedagogy

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Education - Ancient Societies, Literacy, Pedagogy: The history of civilization started in the Middle East about 3000 bce, whereas the North China civilization began about a millennium and a half later. The Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations flourished almost simultaneously during the first civilizational phase (3000-1500 bce).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
EBSCO Information Services, Inc. | www.ebsco.com

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Although the over 1,500 city-states in ancient Greece differed greatly in their approaches to life, they had one important goal in common: preparing their children for adult citizenship. Despite this common goal, each city-state focused on different educational goals, with predominant city-states such as Athens and Sparta taking radically different approaches. Military city-state Sparta worked to produce soldier-citizens, while democratic city-state Athens focused on developing citizens trained in both peace and war. Greek philosophers, such as Socrates and Plato, helped to lay the foundation of Western philosophy and science and introduced the concepts of the rights of citizens, democracy, and freedom of speech and religion. Hippocrates has been deemed the father of Western medicine, and mathematicians and scientists including Aristotle, Archimedes, and Eratosthenes established the criteria for exploring and understanding the natural world. The Greeks' relationships with their humanized gods enhanced the spirituality of human beings.

Background

In most Greek city-states except Sparta, Greek boys were formally educated in schools, while Greek girls were given domestic educations at home. Girls who did learn to read and write were taught by their mothers in the confines of their own courtyards. Generally, women spent their entire lives confined to their homes, except in Sparta, where citizen women were freer to move around because their husbands did not live at home. The hetaerae, or courtesans, were the most highly educated women, attending special schools to learn how to be entertaining and intellectually challenging companions to the affluent men who could afford them.

In ancient Athens, boys from ages six to fourteen went to a neighborhood primary school or a private school with tuition priced low enough to enable poor boys to attend. Most Greek schools had fewer than twenty boys enrolled and often held classes outdoors. At age thirteen or fourteen, the poorer boys ended their formal education and were directed into an apprenticeship at a trade. The philosopher-teachers taught the more affluent boys.

The parents of Spartan boys sent them to military school at age six or seven, where they were placed in sternly disciplined groups supervised by a hierarchy of officers. From age seven to eighteen, they progressed through an incrementally severe training course in which reading and writing were considered secondary to learning military skills. Between the ages of eighteen and twenty, Spartan boys had to pass a rigorous fitness, military ability, and leadership skills test. After passing the test, they joined the state militia, living in barracks instead of with their families. When they reached age sixty, they could retire and live with their families.

Sparta also provided training beyond the domestic arts for girls, sending them to school between ages six and seven, where they lived and trained in barracks. Girls were also required to pass a rigorous skills and fitness test at age eighteen and after successfully passing were assigned husbands and sent back home. Both boys and girls failing the test lost their citizenship rights and joined the perioikos, or middle class.

Overview

Greek education and educators have left lasting imprints on modern education, including classical art, medicine, and philosophy. Many symbols used in physics and higher math equations derive from the Greek alphabet. Eratosthenes, from the third century BCE, used math and physics principles to arrive at an approximation of the earth's circumference. About the same time, Archimedes discovered the principle that submerging a solid object displaces an amount of liquid matching the weight of the object. Aristotle developed the idea that organisms and institutions follow patterns and progress toward their natural purposes. Acorns develop into oak trees and human babies grow into human adults. Following this logic, he concluded that the end product of education is a civilized adult.

The fifth century BCE marked significant changes in the Greek world, including the defeat of the Persians, the rise of Athens and democracy, and the evolution of philosophy. Aristotle explained the change by pointing out that before and after the Persian wars, the Greeks pursued all kinds of education and ignored the practical demands of life. Special teachers in ancient Greece and the Roman Empire called Sophists used philosophy and rhetoric to teach excellence in various subjects. The Sophists focused on the mind of the individual in contrast to the mind of the community as in previous education, and they turned the attention of the Greeks away from fitting into the social unit as the goal of the individual to the social unit existing for the individual. Practical life became a vehicle to the higher life of the mind. The balance between gymnastics and music was destroyed, and the intellect became emphasized over the body as physical education became a prelude to cultured leisure. Aesthetic enjoyment took the place of civil duty, and happiness became more important in education.

From the fifth century BCE well into the nineteenth century CE, the Greek and Roman conception of a classical education dominated and shaped the Western world. There were seven liberal arts divided into two groups: the trivium and the quadrivium. The trivium, or the verbal arts, was composed of grammar, logic, and rhetoric. The quadrivium, or the mathematical arts, was made up of arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. Each century redefined the concept of a classical education, and by the end of the eighteenth century, the definition of a classical education included studying literature, poetry, drama, philosophy, history, art, and language. Today, a classical education means an expansive study of the liberal arts and sciences.

Greek educational ideas are discernible in Western classical education, which is divided into three distinctive parts that roughly coordinate with the individual student's development. Primary education, often called the trivium, consists of grammar, logic, and rhetoric and is designed to teach students how to learn. Secondary education teaches a framework of concepts that hold all human knowledge, and then it fills in basic knowledge and develops the basis of every major human activity. Tertiary education prepares a student for an educated profession in fields such as law, theology, medicine, or science.

Bibliography

Carawan, Edwin. Oxford Readings in the Attic Orators. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2007. Print.

Cribiore, Raffaella, ed. Gymnastics of the Mind: Greek Education in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt. Princeton: Princeton UP, 2005. Print.

D'Angour, Armand S. "Plato and Play: Taking Education Seriously in Ancient Greece." American Journal of Play 5.3 (2013): n. pag. Web. 9 Dec. 2013.

Davidson, Thomas. The Education of the Greek People and Its Influence on Civilization. New York: Appleton, 1909. Web. 8 Dec. 2013.

Gagarin, Michael, ed. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome. Oxford: Oxford UP 2009. Print.

Lang, Andrew G.P., and Hugh D. Amos. These Were the Greeks. Chester Springs: Dufour Editions, 2010. Print.

Mark, Michael L. Music Education: Source Readings from Ancient Greece to Today. 4th ed. New York: Routledge, 2013. Print.

McDougall, Iain, J. C. Yardley, and Mark Joyal. Greek and Roman Education: A Sourcebook. New York: Routledge, 2008. Print.

Sienkewicz, Thomas J., ed. Ancient Greece: Education and Training. Hackensack: Salem, 2007. Print.

Too, Yun Lee. Education in Greek and Roman Antiquity. Boston: Brill, 2001. Print.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Education in ancient Greece was a diverse and complex system that aimed to prepare children for citizenship in over 1,500 city-states, each with its unique approach. Athens and Sparta exemplified two contrasting educational philosophies: while Sparta emphasized military training to produce soldier-citizens, Athens focused on a more well-rounded education fostering skills in both peace and warfare.

# data[].attributes.headline
Education in Ancient Egypt: From Primary Schools to Higher Studies 

# data[].attributes.subject
Education in Ancient Egypt: From Primary Schools to Higher Studies 

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Education in Ancient Egypt: From Primary Schools to Higher Studies

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
By Hossam Zidan Researcher Nagat Essam, specializing in the history of ancient Egypt, has uncovered details about the educational system of the ancient Egyptians, the first to establish schools and pr

# data[].attributes.headline
Proceedings: Animal Welfare: from Science to Law

# data[].attributes.subject
Proceedings: Animal Welfare: from Science to Law

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
La Fondation Droit Animal, Ethique et Sciences

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Professor Emeritus, Emeritus Chair in Animal Welfare, University of Guelph, Canada

[DOWNLOAD ARTICLE] [Download complete PDF 6.2Mo]

To cite this article (suggested): Duncan I.J.H., " Animal Welfare: A Brief History " [PDF file], In: Hild S. & Schweitzer L. (Eds), Animal Welfare: From Science to Law, 2019, pp.13-19.

Abstract

This paper traces the relationship of humankind to animals from the ancient Greeks to the 21st century. Up until the 17th century, philosophers regarded animals as being quite distinct from human beings; human beings had rationality whereas animals had none. This meant that animals had only instrumental value and could be used in any way that human beings desired. During the Enlightenment, philosophers started to realize that the distinction was not clear-cut; animals had some rationality. Bentham (1823) pointed out that rationality was not the important factor; animals could suffer and that was what mattered; animals had intrinsic value. Also during the 19th century, as part of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, it was seen that states of suffering and states of pleasure could also be adaptive. Although the foundation was now in place, the emergence of modern animal welfare science was delayed through the first 70 years of the 20th century by Behaviorism, which eschewed any consideration of subjective experiences. It took a controversial book by a layperson, Ruth Harrison, to stir both the scientific and philosophical community into developing theories of animal welfare and a book by an ethologist, Donald Griffin, to make it acceptable to study the feelings of animals.

Philosophers and Animal Welfare

A short consideration of the history of how animals have been dealt with by various Western philosophers sets the scene for how they are regarded today. Much of this early history is taken from Preece and Chamberlain (1993) and Preece (2002).

Aristotle (384-322 BC) studied under Plato at the Academy in Athens. Because Aristotle's ideas were so different from those of Plato, he did not succeed Plato as head of the Academy when Plato died. Instead Aristotle moved to Macedonia for a few years where he educated Alexander (the Great). He then returned to Athens and founded his own academy called the Lyceum. He obviously had an interest in animals since he gave lectures on zoology at the Lyceum. But of course, he is better known for his views on ethics and logic. Aristotle thought that the ability to reason is the highest of all abilities and it is this that sets human beings (actually Greeks!) above all other creatures. Aristotle also introduced the teleological argument i.e. "things being there for a purpose" e.g. "the purpose of rain is to water the plants". From these two ideas, a great hierarchical structure was built in which those with more reason should control those with less (with Gods being superior to men and controlling them, men being superior to women, Greeks being superior to other races, humans being superior to animals, and so on). According to this structure, human beings had absolute authority over all animals and could do what they liked with them. However, the indifference of the Greeks to the plight of animals pales into insignificance when compared to the attitude of the Romans. The Roman period is infamous for the cruelty to animals (and to human beings) inflicted over 400 years. Hundreds of thousands of animals of a wide range of species were subjected to unspeakable cruelty in the circuses - and all for human entertainment. The decline of the Roman Empire giving way to the Dark Ages is generally mourned as a loss of civilization, but at least the scale of cruelty to animals waned.

There is little in recorded history during the next thousand years detailing how animals were regarded by humankind until Aquinas in the 13th century. Saint Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) was an Italian Philosopher and a Theologian. He was educated at first at a monastery in Monte Casino, then at Naples, Paris and Cologne. He is best known for his subtle and delicate assimilation of Aristotle's ideas into the theology of his day. His ideas have experienced short periods of popularity through history. Aquinas rediscovered Aristotle's writings and he agreed that it was the ability to reason (or rationality) that made human beings distinct from all other animals. However, he gave Aristotle's ideas a Christian twist. He postulated that animals do not have immortal souls. He also claimed that human beings had no direct obligations to animals. However, they might have indirect moral obligations, in that people who mistreat animals may (1) pick up cruel habits and then treat other human beings badly, and (2) perpetrate a property wrong against the owner of the animal. According to Aquinas, animals do not have moral standing; they only have instrumental value. It is noteworthy that in one respect, Aquinas was correct. Recent research has shown that people who are maliciously cruel to animals early in life are at greater risk of being cruel to people later in life (Boat, 1995; Tallichet and Hensley, 2004; Hensley and Tallichet, 2005).

René Descartes (1596-1650) is often thought of as the father of modern philosophy. He was also a physicist, a physiologist and a mathematician. Descartes is usually singled out for special blame for introducing the idea of animals as 'automata' or machines. However, in a more considered review of Descartes' works, Cottingham (1978) points out that even though Descartes states that animals have no thought or language he does not actually say that they have no feelings or sensations. Indeed Kenny (1970) translates Descartes as saying "Similarly of all the things which dogs, horses and monkeys are made to do, are merely expressions of their fear, their hope, or their joy; and consequently, they can do these things without any thought." Present-day scholars continue to argue about what Descartes really meant by this. However, he certainly did not treat animals as if they were sentient. He was a vivisectionist, and dissected living, conscious animals (usually dogs) which suggests that he thought that 'fear', 'hope' and 'joy' were in some way unconscious emotions. The concept of 'unconscious emotion' is controversial and is currently being debated (e.g. Őhman et al., 2000; Winkielman and Berridge, 2004). Like Aristotle and Aquinas, Descartes also believed that rationality distinguished human beings from other animals and he added that language, which is a unique human attribute (sic), is the only real test of rationality. However, as suggested by the translated passage above, his translators and interpreters may have gone too far in blaming him for 'animals are machines'. He does seem to allow that animals might have emotions and might be driven by these emotions.

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) was an English philosopher who, in 1651, wrote the famous book Leviathan which formed the basis for Western political philosophy. Leviathan concerns the structure of society and legitimate government, and is regarded as one of the earliest and most influential examples of social contract theory. Hobbes' contention was that human beings act out of self-interest and that this leads to co-operation and social contracts. Since animals have no language (sic), they cannot enter into social contracts with other animals or with human beings. They are therefore not worthy of moral consideration. So, whereas Descartes thought that language was important as a sign of rationality, Hobbes thought that it was necessary for the drawing up of social contracts. However, the end result was the same; animals do not have language, therefore they do not merit moral consideration.

Overlapping with Hobbes was the English philosopher John Locke (1632-1704) who is considered to be the first of the British Empiricists. Empiricism emphasizes the role of experience, particularly sensory perception, in the formation of ideas. Locke postulated that when people are born, their minds are 'blank slates' or 'tabula rasa'. This was contrary to the previous belief that people were born with innate ideas. Locke also developed Thomas Hobbes' ideas on social contract theory. He was one of the earliest and most influential thinkers of the Enlightenment contributing to political philosophy and liberal theory. His ideas had a big influence on later Enlightenment thinkers such as Voltaire, Jean Jacques Rousseau and David Hume.

It is in Locke's writings that we get a first glimpse of a change of view with regard to animals. Locke says that there is evidence that animals (or what he calls "brutes") have the capacity to remember. He also allows that animals seem to have some very simple ideas and they can compare one thing to another - but only very imperfectly. To some extent they can compound (put ideas together) but Locke draws the line at abstraction. He clearly states that animals cannot form abstractions. So Locke concludes that there are huge differences between human beings and other animals, but that animals do have some simple mental capacities, and this is a big departure from calling them 'automata'.

The German, Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) lived well after Locke but he maintained the traditional view that animals have only instrumental value. Kant is an important philosopher in the development of moral philosophy. He wrote a very influential book called Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals. Kant believed that morality is a case of following absolute rules. For example, he thought that lying was morally wrong and that we should never lie no matter what the circumstances are. Kant's philosophy was that one should treat a human being as an end in himself/herself and not as a means to an end. He developed the philosophy that human beings have intrinsic (or inherent) value and not merely instrumental value. The reason they have intrinsic value (once again) is that they have rationality and in particular they can reason about ethics. Animals, on the other hand, cannot reason (particularly about ethics!), and therefore have only instrumental value.

So these five philosophers, Aristotle, Aquinas, Descartes, Hobbes and Kant, developed a position that has dominated the traditional Western view of how animals should be treated. The position was based on two claims: (1) Human beings have a special attribute that makes them distinct from all other animals (a factual claim) and (2) having this special attribute makes human beings objects of direct moral concern (a moral claim). The special attribute was rationality, and in particular having language and being able to engage in ethical thought. The traditional Christian view incorporated an additional distinction, namely that animals did not have immortal souls. John Locke has been left out of this list because he was the first to realize that the distinction between animals and human beings was not as clear cut as the others suggested.

With the emergence of the period we call 'The Enlightenment' in Europe, things started to change. The Scottish philosopher, David Hume (1711-1776), wrote on learning in animals, "It seems evident, that animals learn many things from experience, and infer that the same events will always follow from the same causes". He went on to say: "Is it not experience, which renders a dog apprehensive of pain, when you menace him, or lift up the whip to beat him?" (Hume, 1739 pp. 397-398). He thus began to dispute the previous views that animals have no moral standing. Hume was a hard-line atheist and so the question of anyone having an immortal soul did not arise.

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) was an English social reformer who was very concerned about the conditions that many workers were forced to accept during the Industrial Revolution. He worked closely with James Mill, a like-minded Scottish social reformer. In contrast to Kant, Bentham thought that it was the consequences of actions that were important. So, for example, telling a lie might be morally acceptable if the consequences of doing so were better than not telling a lie. He had little to say about animals. However, in one of his books he dealt very briefly with animals. He rejected both of the previous claims of Aristotle, Aquinas, Descartes, Hobbes and Kant outright. According to Bentham, rationality is not the relevant matter. "The question is not, Can they reason? nor, Can they talk? But, Can they suffer?" (Bentham, 1823). John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) was the son of James Mill and a close friend of Jeremy Bentham. Mill developed Bentham's ideas into the philosophy of Utilitarianism (Mill, 1910) or The Greatest Happiness Principle according to which "Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness". Happiness is defined as pleasure and the absence of pain; unhappiness is defined as pain and the privation of pleasure. Bentham and Mill did not wish their new theory to have the title "The Greatest Happiness Principle" and they searched around for another name. They came across the word "utilitarian" in the writings of a Scottish novelist, John Galt, and they asked him if they could use this for the name of their theory, and Galt agreed.

Scientists and Animal Welfare

These ideas and theories were those of philosophers. But what about scientists? When did they start to think about animal welfare and, in particular, when did they start to think about sentience? Of course, it could be argued that Descartes was a scientist as well as a philosopher. However, as has already been argued, the evidence shows that Descartes certainly did not treat animals as if they were sentient or as if their welfare mattered.

Most people would probably reach back to the writings of Darwin for some reference to animal sentience. However, more than thirty years before Darwin's (1872) The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, an English veterinarian was writing about sentience in animals. William Youatt (1776-1847) embarked on a career as a veterinarian at the mature age of thirty-five. He was training to be a minister of the church when he suddenly left home in south-west England and moved to London. He attended the Veterinary College there (later to become the Royal Veterinary College) for two years before leaving and setting up in practice without completing his training. He was a very prolific writer and published several books including Canine Madness (1830) (a book on rabies), The Horse. With a Treatise on Draught (1931), Cattle. Their Breeds, Management and Diseases (1834) and Sheep (1837), many of which are still referred to today. The book that is of particular interest to us is one that deals with many different aspects of animal welfare (Youatt, 1839). In this book Youatt writes of animals' senses, emotions, consciousness, attention, memory, sagacity, docility, association of ideas, imagination, reason, instinct, social affections, the moral qualities, friendship and loyalty. So he, most definitely, knew that animals were sentient! He wrote of the intellectual faculties "We are endeavouring to shew that the difference [between humans and animals] in one of the most essential of all points, is in degree and not in kind". He also wrote "We are operating on animals that have, probably, as keen feelings of pleasure and of pain as ourselves". Youatt condemned many practices as being cruel and inhumane such as, too early training of race horses, steeple-chasing, transport methods for newly-born calves, methods of raising veal calves, slaughter-house management, tail-docking and ear-cropping of dogs, using live bait for fishing, dissection of living animals, and force-feeding of capons and turkeys. It is noteworthy that many of these practices are still being hotly debated today!

In his book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals Darwin (1872) noted the universal nature of human facial emotional expression, described some commonalities in expression of emotions in animals, and suggested a shared evolution. Darwin was mainly interested in emotional expression and so he described the underlying anatomy and physiology, the signal value of the expression, and the evolution of the emotions. He seemed to accept the subjective experience associated with the emotions, but this was not explored in any depth. It was left to George John Romanes (1848-1894), a friend and disciple of Darwin's, to be explicit about the subjective experiences of feelings. In his book Mental Evolution in Animals, Romanes (1883) wrote " Pleasures and Pains must have been evolved as the subjective accompaniment of processes which are respectively beneficial or injurious to the organism, and so evolved for the purpose or to the end that the organism should seek the one and shun the other. "

The 100-year Hiatus

Since it was accepted 130 years ago by philosophers, scientists and society in general that animals have feelings, why did it take another 100 years for animal welfare science to develop as an accepted discipline? The answer seems to be that Behaviorism emerged at the start of the 20th century and had a huge inhibiting effect on the study of subjective phenomena. Behaviorism is a branch of psychology that was developed in the USA during the first 70 years of the 20th century. The foundations were laid by William James (1842-1910) who, late in his career, wrote " Consciousness ... is the name of a non-entity, and has no right to a place among first principles. Those who still cling to it are clinging to a mere echo, the faint rumour left behind by the disappearing 'soul' upon the air of philosophy... It seems to me that the hour is ripe for it to be openly and universally discarded " (James, 1904).

The father of Behaviorism is usually considered to be J.B. Watson (1878-1958). He laid out the principles of the discipline and wrote, " The behaviorist sweeps aside all medieval conceptions. He drops from his scientific vocabulary all subjective terms such as sensation, perception, image, desire and even thinking and emotion " (Watson, 1928).

The psychologist who developed techniques for measuring behaviour objectively according to behaviourist rules was B.F. Skinner (1904-1990). He is best known for inventing the operant conditioning chamber or 'Skinner Box'. He stated, "We seem to have a kind of inside information about our behaviour - we have feelings about it. And what a diversion they have proved to be! ... Feelings have proved to be one of the most fascinating attractions along the path of dalliance" (Skinner, 1975).

The Behaviorists were important scientists and their influence was felt throughout the animal behaviour field including in the discipline of ethology which was developing rapidly in Europe. With very few exceptions, behavioural scientists eschewed any consideration of animals' subjective experiences. There is no doubt that this delayed the emergence of animal welfare science by 80-100 years.

A Re-awakening

Big changes took place in animal agriculture following the Second World War. In response to the huge demand for cheap food there was a rapid industrialization of production methods. It seems likely that the general public was not aware of these changes since they often took place in closed housing systems. When the more intensive methods were revealed and criticized by Ruth Harrison in her book Animal Machines (Harrison, 1964), there was a huge public outcry. Harrison criticized intensive broiler production methods, poultry slaughter houses, battery cages for laying hens, crates for white veal production, broiler beef production, intensive rabbit production and 'sweat-box' conditions for fattening pigs. In her criticisms, Harrison laid much emphasis on animal suffering, that is, on the negative subjective states that the animals were experiencing. The public condemnation was so great that the British Government felt obliged to form a Committee of Enquiry under the chairmanship of Professor Rogers Brambell. Their report, often called the 'Brambell Report' (Command Paper 2836, 1965) concluded that, indeed, there was some cause for concern about animals in intensive production systems but that, in many instances, there was a lack of good scientific evidence to draw firm conclusions. They also thought that feelings were an important feature of welfare. They stated, " Welfare is a wide term that embraces both the physical and mental well-being of the animal. Any attempt to evaluate welfare, therefore, must take into account the scientific evidence available concerning the feelings of animals that can be derived from their structure and functions and also from their behaviour " (Command Paper 2836, 1965).

Nevertheless, in spite of these allusions to the feelings of animals in general and the suffering of animals in particular, the widespread view amongst the scientific community at this time was that welfare was intimately connected with stress. This can be seen in the publications of this period as scientists struggled to investigate welfare (e.g. Bareham, 1972; Bryant, 1972; Wood-Gush et al., 1975).

This pattern was broken by an American ethologist, Donald Griffin, who wrote a book entitled The Question of Animal Awareness (Griffin, 1976). He himself was not particularly interested in animal welfare, but his ideas legitimized a consideration of animals' subjective experiences and suddenly new approaches became available to animal welfare scientists. Thereafter, there was a burgeoning literature on animal sentience and welfare (e.g. Dawkins, 1980; Duncan, 1981, 1993; Appleby et al., 2011).

In parallel with the scientific re-awakening of interest in sentience and animal welfare, there has been an intense focus on the ethics of animal use. This was probably started by Peter Singer (b1946), an Australian philosopher who now holds the Chair of Bioethics at Princeton University. He has vigorously promoted a utilitarian approach to animal welfare. He published Animal Liberation in 1975 with a 2 nd edition in 1990 and a 3 rd edition in 2002. This was (and is) a very influential book. Singer argues that most animal use (including animal agriculture) is deeply objectionable. So he is arguing about the facts. He says that he is not against using animals or even against killing them, if (and only if) they have a good quality life and a painless death. Interestingly, Singer is also regarded as the father of Animal Rights although he himself is most definitely a utilitarian. A utilitarian approach has proved to be very useful in dealing with various moral dilemmas in human affairs. However, when animals are involved, it often becomes extremely difficult to weigh the happiness of humans against the suffering of animals. For example, should a scientist carry out medical research on chimpanzees in which many of the chimps will suffer and die but the research may find a cure for AIDS which will reduce suffering and benefit millions of human beings?

Using much of the evidence produced by Singer in Animal Liberation, Tom Regan (1938-2017), Emeritus Professor of Philosophy at North Carolina State University, developed the philosophy of Animal Rights and in 1983 published The Case for Animal Rights. In this book he argues that we are all subject of a life, conscious beings, have an individual welfare, want and prefer things, and believe and feel things. Therefore we (and all sentient creatures) have inherent value. Regan builds his argument as follows, " Individuals who have inherent value have an equal right to be treated with respect... It follows that we must never harm individuals who have inherent value " (Regan, 1983). According to Regan, killing is the biggest harm we can do to another individual. Regan is an abolitionist. He believes that human beings should not use animals at all - in animal agriculture, in biomedical science, for work or sport, or even as companions. It should be pointed out that Regan's version of animal rights is extreme; it is possible to build theories of limited animal rights (Tannenbaum, 1995). Such a theory might assign rights such as: farm animals have a right to be protected from climatic extremes; laboratory animals have a right to express strongly motivated behaviour; companion animals have a right to daily exercise; and so on.

One of the problems with Complete Animal Rights is that it only deals with human use of animals. However, many human activities are more indirect; the pollution of rivers, lakes and oceans, the pollution of the atmosphere, global warming etc., can all have a profound effect on the welfare of animals. Even activities like building roads, laying pipelines, and growing crops can have adverse effects on welfare. How can these indirect effects of human activities be studied properly if we are constrained by the philosophy "Do not use animals"?

References

Appleby, M.C., Mench, J.A., Olsson, I.A.S. and Hughes, B.O. (Eds), 2011. Animal Welfare, 2nd edn. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
Bareham, J.R., 1972. Effects of cages and semi-intensive deep litter pens on the behaviour, adrenal response and production in two strains of laying hens. British Veterinary Journal, 128: 153-163.
Bentham, J., 1823. An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Boat, B.W., 1995. The relationship between violence to children and violence to animals: An ignored link? Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 10: 229-235.
Bryant, M.J., 1972. The social environment: Behaviour and stress in housed livestock. Veterinary Record, 90: 351-359.
Command Paper 2836, 1965. Report of the Technical Committee to Enquire into the Welfare of Animals kept under Intensive Livestock Husbandry Systems. Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London.
Cottingham, J. 1978. "A brute to the brutes?" Descartes' treatment of animals. Philosophy, 53: 551-559.
Darwin, C., 1872. The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. John Murray, London.
Dawkins, M.S. 1980. Animal Suffering: The Science of Animal Welfare. Chapman & Hall, London.
Duncan, I.J.H., 1981. Animal rights - animal welfare: a scientist's assessment. Poultry Science, 60: 489-499.
Duncan, I.J.H., 1993. Welfare is to do with what animals feel. Joutnal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 6: Suppl. 2, 8-14.
Griffin, D., 1976. The Question of Animal Awareness. Rockefeller, New York.
Harrison, R., 1964. Animal Machines. Vincent Stuart, London.
Hensley, C. and Tallichet, S.E., 2005. Learning to be cruel?: Exploring the onset and frequency of animal cruelty. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 49: 37-47.
Hume, D., 1739. (New edition edited by L.A. Selby Bigge, 1888). A Treatise of Human Nature. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
James, W., 1904. Does 'consciousness' exist? Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods, 1: 477-491.
Kenny, A., 1970. Descartes' Philosophical Letters. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Mill, J.S., 1910. Utilitarianism. J.M. Dent, London.
Őhman, A., Flykt, A, and Lundqvist, D., 2000. Unconscious emotion: evolutionary perspectives, psychophysiological data and neuropsychological mechanisms. In: Ekman, P. and Davidson, R.J. (Eds.) Cognitive Neuroscience of Emotion. OUP, Oxford, pp. 296-327.
Preece. R., 2002. Awe for the Tiger, Love for the Lamb: A Chronicle of Sensibility to Animals. UBC Press, Vancouver.
Preece, R. and Chamberlain, L., 1993. Animal Welfare and Human Values. Wilfrid Laurier University Press, Waterloo, Canada.
Regan, T., 1983. The Case for Animal Rights. University of California Press, Berkeley, California.
Romanes, G.J., 1884 (reprinted 1969). Mental Evolution in Animals. AMS Press, New York.
Singer, P., 2002. Animal Liberation, 3rd edn. Random House, New York.
Skinner, B.F., 1975. The steep and thorny path to a science of behaviour. In: Problems of Scientific Revolution (Ed. R. Harre). Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 1-6.
Tallichet, S.E. and Hensley, C., 2004. Exploring the link between recurrent acts of childhood and adolescent animal cruelty and subsequent violent crime. Criminal Justice Review, 29: 304-316.
Tannenbaum, J., 1995. Veterinary Ethics. Mosby, St. Louis, Missouri.
Watson, J.B., 1928. Behaviorism. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London.
Winkielman, P. and Berridge, K.C., 2004. Unconscious emotion. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13: 120-123.
Wood-Gush, D.G.M., Duncan, I.J.H. and Fraser, D., 1975. Social stress and welfare problems in agricultural animals. In: The Behaviour of Domestic Animals (3rd edit.) (Ed. Hafez, E.S.E.) pp. 182-200. Baltimore, Williams and Wilkins.
Youatt, W., 1839. The Obligation and Extent of Humanity to Brutes, Principally Considered with Reference to the Domesticated Animals. Republished in 2004. Edited, introduced and annotated by Rod Preece. Edwin Mellen Press, Lewiston, N.Y.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This paper traces the relationship of humankind to animals from the ancient Greeks to the 21st century and the aknowledgement of animal welfare.

# data[].attributes.headline
Animal Welfare in Different Human Cultures, Traditions and Religious Faiths

# data[].attributes.subject
Animal Welfare in Different Human Cultures, Traditions and Religious Faiths

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Animal Welfare in Different Human Cultures, Traditions and Religious Faiths

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Animal welfare has become a growing concern affecting acceptability of agricultural systems in many countries around the world. An earlier Judeo-Christian interpretation of the Bible (1982) that dominion over animals meant that any degree of…

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Maintaining a steady supply of food was one of the primary struggles of ancient societies. For Early Rome, we have unusually good evidence for the causes of food scarcity and a number of examples of how the Romans responded to it. In this article, I will discuss Roman fears of crop failure, which would lead to food insecurity, and the frequency of famines, as far as we can tell from our paltry sources on the Early Republic.

Assuming that food security was a concern for the early Romans, a priori, is problematic, although it is a common perception of preindustrial societies. Thanks to a text commonly referred to as the Brontoscopic Calendar, however, we have strong evidence that crop failure was a major concern. This is a text which has been neglected until recently, but brings along with its use a major methodological quandary: can it be trusted? As it comes to us, it is a third-hand account of an Etruscan divinatory calendar.

The origin of the original is debatable, but it has recently been argued by the eminent Etruscologist Jean Macintosh Turfa that it came into being in the early seventh century BC. (For the most detailed discussion of the text and its origins, see Turfa 2012. A shorter introduction to it can be found in Turfa 2006. Both of these contain the Greek text from John Lydus as well as an English translation.)

In Rome, a contemporary of Cicero named Publius Nigidius Figulus translated this calendar from its original Etruscan into Latin. It was this translation that a Byzantine civil servant and philosopher, John Lydus (Johannes Laurentius Lydus/John the Lydian), translated into Greek in the Constantinople of Justinian's day. This latter translation is what survives today, with both Figulus' Latin version and the original Etruscan both being lost to antiquity. (This is a very brief introduction to a much more complex history than I have space for in this article. For this, see Turfa 2012, pp. 3-18. I acknowledge Turfa's arguments relating to the authenticity of the calendar and agree that the version we have today is probably rooted in an early Etruscan original.)

The Brontoscopic Calendar is a religious, divinatory, text set out in twelve months, with each day given an entry. It would have been used by priests to interpret thunderous noises coming from the heavens, whether due to a storm or otherwise.

To the Etruscans, these were divine signals of events to come. We can be tempted into seeing the images of deities in Etruscan art who are holding or throwing lightning bolts and equate this to the practice of brontoscopy. As has recently been pointed out by Nancy de Grummond, however, it is problematic for us to think that the two phenomenon were known to be related by the ancients (see De Grummond 2016).

Food and thunder

Despite that the Brontoscopic Calendar we possess is originally attributed to Etruria, the closing line of Lydus' text says that it was valid only for the area around Rome. Because of this, I believe that its use as evidence is acceptable in discussing Early Rome. So how does it help us to understand food insecurity?

References to food are common throughout the text, with Turfa declaring that this was "the most important aspect of life attested by the Brontoscopic" omens (Turfa 2012, p. 137). Some of the references point to abundancy, but others to shortage, which are the ones we are most concerned with in this article. Taking just those mentioned for the month of June, we see that there were many threats to the Roman food supply.

Uncooperative weather is a major concern. For instance, if thunder is heard on the third day of the month, it indicates that grain and fruit will shrivel up because of a hot wind. But, if thunder is heard on the fourth, it indicates that excessive rain will rot all of the crops. Interestingly, thunder on the twenty-sixth would indicate a harmful winter for the crops, evidence that the events predicted by brontoscopy would not necessarily play out immediately.

The predictions of the Calendar are not limited to the failure of crops, and some shed light on the politics and economics of food in Early Rome. For instance, if thunder is heard on the third day of March, there will be discord following a famine. One imagines that this "discord" would manifest as riots and other types of civil strife.

Sorting out the crises

Thankfully for the people of Rome, and its magistrates, there was a solution for when the crops failed. This was in the form of imports. Throughout the narratives of Early Rome we hear of grain being brought in from outside of Roman territory. It could be sought from the city-states nearby in Italy, such as those in Etruria or from further afield, notably from Cumae on the Bay of Naples and from Sicily (e.g. Livy 2.34).

In circumstances such as this, special magistrates may have been appointed to make sure that grain would make its way into the city. In 440/439 BC, Lucius Minucius was supposedly named as praefectus annonae, prefect of corn (Livy 4.12).

Although the historicity of the story and the events which surround it is generally held in doubt by many skeptical modern historians of the period, there is no reason to disbelieve that an ad hoc position of praefectus annonae could not have occasionally been used. (An important commentary on the story of Minucius, as well as Spurius Maelius, can be found in Ogilvie 1965, pp. 550-557. I agree, however, with the conclusion of Scullard 1980, p. 83: "attempts to undermine the historicity of Minucius have failed.")

Peter Garnsey identified sixteen instances of food shortages in Rome between 509 BC (the traditional date for the foundation of the Republic) and 296 BC (Garnsey 1988, pp. 168-172). In this period, despite the possible use of a praefectus annonae, the consuls were apparently responsible for finding a solution to food crises (Garnsey 1988, pp. 178-179). It could have been a practical approach, as these men would have been part of an "international" network of wealthy elites in the Central Mediterranean, especially in Central Italy, they would probably have had existing connections in the cities whence they sought grain.

When someone outside of the governmental structure sought to bring in grain, such as Spurius Maelius, they were viewed with suspicion. During the food shortage of 440/439 BC, as a private person he imported much grain into the city. Using his own money to do this, Maelius ended up being admired greatly by the plebs.

The events of this year were so worrisome for the Senate that a dictator was elected, Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus. Being accused of aspiring to become king, Maelius was eventually cut down on the streets of Rome by Gaius Servilius Ahala, Cincinnatus' Master of Horse (Livy 4.13-15). This story is deeply rhetorical and is generally considered ahistorical by modern sceptical historians.

Although the story of Maelius is spurious, there may be a kernel of truth to it. In the Brontoscopic Calendar we read for the entry of April the third, that thunder would signal "profit out of a grain supply brought from abroad" (transl. Turfa 2012, p. 99).

This could be an archaic memory of certain individuals exploiting food crises in order to make a profit, which would not necessarily fit with the story of Maelius, but does substantiate ill-feelings towards avaricious individuals importing grain from abroad without the consent of the consuls or the governing bodies of Rome.

Conclusions

Maintaining the food supply was a major concern in Early Rome. Responsibility for this fell to magistrates, perhaps the occasional praefectus annonae, or more regularly to the consuls.

When food did go scarce, they could seek imports from abroad which seemed to be enough to alleviate the crises. They may have been aided in predicting these shortages by priests interpreting omens, such as those who would have interpreted the hearing of thunder.

Thanks to the Brontoscopic Calendar, we can say with some certainty that these things really did happen in Early Rome, and that what we read about in the generally problematic Annalistic sources (i.e. Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus) have some kernel of historicity to them.

Further reading

P. Garnsey, Famine and Food Supply in the Graeco-Roman World: Responses to Risk and Crisis (1988).

N.T. de Grummond, "Thunder versus lightning in Etruria", Etruscan and Italic Studies 19.2 (2016), pp. 183-207.

R.M. Ogilvie, A Commentary on Livy: Books 1-5 (1965).

H.H. Scullard, A History of the Roman World: 753 to 146 BC (4th edition; 1980).

J.M. Turfa, Divining the Etruscan World: The Brontoscopic Calendar and Religious Practice (2012).

J.M. Turfa, "The Etruscan Brontoscopic Calendar", in: N.T. de Grummond and E. Simon (eds), The Religion of the Etruscans (2006), pp. 173-90.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Responsibility for solving food crises often falls to a community's leaders. Early Rome was no different, and in the first centuries of the Republic suffered from, and solved, the problem of food scarcity.

# data[].attributes.headline
FAMINE FOODS AND FOOD SECURITY IN THE NORTHERN MAYA LOWLANDS: MODERN LESSONS FOR ANCIENT RECONSTRUCTIONS

# data[].attributes.subject
FAMINE FOODS AND FOOD SECURITY IN THE NORTHERN MAYA LOWLANDS: MODERN LESSONS FOR ANCIENT RECONSTRUCTIONS

# data[].attributes.headline
Famines in medieval and early modern Europe—Connecting climate and society

# data[].attributes.subject
Famines in medieval and early modern Europe—Connecting climate and society

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In the ancient world the gods were often held responsible for one’s good health and making offerings to them, reading out spells or wearing amulets was a common way to make sure illness stayed far away…

# data[].attributes.headline
Mental Health Strategies That Have Asian Origins

# data[].attributes.subject
Mental Health Strategies That Have Asian Origins

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
10 Mental Health Strategies That Have Asian Origins

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Several popular mental health strategies that we use today have Asian origins, and have rich reputations in other countries for decades. Here’s everything you need to know about them.

# data[].attributes.headline
The Complete History of Animal Rights Activism

# data[].attributes.subject
The Complete History of Animal Rights Activism

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Complete History of Animal Rights Activism | Lions Tigers & Bears

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Explore the complete history of animal rights activism, from ancient times to modern movements. Discover how animal advocacy has shaped our world.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Popular Archeology - Ancient Egypt’s Great Hunger

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
How climate change altered the course of ancient Egyptian history.

# data[].attributes.headline
The secret to living a longer, healthier life – according to the ancients

# data[].attributes.subject
The secret to living a longer, healthier life – according to the ancients

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The secret to living a longer, healthier life – according to the ancients

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Ancient Greeks and Romans had a lot to say about longevity and good health, some of it remains true today says University of Melbourne expert

# data[].attributes.headline
Ancestral Diets: A Path to Optimal Health Through Ancient Eating Habits

# data[].attributes.subject
Ancestral Diets: A Path to Optimal Health Through Ancient Eating Habits

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Ancestral Diets: A Path to Optimal Health Through Ancient Eating Habit

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Introduction to Ancestral Diets The concept of ancestral diets stems from the idea that the eating habits of our pre-agricultural, hunter-gatherer ancestors were more aligned with human biology than today’s typical Western diet, which is laden with processed foods and refined sugars. These ancient diets were diverse

# data[].attributes.headline
Civilizations that ended due to famines 

# data[].attributes.subject
Civilizations that ended due to famines 

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Civilizations that ended due to famines - Afrika Hayat

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Famines are one of the most serious disasters that humanity can face, they affect health, economy, culture, lead to scarcity of resources, increase poverty

# data[].attributes.headline
Healthy Living in Ancient Times and Its Influence on Modern-Day Health Practices

# data[].attributes.subject
Healthy Living in Ancient Times and Its Influence on Modern-Day Health Practices

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Healthy Living in Ancient Times and Its Influence on Modern-Day Health Practices

# data[].attributes.headline
The Treatment of Animals in Ancient Civilizations and Its Impact on Today

# data[].attributes.subject
The Treatment of Animals in Ancient Civilizations and Its Impact on Today

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Treatment of Animals in Ancient Civilizations and Its Impact on Today

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Humans have a long and mysterious history. Many different types of people have worked together to figure out the mysteries of our past. Archeologists study early human history and ancient history by discovering artifacts that give us clues about our past. Historians study primary and secondary resources and connect ideas and make theories. Scientists use experiments to examine artifacts and test historical theories. Students, teachers, and citizens around the world study all the published work of archeologists, historians, and scientists to develop the current theories we have today. Millions of people of all ages have explored the past and tried to make new connections to understand our history. All of this work has put together a more clear idea of our past, but there are still many mysteries left to solve! New artifacts and discoveries are made every year, some of them make huge changes to our knowledge of the past.

Usually, the farther we go back in history the more mysterious the story. Humans lived for hundreds of thousands of years before civilization. Our pre-human ancestors lived for millions before that. Civilization was a new way of life. A civilization is an advanced society with agriculture, division of labor, multiple cities, organized religion, science/technology, some form of government, and a written language.

The achievement of "Civilization" happened at different times in different places around the world. There is not an official date when a group of people become a "civilization", so historians often choose different start dates, but most of them are close. The timeline above show the four earliest places where civilization began. The modern countries of , , India/Pakistan, and became ancient cultural hearths that still influence life peoples' lives today. A cultural hearth is a place where a culture first developed. This website is designed for kids. Ancient history for kids tries to provide a consistent history of early civilizations in basic language for students to understand. Hope you enjoy!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Ancient Civilizations | Ancient History for Kids

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Humans have a long and mysterious history. Many different types of people have worked together to figure out the mysteries of our past. Archeologists study early human history and ancient history by discovering artifacts that give us clues about our past. Historians study primary and secondary resources and connect ideas and make theories.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Kids learn about United States and world history. Social studies of American history and ancient civilizations for students and teachers.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Ancient Civilizations | Kids Discover Online

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Gain instant access to this beautifully designed Unit on Ancient Civilizations, where kids will learn all about Ancient Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, and more. Written for Grade 2 and Grade 3 learners. Written by subject experts, aligns with standards.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
It's the year 2490 B.C. Wooden boats cruise along the Nile River in Egypt as thousands of workers stack giant stone blocks into a pyramid. This 200-foot-tall structure honors a pharaoh named Menkaure. This pharaoh's father, Khafre, ordered construction of a 450-foot-high pyramid nearby, and his grandfather Khufu built the Great Pyramid at Giza-the largest of the three-at about 480 feet. Covered in polished white limestone, the pyramids seem to glow in the sunlight.

The Egyptians working on the pyramids are helping create a culture that will last more than 3,000 years-it will be one of the longest-lasting civilizations in the world. During that time, ancient Egyptians created works of art and engineering that still amaze us today.

History of ancient Egypt

People settled in Egypt as early as 6000 B.C. Over time, small villages joined together to become states until two kingdoms emerged: Lower Egypt, which covers the Nile River Delta up to the Mediterranean Sea in the north, and Upper Egypt, which covers the Nile Valley in the south. (The Nile River flows from south to north, so for the ancient Egyptians, the southern part of the country was "up.")

Around 3100 B.C., a king (later called a pharaoh) united these two lands to be one country, and so historians begin the long history of ancient Egypt here, dividing it into different periods. (They don't always know the exact date of historical events. So that's why you'll see a "ca" next to some of the years. It stands for "circa" meaning "around.")

Early Dynastic Period, about 525 years (ca 3100 B.C. to ca 2575 B.C.): These early pharaohs worked to keep the two lands under their control. To do this, they claimed they were being watched over by the falcon god Horus, and so the people of Egypt should respect them. They also used record keeping in the form of hieroglyphic writing to record things like royal decrees and the taxes that the people paid in the form of grain. (A dynasty is a series of rulers from the same family.)

Old Kingdom, about 425 years (ca 2575 B.C. to ca 2150 B.C.): By this time, the pharaohs had enough power and wealth to build pyramids in their honor; that's why the Old Kingdom is sometimes called the "Age of the Pyramids." The pharaohs at this time were mostly associated with the sun god Ra, a tradition that would remain for much of Egypt's history.

First Intermediate Period, about 200 years (ca 2130 B.C. to ca 1938 B.C.): These pharaohs lost power after drought hit Egypt. Instead, local leaders took control of their own communities, and they stopped passing along grain to the central government. Eventually, these local rulers formed independent states.

Middle Kingdom, about 300 years (ca 1938 B.C. to ca 1630 B.C.): Around 1938 B.C., Mentuhotep II reunited the country and began an era known for producing some of Egypt's greatest pieces of art. For the first time, Egyptians wrote stories for entertainment, and pharaohs started construction of Karnak Temple in the modern-day city of Luxor.

Second Intermediate Period, about 90 years (ca 1630 B.C. to ca 1540 B.C.): Weak pharaohs again lost control. Invaders from western Asia called Hyksos ruled in the north; people from Kush, a kingdom south of Egypt, took control in Upper Egypt.

New Kingdom, about 465 years (ca 1540 B.C. to 1075 B.C.): Egyptians took back control and crowned some of Egypt's most well-known rulers: The female pharaoh Hatshepsut ruled for 21 years; Akhenaten tried to start a new religion, and his son, the boy king Tutankhamun, reigned for 10 years. Ramses II built more monuments to himself than any other pharaoh. This was ancient Egypt's most prosperous and powerful period.

Third Intermediate Period, about 420 years (ca 1075 B.C. to ca 656 B.C.): This was a time of drought, famine, and foreign invasions. But some pharaohs thrived. Although King Taharqa was a foreign ruler from Kush, a kingdom south of Egypt, he repaired crumbling temples and even began building pyramids again for the first time in about 800 years.

Late Period, about 300 years (ca 656 B.C. to 332 B.C.): This period marks the last time that ancient Egypt was ruled by native Egyptians. Leading an army from Persia (what is now Iran), King Darius I took control.

Macedonian and Ptolemaic Egypt, about 300 years (332 B.C. to 30 B.C.): In 332 B.C., Alexander the Great conquered the ruling Persians, then gave control to the Greek general Ptolemy I Soter. From then on, Egypt was ruled by Greek pharaohs. The last one, Cleopatra VII, lost a war to the Roman ruler Octavian. Egypt would be under Roman rule for the next 600 years.

Life in ancient Egypt

Most people in ancient Egypt were farmers. They lived with their families in houses made of mud bricks that were near the Nile River.

The Nile flooded each year, leaving behind fertile soil for planting crops like wheat, barley, lettuce, flax, and papyrus. As the Egyptians learned how to move river water to their fields, they were able to grow more food, including grapes, apricots, olives, and beans.

During flood season, farmers couldn't tend their crops. So instead, some worked building pyramids, tombs, and monuments. Other people worked as scribes (people who recorded events), priests, and doctors.

Women in ancient Egypt had more freedom than those in other ancient cultures. Like men, they could be scribes, priests, and doctors, and they usually had the same rights as men. Women could own their own homes and businesses.

Ancient Egyptians also like to have fun! They swam and canoed in the Nile, played board games, and they enjoyed making music and dancing.

The afterlife

In fact, Egyptians enjoyed life so much that they believed that the afterlife would be almost exactly the same-except without things like sadness, illness, or pesky mosquitoes. Even pets like cats, dogs, or monkeys would join them there.

Being mummified-the process of preserving a body-was an important part of how Egyptians believed their soul would enter the afterlife. So were tombs. These burial chambers were filled with things a person would need there: food, games, and even underwear!

According to legend, ancient Egyptian gods also helped people in the afterlife. Some, like the jackal-headed god Anubis, helped guide people to the underworld, where they would be judged by its ruler, the god Osiris.

Egyptians believed other gods helped them in real life, too. For instance, Osiris's wife, the goddess Isis, helped cure human sickness, and the goddess Tefnut caused the rain to fall.

Pyramid power

Click through this gallery to see how the pyramid developed over time.

Why ancient Egypt still matters

Today, millions of tourists visit the country of Egypt each year to see the pyramids, tombs, and temples. But these monuments aren't all this ancient culture left behind.

Ancient Egyptian astronomers created a calendar much like ours-based on the sun's rotation-and are thought to be the first civilization to measure a year using 365 days. They were also math geniuses: Historians think that division and multiplication were first developed by these people. (Plus, how else would they have figured out how to build pyramids without a lot of math?)

This was also one of the first civilizations to have a written language using a system called hieroglyphic writing, in which symbols-not letters-represent words or sounds. (These people even created writing sheets out of a plant called papyrus.) Hieroglyphs are carved into most temples and tombs to record names and dates, describe events like battles, and give instructions for passing on to the afterlife.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Uncover the secrets of one of the world's oldest civilizations.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The term civilization basically means the level of development at which people live together peacefully in communities. Ancient civilization refers specifically to the first settled and stable communities that became the basis for later states, nations, and empires.

The study of ancient civilization is concerned with the earliest segments of the much broader subject called ancient history. The span of ancient history began with the invention of writing about 3100 bc and lasted for more than 35 centuries. Humankind existed long before the written word, but writing made the keeping of a historical record possible ( see human origins).

The first ancient societies arose in Mesopotamia and Egypt in the Middle East, in the Indus valley region of what are now Pakistan and India, in the Huang He (Yellow River) valley of China, on the island of Crete in the Aegean Sea, and in Central America. All these civilizations had certain features in common. They built cities and invented forms of writing. They learned to make pottery and use metals. They domesticated animals, and they created fairly complex social structures with class systems.

Apart from written records and carved inscriptions, the knowledge about ancient peoples is derived from the work of archaeologists. Most of the significant archaeological findings have been made in the past 200 years. The Sumerian culture of Mesopotamia was discovered in the 1890s, and some of the most important archaeological digs in China were made after the late 1970s.

The single, decisive factor that made it possible for humankind to settle in permanent communities was agriculture. A turning point in human history, the invention of farming and the tremendous changes it brought about have been called the agricultural revolution. After farming was developed in the Middle East about 6500 bc, people living in tribes or family units did not have to be on the move continually searching for food or herding their animals. Once people could control the production of food and be assured of a reliable annual supply of it, their lives changed completely.

People began to found permanent communities in fertile river valleys. They settled around rivers for a number of reasons. Rivers were an important source of fresh water for drinking. They could be used for transportation. Settlers also learned to use the water supply to irrigate the land for farming. Sedentary settlement, or being settled in one place, made it possible to domesticate animals in order to provide other sources of food and clothing.

Farming was indeed a revolutionary discovery. It not only made settlements possible-and ultimately the building of cities-but it also made available a reliable food supply. With more food available, more people could be fed. Populations therefore increased. The growing number of people available for more kinds of work led to the development of more complex social structures. With a food surplus, a community could support a variety of workers who were not farmers. The agricultural revolution thus resulted in a division of labor, with some people farming, while others worked at various crafts, such as making pottery, cloth, or tools. Craftspeople traded the goods they made to farmers for food.

Farming the world over has always relied upon a dependable water supply. For the earliest societies this meant rivers and streams or regular rainfall. The first great civilizations grew up along rivers. Later communities were able to develop by taking advantage of the rainy seasons.

All the ancient civilizations probably developed in much the same way, in spite of regional and climatic differences. As villages grew, the accumulation of more numerous and substantial goods became possible. Heavier pottery replaced animal-skin gourds as containers for food and liquids. Cloth could be woven from wool and flax. Permanent structures made of wood, brick, and stone could be built.

The science of mathematics was an early outgrowth of agriculture. People studied the movements of the Moon, Sun, and planets to calculate seasons. In so doing they created the first calendars. With a calendar it was possible to calculate the arrival of each growing season. Measurement of land areas was necessary if property was to be divided accurately. Measurements of amounts-for example, of seeds or grains-was also a factor in farming and housekeeping. Later came measures of value as commodity and money exchange became common.

The use of various ways of measuring led naturally to record keeping, and for this some form of writing was necessary. The earliest civilizations all seem to have used picture-writing-pictures representing both sounds and objects to the reader. The best known of the ancient writing systems is probably Egyptian hieroglyphics, a term meaning "sacred carvings," since many of the earliest writings were inscribed on stone.

All the major ancient civilizations-in Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus valley, and China-emerged in the 4th millennium bc. Historians still debate over which one emerged first. It may well have been in the Middle East, in an area called the Fertile Crescent. This area stretches from the Nile River in Egypt northward along the coast of the historical region of Palestine, then eastward into Asia to include Mesopotamia. In this area people settled along the riverbanks and practiced field agriculture. This kind of farming depended on the reproduction of seed, normally from grain crops.

Mesopotamia (from a Greek term meaning "between rivers") lies between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, a region that is today part of Iraq. By about 5000 bc, small tribes of farmers had made their way to the river valleys. On the floodplains they raised wheat, barley, and peas. They cut through the riverbanks so that water for their crops could flow to lower lying soil.

These early irrigation systems were more fully developed by the Sumerians in Mesopotamia. They drained marshes and dug canals, dikes, and ditches. The need for cooperation on these large irrigation projects led to the growth of government and law. The Sumerians are thus credited with forming the earliest of the ancient civilizations.

The land of the Sumerians was called Sumer (Shinar in the Bible). Their origins are shrouded in the past. They were not Semites, like most of the peoples of the region. The Sumerians spoke a language unrelated to other known tongues. They may have come to southern Mesopotamia from Persia before 4000 bc.

Sumerian towns and cities included Eridu, Nippur, Lagash, Kish, and Ur. The cities differed from primitive farming settlements. They were not composed of family-owned farms but were ringed by large tracts of land. These tracts were thought to be "owned" by a local god. A priest organized work groups of farmers to tend the land. The farmers provided barley, beans, wheat, olives, grapes, and flax for the community.

These early cities, which existed by 3500 bc, were called temple towns because they were built around the temple of the local god. The temples were eventually built up on towers called ziggurats (holy mountains). The ziggurats had ramps or staircases winding up around the exterior. Public buildings and marketplaces were built around these shrines.

The temple towns grew into city-states, which are considered the basis of the first true civilizations. At a time when only the most basic forms of transportation and communication were available, the city-state was the most governable type of human settlement. City-states were ruled by leaders called ensi s. They were probably authorized to control the local irrigation systems. The food surplus provided by the farmers supported these leaders as well as priests, artists, craftsmen, and others.

The Sumerians contributed to the development of metalworking, wheeled carts, and potter's wheels. They may have invented the first form of writing. They engraved pictures on clay tablets in a form of writing known as cuneiform (meaning "wedge-shaped"). The tablets were used to keep the accounts of the temple food storehouses. By about 2500 bc these picture-signs were being refined into an alphabet.

The Sumerians developed the first calendar, which they adjusted to the phases of the Moon. The lunar calendar was adopted by the Semites, Egyptians, and Greeks. Trade increased between Sumerian cities and between Sumer and other, more distant regions. This led to the growth of a merchant class.

The Sumerians organized a complex mythology. It was based on the relationships among the various local gods of the temple towns. In Sumerian religion, the most important gods were seen as human forms of natural forces-sky, Sun, earth, water, and storm. Each of these gods was originally associated with a particular city. The gods were worshiped not only in the great temples but also in small shrines in family homes.

Warfare between cities eventually led to the rise of kings, called lugals, whose authority replaced that of city-state rulers. Sumer became a more unified state, with a common culture and a centralized government. This led to the establishment of a bureaucracy and an army. By 2375 bc, most of Sumer was united under one king, Lugalzaggisi of Umma.

The Sumerians were conquered by their Semitic neighbors. But their civilization was carried on by their successors-the Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and Chaldeans.

The Babylonians made distinct contributions to the growth of civilization. They added to the knowledge of astronomy and mathematics. They built the first great capital city, Babylon. The Babylonian King Hammurabi set forth the Code of Hammurabi in the late 18th century bc. This was the most complete compilation of Babylonian law and one of the first great law codes in the world.

Egyptian farmers had settled in the long and narrow valley of the Nile River by 5000 bc. Within 2,000 years Egyptians had invented writing and built massive irrigation works. They had established a culture that bequeathed the pyramids and other magnificent monuments to posterity.

The ancient Egyptians depended heavily on the Nile River. The river created an oasis in the surrounding desert, providing water for drinking and for farming. Each year, the river rose, flooded, and fell. Its flooding deposited sediments along the riverbank, making the land good for farming. The fertility of the land and the general predictability of the Nile's flooding ensured farmers a high yield from a single annual crop. Eventually, the Egyptians could store large surpluses of grain, to trade and to keep in reserve in case of crop failures. Surplus crops would form the chief basis of ancient Egypt's great wealth. The Nile was also the society's most important transportation route.

Most of the ancient Egyptians lived in the Nile valley and delta, and nearly all were farmers. The primitive farming settlements of Egypt were concerned with the raising of grains, fruits and vegetables, and animals. These settlements slowly gave way to larger groupings of people. Probably the need to control the Nile floodwaters through dams and canals eventually led to the rise of government in the region.

By the end of the prehistoric period before about 2925 bc, Egypt was divided into two kingdoms. Lower Egypt had its capital at Buto, while Upper Egypt was centered at Hierakonpolis. In this period travelers brought in ideas from Sumer, including the concepts of writing and the pottery wheel.

Egyptian civilization began with the unification in the 3rd millennium bc of the upper and lower regions by King Menes. He established a new capital at Memphis. In this era the Egyptians developed the first 365-day calendar. They invented the plow and made use of copper. They developed hieroglyphic writing and began to build with stone. Trade and exploration flourished.

The Egyptians were ruled by kings known as pharaohs who claimed to be descended from the god Horus. These kings, supported by a priestly class, lived in splendor, and they saw to it that after their deaths they would be buried in splendor. The tombs built for them were designed as storehouses to hold all the things that the kings would need in the afterlife.

The earliest royal tombs foreshadowed the later great monuments, the pyramids. By about 2700 bc the first pyramid was built, in Saqqarah. The three great Pyramids of Giza still standing near Cairo were built in the 26th and 25th centuries bc.

Early Egyptian history is divided into three major eras: the Old Kingdom (about 2575-about 2130 bc), the Middle Kingdom (1938-about 1630 bc), and the New Kingdom (about 1539-1075 bc). By the dawn of the Old Kingdom, the characteristics of Egyptian civilization had already been firmly established. The periods not accounted for by the dates are believed to be times of decline known as the Intermediate periods.

The valley of the Indus River is considered to be the birthplace of Indian civilization. Located on the Indian subcontinent, largely in what is now Pakistan, the Indus valley civilization was not discovered by archaeologists until 1924. The ancient history of this region is obscured by legend. It appears, however, that by 4000 bc primitive farmers were raising vegetables, grains, and animals along the riverbank. By 2700 bc two major cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, and numerous smaller towns had emerged.

There is some evidence that Mesopotamian traders reached the early people of the Indus valley by sailing there from Sumer. The Indus valley people shared some developments-such as complex irrigation and drainage systems and the art of writing-with the people of Sumer. However, the people of the Indus valley also developed a unique cultural style of their own.

What little is known of the Indus civilization suggests that it had large cities that were well laid out and well fortified. There were public buildings, palaces, baths, and large granaries to hold agricultural produce. The many artifacts and artworks found by archaeologists indicate that the residents of the Indus had reached a fairly high level of culture before their civilization was destroyed.

The Vedic people, who were nomads from the Eurasian steppes, migrated to the Indus valley beginning about 1500 bc. They introduced a caste system, which persists to the present day. The caste system divides all people into social classes with differing rights and obligations. It was a formal expression of the interdependent labor division seen in all civilizations. By the 6th century bc at least 16 states had been established on the Indian subcontinent.

By about 2500 bc a civilization had emerged on the island of Crete in the Aegean Sea. Excavations in 1900 at the site of Knossos revealed the existence of a culture named by archaeologists as Minoan after a mythical king, Minos. Minoans probably settled in Crete before 3000 bc.

There is evidence of outside influence in Crete; apparently Egyptian traders reached the Aegean Sea soon after the Minoans did. Nevertheless, Minoan civilization developed its own unique features. By about 2000 bc, great cities with elaborate and luxurious palaces were built, and sea trade was flourishing.

The Minoans had a picture-writing system, as had other ancient peoples. The Minoan religion seems to have centered on a mother goddess and on the figures of the bull and the snake. The Minoans are known for their beautiful and colorful wall paintings and their fine pottery. About 1400 bc Minoan civilization began to decline. The end was hastened by invasions from mainland Greece. ( See also Aegean civilization.)

The Chinese had settled in the Huang He, or Yellow River, valley of northern China by 3000 bc. By then they had pottery, wheels, farms, and silk, but they had not yet discovered writing or the uses of metals.

The Shang Dynasty (1600?-1046 bc) is the first documented era of ancient China. The highly developed hierarchy consisted of a king, nobles, commoners, and slaves. The capital city was Anyang, in what is now north Henan province. Some scholars have suggested that travelers from Mesopotamia and from Southeast Asia brought agricultural methods to China, which stimulated the growth of ancient Chinese civilization. The Shang peoples were known for their use of jade, bronze, horse-drawn chariots, ancestor worship, and highly organized armies.

Like other ancient peoples, the Chinese developed unique attributes. Their form of writing, probably developed by 2000 bc, was a complex system that used characters that stood for words or parts of words. Such early forms of Chinese became known through the discovery by archaeologists of oracle bones, which were bones with writings inscribed on them. They were used for fortune-telling and record keeping in ancient China.

The Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 bc) saw the full flowering of ancient civilization in China. During this period the empire was unified, a middle class arose, and iron was introduced. The sage Confucius (551-479 bc) developed the code of ethics that dominated Chinese thought and culture for the next 25 centuries.

Meso-America is the term used to describe the ancient settlements of Mexico and Central America. The earliest elaborate civilization known in the Americas is that of the Olmec of central Mexico. The Olmec lived in the lowlands of what are now Veracruz and Tabasco states from about 1200 bc. They left artifacts ranging from tiny jade carvings to huge monuments such as the volcanic rock statues at San Lorenzo. These monuments suggest the existence of an organized and diverse society with leaders who could command the work of artisans and laborers. Among the many other complex pre-Columbian civilizations in Central and South America were the Chavín, Nazca, Moche, and Inca of Peru, the Chibcha and Tairona of Colombia, the Marajoara and Tapajó of Brazil, the Maya of the Yucatán Peninsula, and the Aztec of Mexico. ( See also American Indians; Middle American Indians; Central American and Northern Andean Indians; Central Andean Indians; Rainforest Indians; South American Nomadic Indians.)

Only four ancient civilizations-Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus valley, and China-provided the basis for continuous cultural developments in the same location. After the Minoan society on Crete was destroyed, its cultural traditions and legends passed into the life of mainland Greece. As for Meso-America and South America, their cultures were submerged by the Spanish conquerors of the 16th century.

Brier, Bob, and Hobbs, Hoyt. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians (Greenwood, 2008).Chrisp, Peter. Atlas of Ancient Worlds (DK, 2009).Connolly, Sean. The Americas and the Pacific (Zak, 2009).Croy, Anita, ed. Ancient Aztec and Maya (Brown Bear, 2010).Dalal, Anita, ed. Ancient Egypt; Ancient Mesopotamia (Brown Bear, 2009).Fletcher, Joann. Exploring the Life, Myth, and Art of Ancient Egypt (Rosen, 2010).Grant, Neil. Ancient Egypt and Greece (Zak, 2009).Hazen, W.A. Everyday Life: Ancient Times (Good Year, 2006).Hurdman, Charlotte, and others. Life in the Ancient World (Lorenz, 2008).Long, C.J. Ancient America (Lucent, 2002).McNeill, W.H. The Rise of the West (Univ. of Chicago Press, 2001).Martell, Hazel. The Kingfisher Book of the Ancient World (Kingfisher, 2006).Morris, Neil. Asian Civilizations; Mesopotamia and the Bible Lands (Zak, 2009).Nardo, Don. Ancient Egypt; Ancient India (Lucent, 2007; 2008).Nemet-Nejat, K.R. Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia (Hendrickson/Roundhouse, 2003).Shaughnessy, E.L. Exploring the Life, Myth, and Art of Ancient China (Rosen, 2010).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The term civilization basically means the level of development at which people live together peacefully in communities. Ancient civilization refers specifically to the first...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
History is the study of the past as it is narrated in written documents. The word originates from Greek, historia, meaning "knowledge acquired by investigation or inquiry".

History can also be described as the bodies of knowledge about the past produced by historians, together with everything that is involved in the production, communication of, and teaching about that knowledge.

Where do historians obtain their material? The answer lies in the dusty ancient manuscripts stored away in vaults. These historical records provide historians with the chance to trace stories back through time.

At History for Kids, you can explore all available facts about ancient or modern history, from Egypt to Greek to Roman and beyond. We are a completely free A-Z resource available for kids, pupils, parents and teachers to learn many interesting facts about history.

List of Historical Events

You can explore History Kids by using the A-Z list below.

Partners

For top-quality facts and worksheets on similar topics, visit KidsKonnect and SchoolHistory.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
History is the study of the past as it is narrated in written documents. The word originates from Greek, historia, meaning "knowledge acquired by investigation or inquiry". History can also be described as the bodies of knowledge about the past produced by historians, together with everything that is involved in the production, communication of, and teaching ...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The modern world may look very different from the world that existed in the time of ancient civilizations, but our modern-day life continues to show the influence of cultures, traditions, ideas, and innovations...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Learn Yu the Great for Kids facts for kids

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Learn Yu the Great for Kids facts for kids

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Verifying you are human. This may take a few seconds.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
Greece Private Tours & Holiday Packages | Epos Travel Tours

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Greek Migrations of Ancient Times: The First and Greek Colonization

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The story of ancient Greece is not just one of grand cities, legendary heroes, and groundbreaking philosophy-it is also a tale of movement, transformation, and adaptation.

# data[].attributes.headline
Famines in Ancient China, Mesopotamia & Egypt

# data[].attributes.subject
Famines in Ancient China, Mesopotamia & Egypt

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Famines in Ancient China, Mesopotamia & Egypt

# data[].attributes.headline
Famines and Food Shortages in Ancient Rome and Greece

# data[].attributes.subject
Famines and Food Shortages in Ancient Rome and Greece

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Famines and Food Shortages in Ancient Rome and Greece

# data[].attributes.headline
Food Insecurity for Mayas, Aztecs and Incas

# data[].attributes.subject
Food Insecurity for Mayas, Aztecs and Incas

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Food Insecurity for Mayas, Aztecs and Incas

# data[].attributes.headline
The Importance of Animals in Ancient Civilizations Such as China and Mesopotamia

# data[].attributes.subject
The Importance of Animals in Ancient Civilizations Such as China and Mesopotamia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Importance of Animals in Ancient Civilizations Such as China and Mesopotamia

# data[].attributes.headline
When the River Runs Low: Food Shortage in Ancient Egypt

# data[].attributes.subject
When the River Runs Low: Food Shortage in Ancient Egypt

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
When the River Runs Low: Food Shortage in Ancient Egypt

# data[].attributes.headline
Rulers, Laws, and Justice in Ancient Mesopotamia

# data[].attributes.subject
Rulers, Laws, and Justice in Ancient Mesopotamia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Rulers, Laws, and Justice in Ancient Mesopotamia

# data[].attributes.headline
Moving to the Nile: Migrations in Ancient Egypt

# data[].attributes.subject
Moving to the Nile: Migrations in Ancient Egypt

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Moving to the Nile: Migrations in Ancient Egypt

# data[].attributes.headline
Moving Through the Roman Empire: Refugees, Migrations, and Lasting Impacts

# data[].attributes.subject
Moving Through the Roman Empire: Refugees, Migrations, and Lasting Impacts

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Moving Through the Roman Empire: Refugees, Migrations, and Lasting Impacts

# data[].attributes.headline
Gifts from the Nile: Ancient Egypt's Natural Resources

# data[].attributes.subject
Gifts from the Nile: Ancient Egypt's Natural Resources

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Gifts from the Nile: Ancient Egypt's Natural Resources

# data[].attributes.headline
Mountains, Rivers, and Wisdom: Natural Resources in Ancient China

# data[].attributes.subject
Mountains, Rivers, and Wisdom: Natural Resources in Ancient China

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Mountains, Rivers, and Wisdom: Natural Resources in Ancient China

# data[].attributes.headline
Three Worlds, Three Resources: The Maya, Aztec, and Inca

# data[].attributes.subject
Three Worlds, Three Resources: The Maya, Aztec, and Inca

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Three Worlds, Three Resources: The Maya, Aztec, and Inca

# data[].attributes.headline
Ancient Journeys: Lessons from Migration Across Civilizations

# data[].attributes.subject
Ancient Journeys: Lessons from Migration Across Civilizations

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Ancient Journeys: Lessons from Migration Across Civilizations

# data[].attributes.headline
Rivers of Change: Migration and Refuge in Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt

# data[].attributes.subject
Rivers of Change: Migration and Refuge in Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Rivers of Change: Migration and Refuge in Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Power and Justice in Ancient Civilizations: Maya, Aztec, and Inca

# data[].attributes.headline
Foundations of Order: Law, Citizenship, and Governance in the Ancient World

# data[].attributes.subject
Foundations of Order: Law, Citizenship, and Governance in the Ancient World

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Foundations of Order: Law, Citizenship, and Governance in the Ancient World

# data[].attributes.headline
Egypt's Gift to the World: How Ancient Ideas Live On

# data[].attributes.subject
Egypt's Gift to the World: How Ancient Ideas Live On

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Egypt's Gift to the World: How Ancient Ideas Live On

# data[].attributes.headline
Ancient Tools: Science and Math in Early Civilizations

# data[].attributes.subject
Ancient Tools: Science and Math in Early Civilizations

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Ancient Tools: Science and Math in Early Civilizations

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Echoes of the Past: Ancient Inventions and the Technology We Use Today

# data[].attributes.headline
The Classroom Through Time: Ancient Education and Its Evolution

# data[].attributes.subject
The Classroom Through Time: Ancient Education and Its Evolution

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Classroom Through Time: Ancient Education and Its Evolution

# data[].attributes.headline
Ancient Lessons: How Education Built Math, Science, and Writing

# data[].attributes.subject
Ancient Lessons: How Education Built Math, Science, and Writing

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Ancient Lessons: How Education Built Math, Science, and Writing

# data[].attributes.headline
Great Migrations in Ancient Civilizations

# data[].attributes.subject
Great Migrations in Ancient Civilizations

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Great Migrations in Ancient Civilizations

# data[].attributes.headline
History's Best Friends: 5 Ancient Civilizations That Loved Their Pets

# data[].attributes.subject
History's Best Friends: 5 Ancient Civilizations That Loved Their Pets

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
History's Best Friends: 5 Ancient Civilizations That Loved Their Pets

# data[].attributes.headline
Farm Hands and Hunters: Animals in the Ancient World

# data[].attributes.subject
Farm Hands and Hunters: Animals in the Ancient World

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Farm Hands and Hunters: Animals in the Ancient World

# data[].attributes.headline
From Mountain to Jungle: The Animals That Built Empires

# data[].attributes.subject
From Mountain to Jungle: The Animals That Built Empires

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
From Mountain to Jungle: The Animals That Built Empires