# data[].attributes.body
Portfolio of writing: Interaction and the experience of play.

# data[].attributes.body
1. Alea, Agon, Mimicry, Llinx.

2. Serious Games

3. Affordance theory

4. Flow Theory

5. Malone's Theory of Intrinsically Motivating Instruction (Thomas W. Malone)

6. Presence Theory

7. Csikszentmihalyi's Autotelic Experience Model

8. e-sports

9. Gamification

10. Meaningful Play

11. synthetic presence technology

12. ransmedia storytelling

13. he concept of ludonarrative dissonance - the conflict between gameplay mechanics and narrative in games

14. Schell's Lenses

15. Octalysis Framework

16. Player-Centered Game Design

17. Tiny Habits

# data[].attributes.body
sensory organs generally refer to specialized organs that can receive external stimuli and sensory nerves distributed throughout parts of the body. Their operation is entirely random and they are the channels through which organisms obtain external information.

As for humans, it includes the main specialized organs such as vision in the eyes, hearing in the ears, taste in the mouth, and smell in the nose, as well as touch distributed on the skin

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Sensation consists of signal collection and transduction.

A sense is a biological system used by an organism for sensation, the process of gathering information about the surroundings through the detection of stimuli. Although, in some cultures, five human senses were traditionally identified as such (namely sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing), many more are now recognized. Senses used by non-human organisms are even greater in variety and number. During sensation, sense organs collect various stimuli (such as a sound or smell) for transduction, meaning transformation into a form that can be understood by the brain. Sensation and perception are fundamental to nearly every aspect of an organism's cognition, behavior and thought.

In organisms, a sensory organ consists of a group of interrelated sensory cells that respond to a specific type of physical stimulus. Via cranial and spinal nerves (nerves of the Central and Peripheral nervous systems that relay sensory information to and from the brain and body), the different types of sensory receptor cells (such as mechanoreceptors, photoreceptors, chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors) in sensory organs transduct sensory information from these organs towards the central nervous system, finally arriving at the sensory cortices in the brain, where sensory signals are processed and interpreted (perceived).

Sensory systems, or senses, are often divided into external (exteroception) and internal ( interoception) sensory systems. Human external senses are based on the sensory organs of the eyes, ears, skin, nose, mouth and the vestibular system. Internal sensation detects stimuli from internal organs and tissues. Internal senses possessed by humans include spatial orientation, proprioception (body position) and nociception (pain). Further internal senses lead to signals such as hunger, thirst, suffocation, and nausea, or different involuntary behaviors, such as vomiting. Some animals are able to detect electrical and magnetic fields, air moisture, or polarized light, while others sense and perceive through alternative systems, such as echolocation. Sensory modalities or sub modalities are different ways sensory information is encoded or transduced. Multimodality integrates different senses into one unified perceptual experience. For example, information from one sense has the potential to influence how information from another is perceived. Sensation and perception are studied by a variety of related fields, most notably psychophysics, neurobiology, cognitive psychology, and cognitive science.

Sensory organs are organs that sense and transduce stimuli. Humans have various sensory organs (i.e. eyes, ears, skin, nose, and mouth) that correspond to a respective visual system (sense of vision), auditory system (sense of hearing), somatosensory system (sense of touch), olfactory system (sense of smell), and gustatory system (sense of taste). Those systems, in turn, contribute to vision, hearing, touch, smell, and the ability to taste. Internal sensation, or interoception, detects stimuli from internal organs and tissues. Many internal sensory and perceptual systems exist in humans, including the vestibular system (sense of balance) sensed by the inner ear and providing the perception of spatial orientation; proprioception (body position); and nociception (pain). Further internal chemoreception- and osmoreception-based sensory systems lead to various perceptions, such as hunger, thirst, suffocation, and nausea, or different involuntary behaviors, such as vomiting.

Nonhuman animals experience sensation and perception, with varying levels of similarity to and difference from humans and other animal species. For example, other mammals in general have a stronger sense of smell than humans. Some animal species lack one or more human sensory system analogues and some have sensory systems that are not found in humans, while others process and interpret the same sensory information in very different ways. For example, some animals are able to detect electrical fields and magnetic fields, air moisture, or polarized light. Others sense and perceive through alternative systems such as echolocation. Recent theory suggests that plants and artificial agents such as robots may be able to detect and interpret environmental information in an analogous manner to animals.

Sensory modality refers to the way that information is encoded, which is similar to the idea of transduction. The main sensory modalities can be described on the basis of how each is transduced. Listing all the different sensory modalities, which can number as many as 17, involves separating the major senses into more specific categories, or submodalities, of the larger sense. An individual sensory modality represents the sensation of a specific type of stimulus. For example, the general sensation and perception of touch, which is known as somatosensation, can be separated into light pressure, deep pressure, vibration, itch, pain, temperature, or hair movement, while the general sensation and perception of taste can be separated into submodalities of sweet, salty, sour, bitter, spicy, and umami, all of which are based on different chemicals binding to sensory neurons.

Sensory receptors are the cells or structures that detect sensations. Stimuli in the environment activate specialized receptor cells in the peripheral nervous system. During transduction, physical stimulus is converted into action potential by receptors and transmitted towards the central nervous system for processing. Different types of stimuli are sensed by different types of receptor cells. Receptor cells can be classified into types on the basis of three different criteria: cell type, position, and function. Receptors can be classified structurally on the basis of cell type and their position in relation to stimuli they sense. Receptors can further be classified functionally on the basis of the transduction of stimuli, or how the mechanical stimulus, light, or chemical changed the cell membrane potential.

One way to classify receptors is based on their location relative to the stimuli. An exteroceptor is a receptor that is located near a stimulus of the external environment, such as the somatosensory receptors that are located in the skin. An interoceptor is one that interprets stimuli from internal organs and tissues, such as the receptors that sense the increase in blood pressure in the aorta or carotid sinus.

A transmembrane protein receptor is a protein in the cell membrane that mediates a physiological change in a neuron, most often through the opening of ion channels or changes in the cell signaling processes. Transmembrane receptors are activated by chemicals called ligands. For example, a molecule in food can serve as a ligand for taste receptors. Other transmembrane proteins, which are not accurately called receptors, are sensitive to mechanical or thermal changes. Physical changes in these proteins increase ion flow across the membrane, and can generate an action potential or a graded potential in the sensory neurons.

Receptor cells can be further categorized on the basis of the type of stimuli they transduce. The different types of functional receptor cell types are mechanoreceptors, photoreceptors, chemoreceptors ( osmoreceptor), thermoreceptors, electroreceptors (in certain mammals and fish), and nociceptors. Physical stimuli, such as pressure and vibration, as well as the sensation of sound and body position (balance), are interpreted through a mechanoreceptor. Photoreceptors convert light (visible electromagnetic radiation) into signals. Chemical stimuli can be interpreted by a chemoreceptor that interprets chemical stimuli, such as an object's taste or smell, while osmoreceptors respond to a chemical solute concentrations of body fluids. Nociception (pain) interprets the presence of tissue damage, from sensory information from mechano-, chemo-, and thermoreceptors. Another physical stimulus that has its own type of receptor is temperature, which is sensed through a thermoreceptor that is either sensitive to temperatures above (heat) or below (cold) normal body temperature.

Each sense organ (eyes or nose, for instance) requires a minimal amount of stimulation in order to detect a stimulus. This minimum amount of stimulus is called the absolute threshold. The absolute threshold is defined as the minimum amount of stimulation necessary for the detection of a stimulus 50% of the time. Absolute threshold is measured by using a method called signal detection. This process involves presenting stimuli of varying intensities to a subject in order to determine the level at which the subject can reliably detect stimulation in a given sense.

Differential threshold or just noticeable difference (JDS) is the smallest detectable difference between two stimuli, or the smallest difference in stimuli that can be judged to be different from each other. Weber's Law is an empirical law that states that the difference threshold is a constant fraction of the comparison stimulus. According to Weber's Law, bigger stimuli require larger differences to be noticed.

Human power exponents and Steven's Power Law

Subjective visual and auditory experiences appear to be similar across humans subjects. The same cannot be said about taste. For example, there is a molecule called propylthiouracil (PROP) that some humans experience as bitter, some as almost tasteless, while others experience it as somewhere between tasteless and bitter. There is a genetic basis for this difference between perception given the same sensory stimulus. This subjective difference in taste perception has implications for individuals' food preferences, and consequently, health.

When a stimulus is constant and unchanging, perceptual sensory adaptation occurs. During that process, the subject becomes less sensitive to the stimulus.

Perception occurs when nerves that lead from the sensory organs (e.g. eye) to the brain are stimulated, even if that stimulation is unrelated to the target signal of the sensory organ. For example, in the case of the eye, it does not matter whether light or something else stimulates the optic nerve, that stimulation will results in visual perception, even if there was no visual stimulus to begin with. (To prove this point to yourself (and if you are a human), close your eyes (preferably in a dark room) and press gently on the outside corner of one eye through the eyelid. You will see a visual spot toward the inside of your visual field, near your nose.)

Perceptual experience is often multimodal. Multimodality integrates different senses into one unified perceptual experience. Information from one sense has the potential to influence how information from another is perceived. Multimodal perception is qualitatively different from unimodal perception. There has been a growing body of evidence since the mid-1990s on the neural correlates of multimodal perception.

The philosophy of perception is concerned with the nature of perceptual experience and the status of perceptual data, in particular how they relate to beliefs about, or knowledge of, the world. Historical inquiries into the underlying mechanisms of sensation and perception have led early researchers to subscribe to various philosophical interpretations of perception and the mind, including panpsychism, dualism, and materialism. The majority of modern scientists who study sensation and perception take on a materialistic view of the mind.

Number

Sense

Absolute threshold (obsolete system of signal detection used)

Humans respond more strongly to multimodal stimuli compared to the sum of each single modality together, an effect called the superadditive effect of multisensory integration. Neurons that respond to both visual and auditory stimuli have been identified in the superior temporal sulcus. Additionally, multimodal "what" and "where" pathways have been proposed for auditory and tactile stimuli.

External receptors that respond to stimuli from outside the body are called exteroceptors. Human external sensation is based on the sensory organs of the eyes, ears, skin, vestibular system, nose, and mouth, which contribute, respectively, to the sensory perceptions of vision, hearing, touch, balance, smell, and taste. Smell and taste are both responsible for identifying molecules and thus both are types of chemoreceptors. Both olfaction (smell) and gustation (taste) require the transduction of chemical stimuli into electrical potentials.

The visual system, or sense of sight, is based on the transduction of light stimuli received through the eyes and contributes to visual perception. The visual system detects light on photoreceptors in the retina of each eye that generates electrical nerve impulses for the perception of varying colors and brightness. There are two types of photoreceptors: rods and cones. Rods are very sensitive to light but do not distinguish colors. Cones distinguish colors but are less sensitive to dim light.

There is some disagreement as to whether the visual system consists of one, two, or three submodalities. Neuroanatomists generally regard it as two submodalities, given that different receptors are responsible for the perception of color and brightness. Some argue[citation needed ] that stereopsis, the perception of depth using both eyes, also constitutes a sense, but it is generally regarded as a cognitive (that is, post-sensory) function of the visual cortex of the brain where patterns and objects in images are recognized and interpreted based on previously learned information. This is called visual memory.

The inability to see is called blindness. Blindness may result from damage to the eyeball, especially to the retina, damage to the optic nerve that connects each eye to the brain, and/or from stroke ( infarcts in the brain). Temporary or permanent blindness can be caused by poisons or medications. People who are blind from degradation or damage to the visual cortex, but still have functional eyes, are actually capable of some level of vision and reaction to visual stimuli but not a conscious perception; this is known as blindsight. People with blindsight are usually not aware that they are reacting to visual sources, and instead just unconsciously adapt their behavior to the stimulus.

On February 14, 2013, researchers developed a neural implant that gives rats the ability to sense infrared light which for the first time provides living creatures with new abilities, instead of simply replacing or augmenting existing abilities.

Visual perception in psychology

According to Gestalt Psychology, people perceive the whole of something even if it is not there. The Gestalt's Law of Organization states that people have seven factors that help to group what is seen into patterns or groups: Common Fate, Similarity, Proximity, Closure, Symmetry, Continuity, and Past Experience.

The Law of Common fate says that objects are led along the smoothest path. People follow the trend of motion as the lines/dots flow.

The Law of Similarity refers to the grouping of images or objects that are similar to each other in some aspect. This could be due to shade, colour, size, shape, or other qualities you could distinguish.

The Law of Proximity states that our minds like to group based on how close objects are to each other. We may see 42 objects in a group, but we can also perceive three groups of two lines with seven objects in each line.

The Law of Closure is the idea that we as humans still see a full picture even if there are gaps within that picture. There could be gaps or parts missing from a section of a shape, but we would still perceive the shape as whole.

The Law of Symmetry refers to a person's preference to see symmetry around a central point. An example would be when we use parentheses in writing. We tend to perceive all of the words in the parentheses as one section instead of individual words within the parentheses.

The Law of Continuity tells us that objects are grouped together by their elements and then perceived as a whole. This usually happens when we see overlapping objects. We will see the overlapping objects with no interruptions.

The Law of Past Experience refers to the tendency humans have to categorize objects according to past experiences under certain circumstances. If two objects are usually perceived together or within close proximity of each other the Law of Past Experience is usually seen.

Hearing, or audition, is the transduction of sound waves into a neural signal that is made possible by the structures of the ear. The large, fleshy structure on the lateral aspect of the head is known as the auricle. At the end of the auditory canal is the tympanic membrane, or ear drum, which vibrates after it is struck by sound waves. The auricle, ear canal, and tympanic membrane are often referred to as the external ear. The middle ear consists of a space spanned by three small bones called the ossicles. The three ossicles are the malleus, incus, and stapes, which are Latin names that roughly translate to hammer, anvil, and stirrup. The malleus is attached to the tympanic membrane and articulates with the incus. The incus, in turn, articulates with the stapes. The stapes is then attached to the inner ear, where the sound waves will be transduced into a neural signal. The middle ear is connected to the pharynx through the Eustachian tube, which helps equilibrate air pressure across the tympanic membrane. The tube is normally closed but will pop open when the muscles of the pharynx contract during swallowing or yawning.

Mechanoreceptors turn motion into electrical nerve pulses, which are located in the inner ear. Since sound is vibration, propagating through a medium such as air, the detection of these vibrations, that is the sense of the hearing, is a mechanical sense because these vibrations are mechanically conducted from the eardrum through a series of tiny bones to hair-like fibers in the inner ear, which detect mechanical motion of the fibers within a range of about 20 to 20,000 hertz, with substantial variation between individuals. Hearing at high frequencies declines with an increase in age. Inability to hear is called deafness or hearing impairment. Sound can also be detected as vibrations conducted through the body by tactition. Lower frequencies that can be heard are detected this way. Some deaf people are able to determine the direction and location of vibrations picked up through the feet.

Studies pertaining to Audition started to increase in number towards the latter end of the nineteenth century. During this time, many laboratories in the United States began to create new models, diagrams, and instruments that all pertained to the ear.

There is a branch of Cognitive Psychology dedicated strictly to Audition. They call it Auditory Cognitive Psychology. The main point is to understand why humans are able to use sound in thinking outside of actually saying it.

Relating to Auditory Cognitive Psychology is Psychoacoustics. Psychoacoustics is more pointed to people interested in music. Haptics, a word used to refer to both taction and kinesthesia, has many parallels with psychoacoustics. Most research around these two are focused on the instrument, the listener, and the player of the instrument.

Somatosensation is considered a general sense, as opposed to the special senses discussed in this section. Somatosensation is the group of sensory modalities that are associated with touch and interoception. The modalities of somatosensation include pressure, vibration, light touch, tickle, itch, temperature, pain, kinesthesia. Somatosensation, also called tactition (adjectival form: tactile) is a perception resulting from activation of neural receptors, generally in the skin including hair follicles, but also in the tongue, throat, and mucosa. A variety of pressure receptors respond to variations in pressure (firm, brushing, sustained, etc.). The touch sense of itching caused by insect bites or allergies involves special itch-specific neurons in the skin and spinal cord. The loss or impairment of the ability to feel anything touched is called tactile anesthesia. Paresthesia is a sensation of tingling, pricking, or numbness of the skin that may result from nerve damage and may be permanent or temporary.

Two types of somatosensory signals that are transduced by free nerve endings are pain and temperature. These two modalities use thermoreceptors and nociceptors to transduce temperature and pain stimuli, respectively. Temperature receptors are stimulated when local temperatures differ from body temperature. Some thermoreceptors are sensitive to just cold and others to just heat. Nociception is the sensation of potentially damaging stimuli. Mechanical, chemical, or thermal stimuli beyond a set threshold will elicit painful sensations. Stressed or damaged tissues release chemicals that activate receptor proteins in the nociceptors. For example, the sensation of heat associated with spicy foods involves capsaicin, the active molecule in hot peppers.

Low frequency vibrations are sensed by mechanoreceptors called Merkel cells, also known as type I cutaneous mechanoreceptors. Merkel cells are located in the stratum basale of the epidermis. Deep pressure and vibration is transduced by lamellated ( Pacinian) corpuscles, which are receptors with encapsulated endings found deep in the dermis, or subcutaneous tissue. Light touch is transduced by the encapsulated endings known as tactile ( Meissner) corpuscles. Follicles are also wrapped in a plexus of nerve endings known as the hair follicle plexus. These nerve endings detect the movement of hair at the surface of the skin, such as when an insect may be walking along the skin. Stretching of the skin is transduced by stretch receptors known as bulbous corpuscles. Bulbous corpuscles are also known as Ruffini corpuscles, or type II cutaneous mechanoreceptors.

The heat receptors are sensitive to infrared radiation and can occur in specialized organs, for instance in pit vipers. The thermoceptors in the skin are quite different from the homeostatic thermoceptors in the brain ( hypothalamus), which provide feedback on internal body temperature.

The gustatory system or the sense of taste is the sensory system that is partially responsible for the perception of taste (flavor). A few recognized submodalities exist within taste: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami. Very recent research has suggested that there may also be a sixth taste submodality for fats, or lipids. The sense of taste is often confused with the perception of flavor, which is the results of the multimodal integration of gustatory (taste) and olfactory (smell) sensations.

Philippe Mercier - The Sense of Taste - Google Art Project

Salty and sour taste submodalities are triggered by the cations and , respectively. The other taste modalities result from food molecules binding to a G protein-coupled receptor. A G protein signal transduction system ultimately leads to depolarization of the gustatory cell. The sweet taste is the sensitivity of gustatory cells to the presence of glucose (or sugar substitutes) dissolved in the saliva. Bitter taste is similar to sweet in that food molecules bind to G protein-coupled receptors. The taste known as umami is often referred to as the savory taste. Like sweet and bitter, it is based on the activation of G protein-coupled receptors by a specific molecule.

Once the gustatory cells are activated by the taste molecules, they release neurotransmitters onto the dendrites of sensory neurons. These neurons are part of the facial and glossopharyngeal cranial nerves, as well as a component within the vagus nerve dedicated to the gag reflex. The facial nerve connects to taste buds in the anterior third of the tongue. The glossopharyngeal nerve connects to taste buds in the posterior two thirds of the tongue. The vagus nerve connects to taste buds in the extreme posterior of the tongue, verging on the pharynx, which are more sensitive to noxious stimuli such as bitterness.

Flavor depends on odor, texture, and temperature as well as on taste. Humans receive tastes through sensory organs called taste buds, or gustatory calyculi, concentrated on the upper surface of the tongue. Other tastes such as calcium and free fatty acids may also be basic tastes but have yet to receive widespread acceptance. The inability to taste is called ageusia.

There is a rare phenomenon when it comes to the Gustatory sense. It is called Lexical-Gustatory Synesthesia. Lexical-Gustatory Synesthesia is when people can "taste" words. They have reported having flavor sensations they are not actually eating. When they read words, hear words, or even imagine words. They have reported not only simple flavors, but textures, complex flavors, and temperatures as well.

Like the sense of taste, the sense of smell, or the olfactory system, is also responsive to chemical stimuli. Unlike taste, there are hundreds of olfactory receptors (388 functional ones according to one 2003 study), each binding to a particular molecular feature. Odor molecules possess a variety of features and, thus, excite specific receptors more or less strongly. This combination of excitatory signals from different receptors makes up what humans perceive as the molecule's smell.[citation needed ]

The olfactory receptor neurons are located in a small region within the superior nasal cavity. This region is referred to as the olfactory epithelium and contains bipolar sensory neurons. Each olfactory sensory neuron has dendrites that extend from the apical surface of the epithelium into the mucus lining the cavity. As airborne molecules are inhaled through the nose, they pass over the olfactory epithelial region and dissolve into the mucus. These odorant molecules bind to proteins that keep them dissolved in the mucus and help transport them to the olfactory dendrites. The odorant-protein complex binds to a receptor protein within the cell membrane of an olfactory dendrite. These receptors are G protein-coupled, and will produce a graded membrane potential in the olfactory neurons.

The sense of smell. Bequest of Mrs E.G. Elgar, 1945 Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa.

In the brain, olfaction is processed by the olfactory cortex. Olfactory receptor neurons in the nose differ from most other neurons in that they die and regenerate on a regular basis. The inability to smell is called anosmia. Some neurons in the nose are specialized to detect pheromones. Loss of the sense of smell can result in food tasting bland. A person with an impaired sense of smell may require additional spice and seasoning levels for food to be tasted. Anosmia may also be related to some presentations of mild depression, because the loss of enjoyment of food may lead to a general sense of despair. The ability of olfactory neurons to replace themselves decreases with age, leading to age-related anosmia. This explains why some elderly people salt their food more than younger people do.

The vestibular sense, or sense of balance (equilibrium), is the sense that contributes to the perception of balance (equilibrium), spatial orientation, direction, or acceleration ( equilibrioception). Along with audition, the inner ear is responsible for encoding information about equilibrium. A similar mechanoreceptor-a hair cell with stereocilia-senses head position, head movement, and whether our bodies are in motion. These cells are located within the vestibule of the inner ear. Head position is sensed by the utricle and saccule, whereas head movement is sensed by the semicircular canals. The neural signals generated in the vestibular ganglion are transmitted through the vestibulocochlear nerve to the brain stem and cerebellum.

The semicircular canals are three ring-like extensions of the vestibule. One is oriented in the horizontal plane, whereas the other two are oriented in the vertical plane. The anterior and posterior vertical canals are oriented at approximately 45 degrees relative to the sagittal plane. The base of each semicircular canal, where it meets with the vestibule, connects to an enlarged region known as the ampulla. The ampulla contains the hair cells that respond to rotational movement, such as turning the head while saying "no". The stereocilia of these hair cells extend into the cupula, a membrane that attaches to the top of the ampulla. As the head rotates in a plane parallel to the semicircular canal, the fluid lags, deflecting the cupula in the direction opposite to the head movement. The semicircular canals contain several ampullae, with some oriented horizontally and others oriented vertically. By comparing the relative movements of both the horizontal and vertical ampullae, the vestibular system can detect the direction of most head movements within three-dimensional ( 3D) space.

The vestibular nerve conducts information from sensory receptors in three ampullae that sense motion of fluid in three semicircular canals caused by three-dimensional rotation of the head. The vestibular nerve also conducts information from the utricle and the saccule, which contain hair-like sensory receptors that bend under the weight of otoliths (which are small crystals of calcium carbonate) that provide the inertia needed to detect head rotation, linear acceleration, and the direction of gravitational force.

An internal sensation and perception also known as interoception is "any sense that is normally stimulated from within the body". These involve numerous sensory receptors in internal organs. Interoception is thought to be atypical in clinical conditions such as alexithymia. Specific receptors include:

1. Hunger is governed by a set of brain structures (e.g., the hypothalamus) that are responsible for energy homeostasis.

2. Pulmonary stretch receptors are found in the lungs and control the respiratory rate.

3. Peripheral chemoreceptors in the brain monitor the carbon dioxide and oxygen levels in the brain to give a perception of suffocation if carbon dioxide levels get too high.

4. The chemoreceptor trigger zone is an area of the medulla in the brain that receives inputs from blood-borne drugs or hormones, and communicates with the vomiting center.

5. Chemoreceptors in the circulatory system also measure salt levels and prompt thirst if they get too high; they can also respond to high blood sugar levels in diabetics.

6. Cutaneous receptors in the skin not only respond to touch, pressure, temperature and vibration, but also respond to vasodilation in the skin such as blushing.

7. Stretch receptors in the gastrointestinal tract sense gas distension that may result in colic pain.

8. Stimulation of sensory receptors in the esophagus result in sensations felt in the throat when swallowing, vomiting, or during acid reflux.

9. Sensory receptors in pharynx mucosa, similar to touch receptors in the skin, sense foreign objects such as mucous and food that may result in a gag reflex and corresponding gagging sensation.

10. Stimulation of sensory receptors in the urinary bladder and rectum may result in perceptions of fullness.

11. Stimulation of stretch sensors that sense dilation of various blood vessels may result in pain, for example headache caused by vasodilation of brain arteries.

12. Opsins and direct DNA damage in melanocytes and keratinocytes can sense ultraviolet radiation, which plays a role in pigmentation and sunburn.

13. Baroreceptors relay blood pressure information to the brain and maintain proper homeostatic blood pressure.

The perception of time is also sometimes called a sense, though not tied to a specific receptor.

Other living organisms have receptors to sense the world around them, including many of the senses listed above for humans. However, the mechanisms and capabilities vary widely.

An example of smell in non-mammals is that of sharks, which combine their keen sense of smell with timing to determine the direction of a smell. They follow the nostril that first detected the smell. Insects have olfactory receptors on their antennae. Although it is unknown to the degree and magnitude which non-human mammals can smell better than humans, humans are known to have far fewer olfactory receptors than mice, and humans have also accumulated more genetic mutations in their olfactory receptors than other primates.

Many animals ( salamanders, reptiles, mammals) have a vomeronasal organ that is connected with the mouth cavity. In mammals it is mainly used to detect pheromones of marked territory, trails, and sexual state. Reptiles like snakes and monitor lizards make extensive use of it as a smelling organ by transferring scent molecules to the vomeronasal organ with the tips of the forked tongue. In reptiles the vomeronasal organ is commonly referred to as Jacobson's organ. In mammals, it is often associated with a special behavior called flehmen characterized by uplifting of the lips. The organ is vestigial in humans, because associated neurons have not been found that give any sensory input in humans.

Cats have the ability to see in low light, which is due to muscles surrounding their irides-which contract and expand their pupils-as well as to the tapetum lucidum, a reflective membrane that optimizes the image. Pit vipers, pythons and some boas have organs that allow them to detect infrared light, such that these snakes are able to sense the body heat of their prey. The common vampire bat may also have an infrared sensor on its nose. It has been found that birds and some other animals are tetrachromats and have the ability to see in the ultraviolet down to 300 nanometers. Bees and dragonflies are also able to see in the ultraviolet. Mantis shrimps can perceive both polarized light and multispectral images and have twelve distinct kinds of color receptors, unlike humans which have three kinds and most mammals which have two kinds.

Cephalopods have the ability to change color using chromatophores in their skin. Researchers believe that opsins in the skin can sense different wavelengths of light and help the creatures choose a coloration that camouflages them, in addition to light input from the eyes. Other researchers hypothesize that cephalopod eyes in species which only have a single photoreceptor protein may use chromatic aberration to turn monochromatic vision into color vision, explaining pupils shaped like the letter U, the letter W, or a dumbbell, as well as explaining the need for colorful mating displays. Some cephalopods can distinguish the polarization of light.

Many invertebrates have a statocyst, which is a sensor for acceleration and orientation that works very differently from the mammalian's semi-circular canals.

In addition, some animals have senses that humans lack.

Magnetoception (or magnetoreception) is the ability to detect the direction one is facing based on the Earth's magnetic field. Directional awareness is most commonly observed in birds, which rely on their magnetic sense to navigate during migration. It has also been observed in insects such as bees. Cattle make use of magnetoception to align themselves in a north-south direction. Magnetotactic bacteria build miniature magnets inside themselves and use them to determine their orientation relative to the Earth's magnetic field. There has been some recent (tentative) research suggesting that the Rhodopsin in the human eye, which responds particularly well to blue light, can facilitate magnetoception in humans.

Certain animals, including bats and cetaceans, have the ability to determine orientation to other objects through interpretation of reflected sound (like sonar). They most often use this to navigate through poor lighting conditions or to identify and track prey. There is currently an uncertainty whether this is simply an extremely developed post-sensory interpretation of auditory perceptions or it actually constitutes a separate sense. Resolution of the issue will require brain scans of animals while they actually perform echolocation, a task that has proven difficult in practice.

Blind people report they are able to navigate and in some cases identify an object by interpreting reflected sounds (especially their own footsteps), a phenomenon known as human echolocation.

Electroreception (or electroception) is the ability to detect electric fields. Several species of fish, sharks, and rays have the capacity to sense changes in electric fields in their immediate vicinity. For cartilaginous fish this occurs through a specialized organ called the Ampullae of Lorenzini. Some fish passively sense changing nearby electric fields; some generate their own weak electric fields, and sense the pattern of field potentials over their body surface; and some use these electric field generating and sensing capacities for social communication. The mechanisms by which electroceptive fish construct a spatial representation from very small differences in field potentials involve comparisons of spike latencies from different parts of the fish's body.

A dolphin can detect electric fields in water using electroreceptors in vibrissal crypts arrayed in pairs on its snout and which evolved from whisker motion sensors. These electroreceptors can detect electric fields as weak as 4.6 microvolts per centimeter, such as those generated by contracting muscles and pumping gills of potential prey. This permits the dolphin to locate prey from the seafloor where sediment limits visibility and echolocation.

Spiders have been shown to detect electric fields to determine a suitable time to extend web for 'ballooning'.

Body modification enthusiasts have experimented with magnetic implants to attempt to replicate this sense. However, in general humans (and it is presumed other mammals) can detect electric fields only indirectly by detecting the effect they have on hairs. An electrically charged balloon, for instance, will exert a force on human arm hairs, which can be felt through tactition and identified as coming from a static charge (and not from wind or the like). This is not electroreception, as it is a post-sensory cognitive action.

Hygroreception is the ability to detect changes in the moisture content of the environment.

The ability to sense infrared thermal radiation evolved independently in various families of snakes. Essentially, it allows these reptiles to "see" radiant heat at wavelengths between 5 and 30 μm to a degree of accuracy such that a blind rattlesnake can target vulnerable body parts of the prey at which it strikes. It was previously thought that the organs evolved primarily as prey detectors, but it is now believed that it may also be used in thermoregulatory decision making. The facial pit underwent parallel evolution in pitvipers and some boas and pythons, having evolved once in pitvipers and multiple times in boas and pythons.[verification needed ] The electrophysiology of the structure is similar between the two lineages, but they differ in gross structural anatomy. Most superficially, pitvipers possess one large pit organ on either side of the head, between the eye and the nostril ( Loreal pit), while boas and pythons have three or more comparatively smaller pits lining the upper and sometimes the lower lip, in or between the scales. Those of the pitvipers are the more advanced, having a suspended sensory membrane as opposed to a simple pit structure. Within the family Viperidae, the pit organ is seen only in the subfamily Crotalinae: the pitvipers. The organ is used extensively to detect and target endothermic prey such as rodents and birds, and it was previously assumed that the organ evolved specifically for that purpose. However, recent evidence shows that the pit organ may also be used for thermoregulation. According to Krochmal et al., pitvipers can use their pits for thermoregulatory decision-making while true vipers (vipers who do not contain heat-sensing pits) cannot.

In spite of its detection of IR light, the pits' IR detection mechanism is not similar to photoreceptors - while photoreceptors detect light via photochemical reactions, the protein in the pits of snakes is in fact a temperature-sensitive ion channel. It senses infrared signals through a mechanism involving warming of the pit organ, rather than a chemical reaction to light. This is consistent with the thin pit membrane, which allows incoming IR radiation to quickly and precisely warm a given ion channel and trigger a nerve impulse, as well as vascularize the pit membrane in order to rapidly cool the ion channel back to its original "resting" or "inactive" temperature.

Pressure detection uses the organ of Weber, a system consisting of three appendages of vertebrae transferring changes in shape of the gas bladder to the middle ear. It can be used to regulate the buoyancy of the fish. Fish like the weather fish and other loaches are also known to respond to low pressure areas but they lack a swim bladder.

Current detection is a detection system of water currents, consisting mostly of vortices, found in the lateral line of fish and aquatic forms of amphibians. The lateral line is also sensitive to low-frequency vibrations. The mechanoreceptors are hair cells, the same mechanoreceptors for vestibular sense and hearing. It is used primarily for navigation, hunting, and schooling. The receptors of the electrical sense are modified hair cells of the lateral line system.

Polarized light direction/detection is used by bees to orient themselves, especially on cloudy days. Cuttlefish, some beetles, and mantis shrimp can also perceive the polarization of light. Most sighted humans can in fact learn to roughly detect large areas of polarization by an effect called Haidinger's brush; however, this is considered an entoptic phenomenon rather than a separate sense.

Slit sensillae of spiders detect mechanical strain in the exoskeleton, providing information on force and vibrations.

By using a variety of sense receptors, plants sense light, temperature, humidity, chemical substances, chemical gradients, reorientation, magnetic fields, infections, tissue damage and mechanical pressure. The absence of a nervous system notwithstanding, plants interpret and respond to these stimuli by a variety of hormonal and cell-to-cell communication pathways that result in movement, morphological changes and physiological state alterations at the organism level, that is, result in plant behavior. Such physiological and cognitive functions are generally not believed to give rise to mental phenomena or qualia, however, as these are typically considered the product of nervous system activity. The emergence of mental phenomena from the activity of systems functionally or computationally analogous to that of nervous systems is, however, a hypothetical possibility explored by some schools of thought in the philosophy of mind field, such as functionalism and computationalism.[citation needed ]

However, plants can perceive the world around them, and might be able to emit airborne sounds similar to "screaming" when stressed. Those noises could not be detectable by human ears, but organisms with a hearing range that can hear ultrasonic frequencies -like mice, bats or perhaps other plants-could hear the plants' cries from as far as 15 feet (4.6 m) away.

Machine perception is the capability of a computer system to interpret data in a manner that is similar to the way humans use their senses to relate to the world around them. Computers take in and respond to their environment through attached hardware. Until recently, input was limited to a keyboard, joystick or a mouse, but advances in technology, both in hardware and software, have allowed computers to take in sensory input in a way similar to humans.

In the time of William Shakespeare, there were commonly reckoned to be five wits or five senses. At that time, the words "sense" and "wit" were synonyms, so the senses were known as the five outward wits. This traditional concept of five senses is common today.

The traditional five senses are enumerated as the "five material faculties" (pañcannaṃ indriyānaṃ avakanti ) in Hindu literature. They appear in allegorical representation as early as in the Katha Upanishad (roughly 6th century BC), as five horses drawing the " chariot" of the body, guided by the mind as "chariot driver".

Depictions of the five traditional senses as allegory became a popular subject for seventeenth-century artists, especially among Dutch and Flemish Baroque painters. A typical example is Gérard de Lairesse's Allegory of the Five Senses (1668), in which each of the figures in the main group alludes to a sense: Sight is the reclining boy with a convex mirror, hearing is the cupid-like boy with a triangle, smell is represented by the girl with flowers, taste is represented by the woman with the fruit, and touch is represented by the woman holding the bird.

In Buddhist philosophy, Ayatana or "sense-base" includes the mind as a sense organ, in addition to the traditional five. This addition to the commonly acknowledged senses may arise from the psychological orientation involved in Buddhist thought and practice. The mind considered by itself is seen as the principal gateway to a different spectrum of phenomena that differ from the physical sense data. This way of viewing the human sense system indicates the importance of internal sources of sensation and perception that complements our experience of the external world.[citation needed ]

1. Tsakiris M, de Preester H (2019). The introspective mind: from homeostasis to awareness (1st ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-881193-0. OCLC 1036733582.

2. Khalsa SS, Lapidus RC (2016-07-25). "Can Interoception Improve the Pragmatic Search for Biomarkers in Psychiatry?". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 7: 121. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00121. ISSN 1664-0640. PMC . PMID 27504098.

3. ^ Wolfe J, Kluender K, Levi D (2012). Sensation & perception (3rd ed.). Sinauer Associates. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-87893-572-7.

4. ^ Kalmijn AJ (1988). "Detection of Weak Electric Fields". In Atema J, Fay RR, Popper AN, Tavolga WN (eds.). Sensory Biology of Aquatic Animals. International Conference on the Sensory Biology of Aquatic Animals. Springer Nature Switzerland. doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-3714-3. ISBN 978-1-4612-8317-1.

5. Enjin A, Zaharieva EE, Frank DD, Mansourian S, Suh GS, Gallio M, Stensmyr MC (May 2016). "Humidity Sensing in Drosophila". Current Biology. 26 (10): 1352-1358. Bibcode:2016CBio...26.1352E. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.03.049. PMC . PMID 27161501.

6. ^ Cronin T (2010), "Polarized-Light Vision in Land and Aquatic Animals", Encyclopedia of the Eye, Elsevier, pp. 461-468, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-374203-2.00164-0, ISBN 978-0-12-374203-2

7. ^ Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessell TM (1991). Principles of neural science (3rd ed.). Norwalk, Conn.: Appleton & Lange. ISBN 0-8385-8034-3. OCLC 27216558.

8. Small DM, Green BG. A Proposed Model of a Flavor Modality. In: Murray MM, Wallace MT, editors. The Neural Bases of Multisensory Processes. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press/Taylor & Francis; 2012. Chapter 36. Available from: ^ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK92876/

9. Calvert, G.A., Hansen, P.C., Iversen, S.D. and Brammer, M.J., 2001. Detection of audio-visual integration sites in humans by application of electrophysiological criteria to the BOLD effect. Neuroimage, 14(2), pp. 427-438.

10. ^ Renier LA, Anurova I, De Volder AG, Carlson S, VanMeter J, Rauschecker JP (2009). "Multisensory integration of sounds and vibrotactile stimuli in processing streams for 'what' and 'where'". Journal of Neuroscience. 29 (35): 10950-10960. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0910-09.2009. PMC . PMID 19726653.

11. ^ Kohler W (1947). Gestalt Psychology: An Introduction to New Concepts in Modern Psychology. New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation.

12. ^ D'Ambrose C, Choudhary R (2003). Elert G (ed.). "Frequency range of human hearing". The Physics Factbook.

13. ^ "Deaf Culture and Communication: A Basic Guide" (PDF). Victorian Deaf Society. 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-02-26.

14. ^ Davis AB (1975). "Early Auditory Studies: Activities in the Psychology Laboratories of American Universities". Smithsonian Studies in History and Technology (31). Smithsonian Institution: 1-39. doi:10.5479/si.00810258.31.1. hdl:10088/2430. ISSN 0081-0258.

15. ^ Jones CL, Gray MA, Minati L, Simner J, Critchley HD, Ward J (2011). "The neural basis of illusory gustatory sensations: Two rare cases of lexical-gustatory synaesthesia". Journal of Neuropsychology. 5 (2): 243-254. doi:10.1111/j.1748-6653.2011.02013.x. PMID 21923788.

16. ^ Niimura Y, Nei M (2003-10-14). "Evolution of olfactory receptor genes in the human genome". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 100 (21): 12235-12240. Bibcode:2003PNAS..10012235N. doi:10.1073/pnas.1635157100. PMC . PMID 14507991.

17. ^ Garfinkel SN, Seth AK, Barrett AB, Suzuki K, Critchley HD (January 2015). "Knowing your own heart: distinguishing interoceptive accuracy from interoceptive awareness". Biological Psychology. 104: 65-74. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2014.11.004. PMID 25451381.

18. ^ Schandry R (July 1981). "Heart beat perception and emotional experience". Psychophysiology. 18 (4): 483-488. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1981.tb02486.x. PMID 7267933.

19. ^ Devlin H (2017-05-11). "Not to be sniffed at: human sense of smell rivals that of dogs, says study". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077.

20. ^ Niimura Y, Nei M (2005-02-14). "Evolutionary changes of the number of olfactory receptor genes in the human and mouse lineages". Gene. 346: 23-28. doi:10.1016/j.gene.2004.09.027. PMID 15716099.

21. ^ Takami S (August 2002). "Recent progress in the neurobiology of the vomeronasal organ". Microscopy Research and Technique. 58 (3): 228-250. doi:10.1002/jemt.10094. PMID 12203701. S2CID 43164826.

22. Atema, Jelle (1980) ^ "Chemical senses, chemical signals, and feeding behavior in fishes" pp. 57-101. In: Bardach, J. E. Fish behavior and its use in the capture and culture of fishes', The WorldFish Center, ISBN 978-971-02-0003-0.

23. ^ "Octopus vision, it's in the eye (or skin) of the beholder". Archived from the original on 2018-07-21.

24. ^ Study proposes explanation for how cephalopods see color, despite black and white vision

25. ^ "Odd pupils let 'colorblind' octopuses see colors". Archived from the original on 2019-12-25.

26. ^ "Built-in GPS in birds in tune with Earth's magnetic field". Baylor College of Medicine. Archived from the original on 2012-05-10.

27. ^ Chae KS, Oh IT, Lee SH, Kim SC (2019-02-14). "Blue light-dependent human magnetoreception in geomagnetic food orientation". PLOS ONE. 14 (2): e0211826. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1411826C. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0211826. PMC . PMID 30763322.

28. ^ "Electroreceptive Mechanisms in the Platypus". Archived from the original on 1999-02-09.

29. ^ Drake N (2011). "Life: Dolphin can sense electric fields: Ability may help species track prey in murky waters". Science News. 180 (5): 12. doi:10.1002/scin.5591800512.

30. ^ Pough FH, Magnusson WE, Ryan MJ, Wells KD, Taigen TL (1992). "Behavioral energetics". Environmental physiology of the amphibians. pp. 395-436.

31. (Erratum: Gracheva EO, Ingolia NT, Kelly YM, Cordero-Morales JF, Hollopeter G, Chesler AT, Sánchez EE, Perez JC, Weissman JS, Julius D (14 March 2010). "Molecular basis of infrared detection by snakes". Nature. 464 (7291). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 1006-1011. Bibcode:2010Natur.464.1006G. doi:10.1038/nature08943. ISSN 0028-0836. PMC . PMID 20228791.[1])

32. ^ Khair I, Lewis-Epstein O, Sharon R, Saban K, Perelman R, Boonman A, Yovel Y, Hadany L. "Plants emit informative airborne sounds under stress". bioRxiv 10.1101/507590.

33. Horace Howard Furness (1880). "King Lear". Shakespeare. Vol. 5 (7th ed.). Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Co. p. 187. OCLC 1932507.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A sense is a biological system used by an organism for sensation, the process of gathering information about the surroundings through the detection of stimuli. Although, in some cultures, five human senses were traditionally identified as such (namely sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing), many more are now recognized.

# data[].attributes.headline
How do sensory theories related to touch and visual perception influence game design and player experience

# data[].attributes.subject
How do sensory theories related to touch and visual perception influence game design and player experience

# data[].attributes.body
Astro’s Playroom

# data[].attributes.body
Gestrar theory emphasizes that when humans perceive, they tend to organize and simplify complex information as a whole, and is widely used in UI, scene design, and level construction.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Gestalt psychology is a school of thought that looks at the human mind and behavior as a whole. When trying to make sense of the world around us, Gestalt psychology suggests that we do not simply focus on every small component. Instead, our minds tend to perceive objects as elements of more complex systems.

A core belief in Gestalt psychology is holism, or that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. This school of psychology has played a major role in the modern development of the study of human sensation and perception.

Gestalt Meaning

History of Gestalt Psychology

Originating in the work of Max Wertheimer, Gestalt psychology formed in part as a response to the structuralism of Wilhelm Wundt.

While followers of structuralism were interested in breaking down psychological matters into their smallest possible parts, Gestalt psychologists wanted instead to look at the totality of the mind and behavior. Guided by the principle of holism, Wertheimer and his followers identified instances where perception was based on seeing things as a complete whole, not as separate components.

Wertheimer developed Gestalt psychology after observing what he called the phi phenomenon while watching alternating lights on a railway signal. The phi phenomenon is an optical illusion where two stationary objects seem to move if they are shown appearing and disappearing in rapid succession. In other words, we perceive movement where there is none.

Based on his observations of the phi phenomenon, Wertheimer concluded that we perceive things by seeing the whole perception, not by understanding individual parts. In the example of blinking lights at a train station, the whole we perceive is that one light appears to move quickly between two points. The reality is that two separate lights are blinking rapidly without moving at all.

Influential Gestalt Psychologists

Wertheimer's observations of the phi phenomenon are widely credited as the beginning of Gestalt psychology and he went on to publicize the core principles of the field. Other psychologists also had an influence on this school of psychology.

Wolfgang Köhler: Köhler connected Gestalt psychology to the natural sciences, arguing that organic phenomena are examples of holism at work. He also studied hearing and looked at problem-solving abilities in chimpanzees.

Kurt Koffka: Together with Wertheimer and Köhler, Koffka is considered a founder of the field. He applied the concept of Gestalt to child psychology, arguing that infants first understand things holistically before learning to differentiate them into parts. Koffka played a key role in bringing Gestalt principles to the United States.

Principles of Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt psychology helped introduce the idea that human perception is not just about seeing what is actually present in the world around us. It is also heavily influenced by our motivations and expectations.

Wertheimer created principles to explain how Gestalt perception functions. Some of the most important principles of Gestalt theory are:

Prägnanz: This foundational principle states that we naturally perceive things in their simplest form or organization.

Similarity: This Gestalt principle suggests that we naturally group similar items together based on elements like color, size, and orientation. An example would be grouping dogs based on whether they are small or large, or if they are big or small.

Proximity: The principle of proximity states that objects near each other tend to be viewed as a group.

Continuity: According to this Gestalt principle, we perceive elements arranged on a line or curve as related to each other, while elements that are not on the line or curve are seen as separate.

Closure: This suggests that elements that form a closed object will be perceived as a group. We will even fill in missing information to create closure and make sense of an object. An example of this Gestalt psychology principle is using negative space to give the illusion that a particular shape exists when it doesn't.

Common region: This Gestalt psychology principle states that we tend to group objects together if they're located in the same bounded area. (For example, objects inside a box tend to be considered a group.)

Uses for Gestalt Psychology

There are several uses for Gestalt psychology today, some of which include those related to therapy, design, product development, and learning.

Gestalt Therapy

Gestalt therapy is based on the idea that overall perception depends on the interaction between many factors. Among these factors are our past experiences, current environment, thoughts, feelings, and needs. Gestalt therapy involves key concepts such as awareness, unfinished business, and personal responsibility.

The main goal of Gestalt therapy is to help us focus on the present. While past context is important for viewing yourself as a whole, a Gestalt therapist will encourage you to keep your focus on your present experience.

Research suggests that Gestalt therapy is effective at treating symptoms of depression and anxiety, and it may help people gain confidence and increase feelings of self-efficacy and self-kindness. It is often a helpful way to structure group therapy.

Beginning in the 1920s, designers began incorporating Gestalt principles in their work. Gestalt psychology led these designers to believe that we all share certain characteristics in the way we perceive visual objects and that we all have a natural ability to see "good" design.

Designers embraced Gestalt concepts, using our perception of contrast, color, symmetry, repetition, and proportion to create their work. Gestalt psychology influenced other design concepts, such as:

Figure-ground relationship: This describes the contrast between a focal object (like a word, phrase, or image) and the negative space around it. Designers often use this to create impact.

Visual hierarchy: Designers use the way we perceive and group visual objects to establish a visual hierarchy, ensuring that the most important word or image attracts our attention first.

Associativity: This concept involves the principle of proximity. Designers often use this to determine where to place important objects, including text elements such as headlines, captions, and lists.

Product Development

Product designers use Gestalt psychology to inform their decisions during the development process. Consumers tend to like products that follow Gestalt principles.

This influence can be seen in the appearance of the products themselves and in their packaging and advertising. We can also see Gestalt principles at work in apps and digital products. Concepts like proximity, similarity, and continuity have become standards of our expected user experience.

Learning and Education

The Gestalt Theory of Learning relies on the law of simplicity. In simple terms, it states that each learning stimulus is perceived in its simplest form.

The psychology behind this learning theory states that we use our senses and previous experiences to gain knowledge about the world around us. It also suggests that we learn from the methods by which we are taught, in addition to being impacted by classroom environments and the academic culture.

Impact of Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt psychology has largely been subsumed by other types of psychology, but it had an enormous influence on the field. Researchers like Kurt Lewin and Kurt Goldstein were influenced by Gestalt concepts before going on to make important contributions to psychology.

Gestalt theory is also important in that the idea of the whole being different than its parts has influenced our understanding of the brain and social behavior. Gestalt theory still impacts how we understand vision and the ways that context, visual illusions, and information processing impact our perception.

A Word From Verywell

Gestalt therapy continues to influence many areas of our lives. Its emphasis on a holistic approach plays an important role in cognitive psychology, perception, and social psychology, among other fields.

Frequently Asked Questions

Who founded Gestalt psychology?

Gestalt psychology was founded by Max Wertheimer, a Czechoslovakian psychologist who also developed a lie detection device to objectively study courtroom testimony. ]Wolfgang Köhler and Kurt Koffka are also considered co-founders of the Gestalt theory.

What are the principles of Gestalt psychology?

Most of the foundational principles of Gestalt psychology explain how we group things, such as by similarity, proximity, continuity, closure, and common reason. Prägnanz is another Gestalt principle and says that we tend to perceive complex things in their most simple form. Prägnanz is sometimes referred to as the law of simplicity, a concept that was first presented in 1914.

Why is Gestalt psychology important?

Gestalt psychology has influenced how we study perception and sensation. It also increases our understanding of how our cognitive processes influence the way we behave socially.

How is Gestalt psychology used today?

Some therapists use Gestalt psychology to help patients focus on the present over the past. Designers and product developers also use Gestalt theory to make their creations more appealing or to draw focus to certain elements over others. Educators may also use Gestalt principles to help their students learn.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What Is the Gestalt Approach In Psychology?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Gestalt psychology is a holistic approach that looks at the mind and behavior as a whole. Learn the principles of Gestalt psychology and how it is used today.

# data[].attributes.headline
Commonly used visual theories and concepts in games

# data[].attributes.subject
Commonly used visual theories and concepts in games

# data[].attributes.body
1.Gestalt Theory

2.Color Theory

3.Visual Hierarchy

4.Depth Cues

5.Attention Theory

6.Affordance Theory

7.Visual Flow & Composition

8.Eye Tracking & Gaze Theory

9.Golden Ratio

10.Affordance clues

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Let's delve into the dynamic world of game art, where creativity meets technology to shape the immersive realms of video gaming. Join us as we explore the evolution, significance, and psychological effects of game art, illustrating its critical role in enhancing player interactions and game design.

Understanding Game Art

Game art is essential in video gaming, bridging technical aspects with player immersion through visual elements like character designs, environments, and animations. These elements must synergize to deepen player immersion and enhance the gameplay experience. Creating game art requires not only artistic skill, but also a mastery of software and interactive design principles. As technology advances, game art evolves, continually redefining player engagement and perceptions of game worlds.

Definition and Importance of Game Art

Game art is the craft of creating the visual elements that make up the digital world of a video game. This encompasses character and environment design, user interface aesthetics, and the animations that bring motion to static images. It is fundamental to a game's development, serving as the visual foundation that engages players and shapes their experiences.

The artistic elements of a video game encompass far more than just its visual appearance; it is a fundamental component that impacts every aspect of the player's experience. From the initial character sketches to the detailed worlds players explore, game art sets the tone and context, making abstract game mechanics and narratives tangible and relatable. This visual representation helps players understand game rules and the possibilities within the game's world, making complex systems accessible and enjoyable.

Moreover, game art is crucial in establishing the identity and appeal of a game. It differentiates a game within the competitive market, catching the eye of potential players through unique stylistic choices or innovative design. For instance, a game with a distinctive art style can become instantly recognizable, which is valuable for branding and marketing. On a deeper level, game art can evoke emotions and create connections, crafting memorable experiences that players discuss long after they've finished playing.

Evolution of Game Art

The evolution of game art is a fascinating journey that mirrors the rapid advancements in technology and changes in cultural aesthetics. In the early days of gaming, art was constrained by technical limitations, with simple, pixelated graphics that were more functional than expressive. Iconic games from the 1970s and 1980s, like "Pong" and "Space Invaders," featured minimalistic designs due to the rudimentary hardware of the time. As technology progressed, the 1990s saw a significant shift with the introduction of 3D graphics, led by consoles like the Sony PlayStation and Nintendo 64. This era brought more detailed and complex visuals, which allowed for more expressive character models and immersive environments.

Entering the 21st century, game art has seen exponential growth in quality and complexity, thanks to advancements in hardware and software. High-definition graphics, realistic textures, and complex lighting effects have become standard, enabling artists to create vivid, lifelike game worlds. Modern game art frequently blurs the lines between digital and reality, incorporating artistic influences from various media and pushing the boundaries of visual storytelling. The advent of tools like Unreal Engine and Unity has also democratized game development, allowing indie developers to craft visually stunning games that rival those of major studios. As we look to the future, game art continues to evolve, with trends like virtual reality and procedural generation promising to further revolutionize how game visuals are created and experienced.

The Psychology of Colors in Game Art

The psychology of colors in game art is a critical and intricate element that profoundly influences player behavior and emotional response. As developers and artists craft immersive worlds and engaging gameplay, the strategic use of color is not merely aesthetic but a powerful psychological tool. By understanding how different hues affect human perception and emotion, game designers can create more impactful and memorable gaming experiences, guiding players' feelings and decisions subtly throughout their journey.

Basics of Color Psychology

Color psychology explores how different colors influence human behavior and emotion. This field of study is grounded in the idea that colors can evoke specific psychological responses. For example, red is often associated with energy, passion, and danger, making it a common choice for capturing attention and eliciting strong emotions. Blue, on the other hand, is typically linked to calmness and stability, frequently used in settings that require trust and tranquility.

Each color has a unique psychological profile that can affect mood, mental clarity, and physiological responses. Yellow, often seen as cheerful and stimulating, can uplift spirits and encourage communication, but in excess, it might also lead to feelings of frustration or anger. Green is commonly associated with nature and health, promoting relaxation and comfort. Understanding these effects allows designers, marketers, and artists to use color strategically to convey messages, invoke specific feelings, and influence decisions, making color psychology a powerful tool in various fields, including marketing, interior design, and notably, game art.

Applying Color Psychology in Video Games

Color psychology is a critical tool in video game design, where colors are strategically chosen to enhance gameplay and narrative. For instance, developers use red to indicate danger or an enemy presence, triggering a sense of alertness and urgency in players. Conversely, blue might be used to calm players or signal safety, helping to create a balance of tension and relief in the gaming experience. The use of green in natural settings can promote relaxation and renewal, making it ideal for recovery zones or safe havens within games.

Moreover, color schemes are carefully selected to evoke specific atmospheres and themes. A game set in a dystopian future might employ a palette of grays and blues to convey a feeling of coldness and oppression, while a fantasy game might use vibrant greens and golds to enhance its otherworldly and majestic feel. By manipulating color, game artists can control the emotional landscape of a game, guiding players' emotional responses and deepening the immersive experience. This thoughtful application of color psychology can make the difference between a good game and a truly memorable one.

Designing Effective Video Game Color Schemes

Designing effective color schemes in video games is essential for enhancing visual appeal and emotional impact. Color choices should align with the game's genre and setting, with darker colors for suspenseful atmospheres in horror games and bright hues for lively platformers. Utilizing color theory, developers can employ complementary colors to emphasize important elements and analogous colors for a cohesive environment. Adjusting color temperature and contrast helps highlight interactive components. Careful planning and testing of these schemes ensure that they support both the game's aesthetics and its functional gameplay elements.

Creating Immersive Environments

Creating immersive environments in game art is all about crafting spaces that captivate and engage players, making them feel as if they are truly part of the game world. This process involves meticulous design and thoughtful integration of various elements, including detailed backgrounds, realistic or stylized textures, and dynamic lighting effects that reflect the environment's mood and time of day. For example, artists might use soft, diffuse lighting and gentle color palettes to evoke a serene, mysterious atmosphere in a fantasy forest, or harsh, stark lighting in a dystopian city to enhance feelings of desolation and tension.

In addition to visual components, environmental storytelling plays a crucial role in immersion. This can be achieved through the placement of objects that hint at the world's history or the events that have transpired, without overtly narrating them. Sound design is also pivotal; ambient sounds like rustling leaves, distant thunder, or bustling city noises can deeply enhance the sense of realism and presence. By combining these artistic and narrative elements effectively, game artists can create complex, vivid environments that resonate with players, sustain engagement, and enhance the overall gameplay experience.

Enhancing Gameplay with Color Schemes

Color schemes play a vital role in enhancing gameplay by influencing player perception and behavior. Strategic use of colors can direct players' attention to critical elements, delineate friend from foe, or signal changes in gameplay states. For instance, warm colors like red and orange can be used to denote danger or important interactive objects, prompting alertness and quick reactions. Conversely, cool colors such as blue and green often indicate safety and health, helping to create a calming atmosphere where players might feel more secure.

Moreover, color can be employed to convey mood and enrich the narrative context. A sudden shift to a monochromatic palette, for instance, can signal a flashback or dream sequence, subtly altering the player's emotional and cognitive engagement without overt explanation. In multiplayer games, distinct color schemes for different teams enhance team identification and cohesion. By thoughtfully integrating color schemes, game designers can craft more intuitive and emotionally resonant gaming experiences, guiding player behavior and enhancing the overall engagement with the game's world.

Player Behavior and Game Art

Game art significantly influences player behavior by visually guiding interactions and decisions within the game world. Visual cues, like distinctive colors or glowing items, can attract players, prompting exploration or caution. The art style itself-whether realistic, detailed, or more abstract-also affects how players approach and engage with the game, encouraging either strategic gameplay or experimental interaction. Consistent visual themes across levels and characters enhance immersion and storytelling, subtly directing how players interact with the game and each other, thereby shaping their overall experience.

Influence of Game Art on Player Motivation

Game art significantly influences player motivation by enhancing the visual appeal and emotional engagement of the gaming experience. Vibrant color palettes, detailed environments, and thematic designs captivate players, sparking curiosity and driving exploration. For example, a visually rich landscape can motivate players to uncover hidden areas, while character art deepens emotional connections, encouraging players to engage with storylines. This intrinsic motivation, rooted in the enjoyment of exploring beautifully crafted game worlds, aligns with the psychological needs for autonomy and competence, enhancing self-esteem and satisfaction.

Additionally, game art supports extrinsic motivation through design elements that reward player achievements with visually appealing upgrades or exclusive content. This can be seen in how distinct color schemes and unique designs signify player progression and achievements, offering both prestige and a sense of accomplishment. Game designers leverage these art elements alongside game mechanics such as achievements, collection, and progression to create a fulfilling sense of blissful productivity. By strategically integrating these aspects, game art not only makes the game more engaging but also aligns with various player types-such as achievers and explorers-catering to their specific motivations and enhancing their overall gaming experience.

Emotional Responses to Game Art

Game art profoundly impacts players' emotions, shaping their experiences and reactions throughout the gaming journey. The visual design, including color schemes, character expressions, and environmental settings, plays a significant role in conveying the emotional tone of the game. For instance, a somber, muted palette might evoke feelings of melancholy or tension, suitable for a narrative-driven adventure or thriller game. Conversely, bright and vibrant colors can inspire joy and excitement, often used in more dynamic, action-packed games or playful platformers.

Moreover, the art style itself-whether photorealistic, stylized, or pixelated-also influences emotional response. Photorealistic art can generate a deep sense of immersion and realism, making dramatic scenes more impactful. Whereas stylized art, found in fantasy or abstract games, can create a sense of wonder and curiosity, encouraging players to explore and engage with the game world in a more imaginative way. The strategic use of game art not only enhances the storytelling but also triggers specific emotional responses that can align with the game's narrative, engage players on a deeper level, and create memorable gaming experiences that resonate emotionally long after the game is finished.

Case Studies and Examples

Successful Use of Color and Design in Video Games

The strategic use of color and design in video games is key to creating immersive and engaging experiences. Successful game developers employ color theory to evoke specific emotions and guide player behavior

Design elements are equally important; the overall layout and visual style of a game must be coherent and serve the narrative and gameplay mechanics effectively. Games like " Journey" and " Monument Valley" showcase exceptional use of minimalist design and color to create emotional depth and visual clarity. These games use sweeping landscapes and bold geometric shapes, which not only guide players through the gameplay but also enhance the emotional gravity of the narrative. In action games like " Overwatch," vibrant, distinct color palettes help distinguish characters and abilities quickly amidst fast-paced gameplay, improving usability and player performance. These examples illustrate how thoughtful color and design not only enrich the visual appeal but also fundamentally improve player interaction and emotional engagement within the game.

Innovative Approaches to Game Art

In the rapidly evolving field of game development, artists continually push the boundaries of creativity and technology to create unique visual experiences. One innovative approach is the use of procedural generation, where algorithms dynamically create textures, landscapes, or even entire levels. This technique not only introduces a unique element of unpredictability and replayability but also allows for expansive game worlds without the need for exhaustive manual input from artists. Games like "No Man's Sky" utilize procedural generation to craft a virtually infinite universe, providing new vistas and challenges with each playthrough.

Another cutting-edge trend is the integration of mixed media and non-traditional art styles into game design. For example, " Cuphead" revives the aesthetic of 1930s cartoons, employing hand-drawn animations and watercolor backgrounds to deliver a visually distinct and nostalgic experience. Similarly, " Concrete Genie " uses a painting mechanic where the player's brushstrokes come to life within the game, affecting gameplay and player interactions in vivid, dynamic ways. These artistic choices not only stand out in a crowded market but also deepen player immersion, making the art a core component of the gameplay experience itself. These innovative techniques showcase how game art is not just about creating appealing visuals but also about enhancing narrative depth and gameplay dynamics.

Ready to boost your creative potential? Explore a career in game art.

Through exploring game art, we see its undeniable influence on player engagement and the gaming industry. From pushing artistic boundaries to strategically using colors for emotional impact, game art is essential in making games not only playable but profoundly immersive. As technology evolves, so too will game art, continuously reshaping how we experience and interact with games.

Unleash your creativity and shape the future of gaming by joining RMCAD's Game Art program. Whether you're passionate about enhancing player experiences or eager to innovate in game design, our programs offer the tools and knowledge you need. Explore RMCAD's game art degree programs, available both online and on-campus, and start your journey to making a significant impact in the gaming world today.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Psychology of Game Art: How Colors and Design Affect Player Behavior - RMCAD

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Learn how the psychology of game art influences player behavior through colors and design. Get insights on creating game environments that captivate and motivate players.

# data[].attributes.headline
A comparison between Super Mario Odyssey and Astro's Playroom

# data[].attributes.subject
A comparison between Super Mario Odyssey and Astro's Playroom

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Astro Bot vs Super Mario Odyssey - Physics and Details Comparison

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Design Tips: In-Game Proportions and Scale

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Determining scale and proportions for characters and environment: a few tips for enhancing the look and feel of your game.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Game system design and the concept of affordances. How they work, what makes them powerful, and examples of how to use them effectively.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
PS5宇宙机器人手柄交互体验

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
更多实用攻略教学，爆笑沙雕集锦，你所不知道的游戏知识，热门游戏视频7*24小时持续更新,尽在哔哩哔哩bilibili 视频播放量 1266、弹幕量 0、点赞数 14、投硬币枚数 2、收藏人数 6、转发人数 42, 视频作者 我是不二061, 作者简介 ，相关视频：剑星解禁！爽吗？大吗？，沉浸式《棉花糖》至上励合—【艾瑞泽8 2.0T御】SONY＆索尼12扬声器音响试听，手柄按键不回弹？超简单自救，铁血战士 完整电影 （2025） 动作 奇幻 英语 4K ULTRA HD，沉浸式《最好的安排》—【艾瑞泽8 2.0T御】SONY＆索尼12扬声器音响试听，剑星中的NPC有多不走心？

# data[].attributes.headline
Astro’s Playroom is the perfect showcase for the PS5’s wild DualSense controller

# data[].attributes.subject
Astro’s Playroom is the perfect showcase for the PS5’s wild DualSense controller

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Astro’s Playroom is the perfect showcase for the PS5’s wild DualSense controller

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Citation: Foottit, J., Brown, D., Marks, S. & Connor, A.M. (2014) An intuitive tangible game controller. Proceedings of the 2014

# data[].attributes.body
I originally intended to write a paper related to game theory, but during a conversation with my roommate, it inspired me to talk about the topic of sensory overload in the future. Then I thought about how the senses would be reflected in games. So I discussed the title of the paper with Roy and concluded that I needed to combine sensory theory with visual theory and pick out one of the five senses to write about

# data[].attributes.headline
WHY  Astro‘s playroom and SuperMario Odyssey

# data[].attributes.subject
WHY  Astro‘s playroom and SuperMario Odyssey

# data[].attributes.body
While I was thinking about what games are related to touch, I recalled the game <Astro‘s playroom> that I once played. When I first bought the PS5Tgb, this game was a gift game to showcase SONY's latest controller, and the new controller's function happened to be related to touch. The latest Game of the Year award also went to the sequel of <Astro‘s playroom>. Many people compared this award-winning game with the former <SuperMario Odyssey>. I looked at the comparison of the two games to figure out the visual theory and Haptic theory. The most significant difference is that <Astro‘s playroom>has more tactile interaction