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Prince Henry the Navigator was a part of the Portuguese royal family and lived during the 15th century when the Age of Exploration began. He never made any of the voyages himself, but Henry did help advance his country’s ability to go on the sea. He set up a school on the Sagres peninsula which had prominent map makers, astronomers and sailors. With his assistance, the Portuguese navigators were able to explore a stretch that grew to the entire western coast of Africa. Such explorations opened up new opportunities for sea routes, including sea routes for trade with Asia. Henry’s efforts positively commenced the balance of international trade around Portugal. In addition, he exerted efforts that enabled Portugal to become a powerful maritime country. Broadcasting his idea of seeking, Henry not only ensured himself on that spot but also increased Portugal’s territories, expanding its influence even to Europe, thus stepping into the age of greater European expansion and allowing other nations to be able to do the same.

Henry the Navigator played an important role in the successful exploration of the sea that placed Portugal to expand trading routes and increased its influence. By patronizing the voyage along the western coast of Africa, Henry opened new lands and the sea way to India. Still, it led to be one of the early players in the transatlantic slave trade because Portuguese expeditions began capturing Africans for forced labor in European plantations. While Henry's efforts moved navigation ahead and opened new economic opportunities, at the same time, it started a tradition of exploitation and suffering among many indigenous and African communities. Whatever said and done, his contributions to the development of skills in maritime technology and world exploration laid the bedrock for future European colonization and trade.

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Born in the early 1400s, Johannes Gutenberg was an inventor/ craftsman who specialized in metalwork, gem cutting, and gold. All these expertise helped him when creating the movable type printing press in 1440. During those times, most books were written by hand, which made any book rare and expensive. The printing press was invented to create a fast and efficient way of making books so more of the general population could get a hold of them. The press enabled multiple copies of a book to made at the same time. One thing that was very special about Gutenbergs printing press was that it was moveable type. It allowed individual characters and letters to be rearranged and reused, instead of using a carved block of wood. By the end of the 15th century over 1,000 movable type printing presses were spread out across all of Europe.

The end result of Johannes Gutenberg's printing press was the mass production of books throughout Europe. This increase in book availability significantly impacted the Renaissance. Before the printing press, books were in short supply and expensive, making it difficult for authors to share their ideas. The ability to mass-produce books provided writers with a means to reach a bigger audience. For the middle and lower classes, these books became affordable, allowing them to engage with new ideas and the author's perspectives that contributed to the ideas of humanism. Readers could find Renaissance work that personally connect with them, which encouraged them to support those contributing to the cultural rebirth or even inspire themselves to create their own works that add to humanist ideals.

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The Invention of the Printing Press: Johannes Gutenberg's Revolution

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When the Ottomans captured Constantinople in 1453, the Byzantine Empire was brought to an end, which was a pivotal event in world history. After a long and cruel siege, the Ottoman Empire, lead by sultan Mehmed II, took the city. This win was the reason the Ottomans' influence in the area was reinforced. They used new military strategies like, large guns, so they could take over the city's defenses. The capture of Constantinople made it into modern day Istanbul, which became the new capital city of the Ottoman empire. The city became a center of Islamic culture and a major trade hub that connecting Europe and Asia. In Europe, the fall of Constantinople marked the complete defeat of the Eastern Roman Empire and led to big changes, like search for new land trade routes to get to Asia on. Since the Ottomans controlled the Silk Road, Europeans where charged taxes on the goos they were trading, so they started looking for sea route. The fall of Constantinople significantly impacted politics, cultures, and economies, making it a unforgettable event in history.

The Fall of Constantinople in 1453 changed war and trade forever. The Ottomans used powerful cannons to break through the city's walls. This led to European armies starting to use gunpowder weapons and improve their defenses so they could try to fight off the Ottomans. By controlling the Silk Road, the Ottomans taxed European traders, making Asian goods more expensive. This was one of the reasons the Europeans started searching for a sea route to Asia, marking the Age of Exploration. The fall did not only make the Ottoman Empire grow stronger but made Europe be curious enough to venture into exploringthe rest of the world and building communication. It was an end of the Byzantine Empire, with its power shifting to the East European and Middle East side of the continent.

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and The Spanish Inquisition was a series of attacks on any religion that wasn't Catholic in Spain. The purpose of the attacks were to eradicate the main religions like Judaism, Islam, and any acts or heresy. Those that were not Catholic were forced to either convert or leave the country. Before this, the Muslims were the ruling religion of Spain. Anyone who wasn't Muslim, were free to practice their religion as long as they paid a tax to the government. However when King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella married in 1469, they wanted to unit their kingdoms and make Spain solely Catholic. The Spanish Inquisition was a court sent out to abolish heresy. They resorted to torturing civilians to get them to confess to their crimes. When the Inquisition was finally put to an end 2,000 spaniards were brutally murdered.

When learning about the Spanish Inquisition, it is important to keep in mind that this all happened before the counter reformation. Meaning, during the time of the Spanish Inquisition there was no formal protestant movement, so they targeted other religions like the Muslims and Jews. aside from the different time periods, both acts had the same end goal. To get individuals to convert to Christianity. But where these acts differ is in there ways to implement their desires. The Spanish Inquisition used unorthodox methods to force people to adopt their religious beliefs. They gave the non-Catholic Spanish citizens the option to either leave the country or to convert to Catholicism. Those who stayed in Spain but practices their religion secretly, were hunted down, convicted of treason, and publicly punished and executed. On the other hand, the Catholic Reformation gave its citizens the option to convert or not. They focused more on trying to convince the people to become Catholic by connecting with them on a spritual and theological level, rather than torture and punishment. The Catholic reformation was also to chance the corrupt parts of the church so more people would want to join them. Ultimately, both aimed to spread Catholicism, but the Spanish Inquisition used force, while the Catholic Reformation focused on convincing people through faith and reform.

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Ugly History: The Spanish Inquisition - Kayla Wolf

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With the start of the age of exploration, Portugal was very determined to find a sea route to Asia after the Ottoman empire gained control of the Silk Road and other trade routes to Asia by foot. Portugal’s Prince Henry sent out many sea voyages to find a maritime trade route to Asia. Several years later, after Vasco da Gama rounded the tip of Africa and reached Asia, Spain realized that they also had to join the search for a sea route. Christopher Columbus went to king Ferdinand and queen Isabella and proposed his idea to sail west to reach Asia. They sent the first voyage with three ships, but when they landed in what is now known as the Caribbean Sea, they hit land that they did know was there. Christopher Columbus's first voyage was known to be very friendly as they traded and became friends with indigenous people of San Salvador. Although during his second voyage, Christopher brought mercenaries to capture the land from the indigenous people.

Columbus' expedition in 1492 remains a significant milestone in the world history, even though it had both positive and negative impact. He was taken by Spain with the intention of looking for a new route to Asia but instead, he found the Americas. This made the world to get new land to exploration, colonize, and collect native agriculture, linking the Europe, Africa and the America. However, it also led to devastating consequences for the indigenous people in form of colonization, exploitation and the introduction of diseases that lead to many deaths. Although Columbus brought new knowledge of the new world, it also paved way to many years of imbalance and combat between European countries, and indigenous people.

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Christopher Columbus | Educational Videos for Kids

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The Columbian Exchange is an ecological revolution where plants, animals, people, cultures, technologies, and diseases in the Americas, Europe, and Africa were transferred between continents after Christopher Columbus's 1492 voyages. This exchange of agriculture on both sides of the Atlantic took place with massive changes. Crops like potatoes, maize, and tomatoes from the Americas created a major change in diets both in Europe and Africa. In return, Europe supplied the Americas with wheat, sugar, and livestock, such as cattle, pigs, and horses, that remade the face of agriculture and transportation in the New World. Though it brought much good, the Columbian Exchange had major consequences. Diseases current in Europe, like smallpox and measles, spread and decimated Native populations who, not having previously been exposed to these diseases, did not have immunity from them; their population losses were devastating. In addition, the exchange facilitated the transatlantic slave trade whereby Africans had to be made available to provide labor to grow cash crops like sugar and tobacco in the Americas. The Columbian Exchange remade world economies, ecologies, and cultures and left as its legacy both progress and profound tragedy.

The Columbian Exchange was a monumental shift in history, though not an even process of give-and-take. New crops and animals, new economic opportunities, but above all, tremendous harm to Indigenous peoples and African populations: the diseases brought over by the Europeans wiped out much of the Indigenous population, while the transatlantic slave trade forced millions of Africans into brutal labor. It also disrupted ecosystems with the spread of invasive species and large-scale farming. Despite these negative impacts, the exchange connected the world in new ways and shaped modern global cultures and economies. It highlights both the benefits and the costs of global interaction.

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The Treaty of Tordesillas, signed in 1494, was an agreement between Spain and Portugal to establish a "line of demarcation" dividing newly discovered lands outside Europe. Mediated by the Pope, the treaty was to preventing conflict between the two nations as they expanded during the Age of Exploration. The territories that were west of the line were granted to Spain, which included most of the Americas, which where found by Christopher Columbus, and Portugal was given the lands to the east, which included parts of Africa, Asia, and later Brazil. This was an important step in European colonialism, whereby Spain and Portugal were given control of global trade routes and territories. But the treaty ignored the rights and sovereignty of Indigenous peoples and excluded other European nations, leading to future disputes as global exploration expanded. The Treaty of Tordesillas was a pivotal moment in shaping the colonial and cultural boundaries that influenced world history for centuries.

The Treaty of Tordesillas exemplified the determination of Spain and Portugal to dominate exploration and colonization during the Age of Exploration. By establishing a "line of demarcation," the treaty symbolized the growing European ambition to claim and control vast regions of the world, often at the expense of Indigenous populations. While it managed to avoid the immediate conflict between Spain and Portugal, in doing so, it excluded the other European powers of that time, such as England, France, and the Netherlands, and thus paved a path for future challenges and rivalries. The treaty strengthened a Eurocentric viewpoint that was dismissive of native peoples and cultures of the land being divided up. Despite these deficiencies, the treaty had a more lasting impact on world trade, territorial claims, and cultural legacies, most especially in the shaping of Latin America and Brazil's borders and colonial histories.

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Created between 1495 and 1498 by the artist Leonardo da Vinci, the Last Supper remains one of the most famous pieces of art within the history of the Western world. It shows the moment of Jesus Christ at his last meal with his disciples or more precisely his intimate students when he announces to them that one of these will betray him. This event is so important in Christianity because of the origin of Eucharist-allusion to the sacrament of the body and blood of Christ, which dedicates the practice within the church where one eats bread and drinks wine as a symbol of the body and blood of Jesus. Though several artists would make their different representations, none could compete with Leonardo's rendering. It's highly acclaimed for emotionality, since so many emotions and reactions of each disciple are captured-their faces tell their whole story-and for the new perspective that brings Jesus as the focus at the center of the painting. Now it stays housed at the Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, and to this day, it holds out as an immortal masterpiece of artistic and spiritual significance.

The Last Supper is important not only for its meaning in religion but also because it was a moment in the history of art-a revolution. At the time he painted this, the capture of deep emotion and the individual expressions of people in art was still quite new, and Leonardo's ability to show the different reactions of each disciple set a new standard for realism. His use of perspective and symmetry, with Christ as the focal point of the painting, reflects typical Renaissance ideals of harmony and balance. Beyond its achievements in art, the tension between betrayal and sacrifice is grasped in this painting, forming a core part of Christian theology. Its consistent impact on both art and creed has underlined how powerful artistic works can shape spiritual and cultural identity across generations.

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The Last Supper: Painting Explained in Short

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Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese explorer who found the sea route from Europe to India, changing world trade and travel at the time. In 1498 he made history when he rounded the Cape of Good Hope and crossed the Indian Ocean to become the first European ever to arrive in India. This journey marked a turning point in world history, as it made Portugal the dominant country power and paved the way for European colonization and control of Indian Ocean trade. Vasco da Gama's voyages brought a lot of wealth to Portugal through the spice trade, reducing traveling on the Silk Road that was controlled by the Ottoman Empire. These same expeditions, however, brought about exploitation, conflict, and the imposition of European dominance over the existing trading networks in Asia. Vasco da Gama is known for his voyage to Asia which resulted in the start of the Age of Exploration, where many other countries fought to gain control of the sea routes to India.

Vasco da Gama's voyages marked a turning point in history because he finally found a sea route to India after all previous attempts by Portuguese explorers had failed. His achievement initiated the Age of Exploration, inspiring other European nations to explore new territories and expand trade routes. Opening up a direct route from Europe to India by sea, da Gama helped to establish Portugal as a major naval power and set the stage for future exploration. The perseverance and success he showed were symbolic of the spirit of discovery that typified the era, and he was one of the most important figures in history in global navigation.

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Vasco da Gama: Portuguese Explorer - Fast Facts | History

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Mercantilism was an economic system that dominated European countries from the 16th to the 18th century. It meant that a country's wealth and power were determined by the amount of gold and silver it had. In order to increase wealth, nations tried exporting more goods than they imported, thereby creating a beneficial balance of trade. They actively participated through the imposition of tariffs on imported goods and giving subsidies for exports. The colonies were significant in mercantilism policies as a source of raw materials and served as a market for its finished products. This is how European powers established colonial empires to their advantage over global routes and resources. While mercantilism fostered the development of industries and the gain of wealth for the state, it limited the expansion of economic development by overemphasizing precious metals and the national economy. Although we now use capitalism, mercantilism played a big role in shaping global trade patterns and the rise of colonial empires.

Mercantilism helped establish powerful colonial empires and gave the state much more control over economic activities, but it also created major problems in world trade. The system was overly obsessed with the accumulation of gold and silver, which led to unfair trade restrictions and the exploitation of colonies. It promoted the idea that one nation's gain meant another's loss, encouraging fierce competition and conflict among European powers. It also stunted innovation and competition since the governments tightly controlled trade and industry. Though mercantilism had a place in the early development of world economies, it really hindered economic growth by placing bounds on free market principles and creating inequality among nations. Emphasis on national wealth, not individual prosperity, allowed only limited development of a more dynamic, competitive economy and delayed the shift toward more modern economic systems, such as capitalism.

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The Transatlantic Slave Trade was one of the most brutal systems of forced labor in the history of mankind that existed between the 16th and 19th centuries. Portuguese, Spanish, British and French merchants shipped millions of enslaved Africans to work on sugar, cotton, and tobacco plantations in the Americas. This trade was part of the triangular trade system through which Europe exported manufactured products whose demand in Africa was met by enslaved Africans who were later shipped to America. This was made possible by the colonial expansion that saw immense demand for labor in the new territories. The Transatlantic Slave Trade furthered the European economies and the expansion of colonies. However, it was a gruesome exercise where enslaved women, men and children experienced inhumane treatment, endless suffering and destruction of their communities. The Transatlantic Slave Trade was officially abolished across many countries by the 19th century, however racism and unjustified socio-economic discrimination continue to be observed in present-day societies

The history of the Transatlantic Slave Trade exposes the the most severe consequences of ineffective humanitarianism that invented colonialism and unjust economic exploitation. It gave a significant amount of wealth and resources to European states and colonial powers ensuring the advancement of capitalism in the world. But the slave trade destroyed the African peoples’ endemic societies, depopulated them, ruptured the order of cultures, and brought about the apathy to capitalist transformation. The Africans who were captured and enslaved went through a lot of torture and cruelty staring from the Middle Passage up to when they served on the plantations. The very nature of the trade legitimized the abuse of people on the color basis and the discrimination began then. Although the blockade of the trade was an ethical revolution, it can never in any way undo the effects of exploitation that have been deposited in the causal web of contemporary society and economy.

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The School of Athens, by Raphael, 1509-1511, is a great Renaissance work of art that pays respect to knowledge, learning, and ancient wisdom. Pope Julius II commissioned Raphael to do this painting for the Vatican's Stanza della Segnatura. It contains ancient philosophers and scientists. In the center of the painting, Raphael drew Plato and Aristotle. Plato is pointing up to represent idealism, which is the practice of forming and pursuing ideals, while Aristotle points down to emphasize practical knowledge. It portrays people like Pythagoras, Euclid, and Socrates thinking hard, with realistic poses and faces showing their brilliant ideas. Raphael uses perspective and classical buildings to help the viewer focus on the main figures, creating depth and balance. Raphael also connects ancient knowledge with the Renaissance spirit of exploration and progress by including modern people such as Michelangelo and himself. The painting respects reason and the rediscovery of classical ideas while showing artistic skill, making it a lasting symbol of intellectual success.

In Raphael Sanizo’s School of Athens, he painted famous Greek philosophers, scientists, and mathematicians as well as religious figures working together and sharing ideas. He depicts famous figures including Aristotle, Ptolemy, and even Raphael himself. The School of Athens symbolized the unity of religion and philosophy during the time of the Renaissance, showing a bridging of the gap between the two ideas. While religion was still important during the time of the Renaissance, Raphael’s works reflected on the role of ancient philosophy which inspired new ideas and beliefs across Europe.

In Raphael Sanizo’s School of Athens, he painted famous Greek philosophers, scientists, and mathematicians as well as religious figures working together and sharing ideas. This idea of philosophers and scientist coming together was intriguing at the time, which is why this painting is so famous. Philosophy and science were two different ideas that had completely. different followings. He depicts famous figures including Aristotle, Ptolemy, and even Raphael himself. The School of Athens symbolized the unity of religion and philosophy during the time of the Renaissance, showing a bridging of the gap between the two ideas. While religion was still important during the time of the Renaissance, Raphael’s works reflected on the role of ancient philosophy which inspired new ideas and beliefs across Europe.

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The School of Athens, Raphael | Art Analysis (Video Essay)

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Niccolo Machiavellis The Prince is a guide for rulers on how to gain and keep political power. The book written in 1513 and it takes a harsh yet practical look at leadership. Some might say it's harsh because it focuses on what truly works in the real world rather than what is morally right. Machiavelli argues that rulers need to be flexible and willing to do whatever is necessary to protect their position, even if it means acting unethically. He talk about ideas like the importance of appearing good and kind while being able to deceive, making strong and quick decisions, and balancing fear and love. He says it’s better for a ruler to be feared than loved because fear is more reliable for maintaining control. If a ruler appears too kind and soft, he can be easily overthrown and stripped of his title. The Prince's unique approach was very new at the time. His ideas about rising and keeping power remain in affect, and help individuals understand challenges that come with political power.

The release of The Prince written by Niccolo Machiavelli truly was a pivotal time in politics. Before the Renaissance, everyone did everything the Roman Catholic Church told them to. The people didn't think of any other ways to rule because the Church was all they knew. Ideas began to spread and "The Prince" was one of the main contributors to them. People were fascinated and intrigued by the new way of looking at Politics. Politicians used the ideas to help them gain and keep their power. To this day, politicians use Machiavelli's ideas in their rule. Some take his words to an extreme, and make their countries a communist nation, and others use it to positively benefit their nation. The book remains significant to this day, and helps many politicians and rulers.

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Machiavelli - The Prince Explained In 3 Minutes

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In 1517, German monk Martin Luther nailed his 95 Theses onto the door of Wittenberg Castle Church, protesting practices of the Catholic Church-most notably the sale of indulgences. He felt that it was wrong to buy your way into Heaven. That through faith in God and good deeds salvation was attained, not by paying for it. These Theses created much debate and were printed as a pamphlet using the newly invented printing press, spreading Luther's ideas throughout Europe. Luther's actions was the start of the Protestant Reformation. Luther's emphasis on scripture and faith over church traditions and the authority of the Pope reconstituted Christian theology and church practices. He had translated the Bible into Germans so others could understand it, letting others feel equal to religious knowledge and hence giving the right to interpret the Bible to an individual. Though his 95 Theses were only to try to get rid of the corruption in the church, they became the cause for a major transformation in Christianity.

The 95 Theses were not only against indulgences but were a bold challenge to the authority of the Catholic Church and its practices. Luther's actions had sparked the Protestant Reformation, which had far-reaching consequences politically, socially, and religiously. It led to the establishment of Protestant branches, changed the dynamics in the balance of power between church and state, and reforms whichquestioned long-held religious traditions. Luther's emphasis on faith and scripture as personal matters laid the ground for individualism in Christianity, where all were encouraged to read and interpret the Bible personally. The Reformation also brought about a rise in literacy and expansion of education throughout Europe. While Luther's rebellion against church authority led to religious conflict, it also promoted religious freedom and diversity, influencing not only Christianity but most of what transpired later in history. The 95 Theses represent a critical turn of events in history in challenging big religious powers and remolding the religious and cultural landscape of Europe.

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After Portugal’s Vasco de Gama rounded the tip of Africa and reached Asia by sea, Spain wanted to join the race and also wanted to get to Asia by sea. They used Christopher Columbus's idea to sail west to reach Asia. But when Christopher Columbus went on his journey, he hit the Americas and Spain began to colonize the area. A few years later, Spain wanted to continue their search for a sea route to Asia by continuing to sail west, so they sent Ferdinand Magellan to find a water passage through the Americas and continue west to Asia. Magellan found a waterway in South America, which is now known as the strait of Magellan, sailed through it and reached the Philippines. Since the journeys took longer than expected, most of the crew was either on the verge of starvation, sick, or already dead. When they arrived in the Philippines they got tied up in a war with the Native Americans, resulting in the death of  the majority of the crew, including Ferdinand Magellan. The remainder of the crew continued to sail back to Spain, and became the first people to ever circumnavigate the world

Ferdinand Magellan's voyage, really impacted the world by proving that it was indeed round, and it showed the how big the Earth really is. It also opened a new sea route through the Strait of Magellan, facilitating travels between the continents, and opening up a new trade passage. It connected the world in various ways, influencing greater trade and the exchange of goods, ideas, and culture. But, this all meant the colonization and more harm against indigenous peoples would occur around the world. All in all, the expedition of Magellan opened a new chapter of global exploration and completely changed the image and feeling toward the world.

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Ferdinand Magellan - Explorer | Mini Bio | BIO

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The Edict of Worms, which Holy Roman Emperor Charles V put out in 1521, labeled Martin Luther an outlaw and a heretic after he wouldn't take back what he wrote and believed. This edict came after the Catholic Church kicked Luther out and he took a stand at the Diet of Worms where he stood up for his ideas about salvation and the Bible's authority. The Edict of Worms said no one could print or hand out Luther's works and ordered his arrest. But even with the Emperor's power, Luther's supporters Frederick the Wise of Saxony, kept him safe, and he wasn't caught. The Edict made the fight between the Catholic Church and the Protestant Reformation much worse. Though it tried to shut down Luther's teachings, it ended up helping spread his ideas through the printing press. More and more people backed Luther's ideas, which led to the bigger Protestant Reformation and made the split between Catholic and Protestant areas in Europe even deeper.

The Edict of Worms was a serious attempt by Charles V to stop Martin Luther and defend the authority of the Catholic Church. It declared Luther an outlaw and banned his writings, but it failed to stop him. Luther was in the protection of Frederick the Wise, and his ideas spread even faster with the printing press. The edict showed how hard it was to control religion during a time of change. It also represented a shift in power, as regional leaders such as Frederick had been willing to defythe Emperor on behalf of reform. Rather than halting the Reformation, the edict served to widen the divide between Catholic and Protestant, setting off a century of religious wars. It became an important moment in the fight for religious freedom and change.

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History and Coffee (also Books, Pens & Music)

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May 25, 1521: Diet of Worms ends | Tudor Minute

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Hernan Cortez: “Fall of the Aztec Empire

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Hernan Cortez: “Fall of the Aztec Empire

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Hernán Cortés was a Spanish conquistador who is best known for leading the expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire in the early 16th century. In 1519, Cortés landed on the coast of Mexico with a small fleet of soldiers and began making alliances with local tribes who didn't like the Aztecs. He also made friends with a women who spoke both Spanish and the language the Aztec spoke. When he arrived at the capitol of the Aztecs, Tenochtitlan, the emperor thought he was a god with his redish hair and immediately invited him to the city. Once he was in the inside, he used the emperors fear to march the capital of the Aztecs and capture the emperor, Montezuma II, but they were still too weak to capture the massive city. Cortés went back to Spain the get a bigger army, but when they arrived back in Tenochtitlan, most of the Aztec were killed off by the spread of smallpox. This made them able to capture the city easily. Gaining control of Tenoctitlan gave Spain access to a lot of south American, and it started their rule and influence over the Americas

Hernan Cortez's conquest of the Aztec Empire made a real difference regarding the influence that Spain enjoyed in the Americas. Upon his capture of Tenochtitlan and defeat of the Aztecs, Cortez opened up the new territories that were virgin to Spanish control, and this was a period when Spain really dominated big parts of North and Central America. The success launched a period of colonization for Spain accompanied by immense wealth through means such as gold and silver. Cortez's expeditions firmly positioned Spain as a leadingEuropean power in the Americas and set the stage for continued exploration and colonization by the Spanish. But his brutal conquest and the destruction of the Aztec civilization were devastating forIndigenous peoples, too, whose lands and ways of life would never be the same.

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Hernan Cortes: Conquered the Aztec Empire - Fast Facts | History

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The Medici Family was a very prominent and wealthy in Europe during the 1400s. The family controlled the government of the city-state, Florence. They owned the largest and most powerful bank in Florence that was known to lend money and charge interest. Lorenzo de' Medici, became know as Lorenzo "The Magnificent", throughout all of Europe. The Medici Family were major patrons to the art, meaning they supported and funded artists during the Renaissance. They were known to have invested in the works of Leonardo de Vinci, Michelangelo, and Bottochelli. Not only did they support artist, but also many humanist scholars. The Medici's hired people to translate the texts of ancient philosophers, so they could spread the teachings in the vernacular of the people in Europe. The Medici family were true supporters of the Renaissance, and would go to whatever means necessary to help the city of Florence, and all of Italy, advance intellectually and artistically.

As much as one can try, it is hard to deny the significance the Medici had to the Italian Renaissance. When critically analyzing the three ways humanism impacted the Renaissance one can see that the Medici's played a part in all of them. The idea of secularism, Antiquity or classics, and education. The idea of secularism was based around encouraging people to focus more on the present, not in the past like the Roman Catholic Church wanted. They promoted this by funding artists, writers, and scientists who expressed individuality through their work. The Medici's impacted Antiquity or classics by translating and gaining a better understanding the famous philosophical works of Plato, Aristotle, and other ancient philosophers. By doing this, they were reviving these classic ideas, which ended up being some of the fundamental parts of the Renaissance. The Medici family supported humanist education, which included literature, philosophy, history, rhetoric, and philosophy. This was different from the previous theological based schools. They also later established the Medici/Platonic Academy.

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Who Were the Medici? A Nutshell History of Florence's Rulling Family

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New France was a French colony in North America established in 1608 by Samuel de Champlain, who founded Quebec. It stretched over vast areas, extending from modern-day Canada and into the Mississippi River Valley. The fur trade dominated the economy, and close alliances with the Indigenous people, such as the Huron and the Algonquin, were essential to trade and survival. New France also became a hub of activity for French Jesuit missionaries who wished to convert Indigenous peoples to Christianity. Unlike other colonies, it focused more on trade and diplomacy than on large-scale settlement, which reduced its population and its growth rate. Although New France was economically successful in the fur trade, the colony struggled with severe winters, minimal agricultural development, and competition from British and Dutch colonies. The colony fell under British control after the Seven Years' War in 1763, but the cultural impact of the colony lingers to this day in Quebec and other French-speaking parts of Canada.

New France was the most important area of French colonization in North America; it was a model of colonization that was based on trade and the living together with the Indians in a completely different way. This means reliance on diplomacy and fur trading partnerships, which were new and would, however, bring along the weaknesses through altered alliances and wars with Britain to the colony. The difference between the British colonies and other colonial powers was that the imbalance in population and the number of agricultural bases in New France meant that it was less competitive in colonial development. But it is remarkable in preserving the French culture, language and legal acquis, since it keeps alive the tradition of a large part of Quebec in Canada. It also showed that the European powers Europeans. could Ultimately, live the together demise with of the New indigenous France people was which due was to not the often issues stressed that by affected the the European powers as they sought to defend their empires in the face of a global challenge.

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The Start of New France - Champlain Chooses Quebec - Canada A People's History

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The Act of Supremacy was made by King Henry who was the ruler of England in the early 1500s. Henry married Catherine of Argon, and they were excited to start a family. After several miscarriages and their week old son dying, Henry realized Catherine would not be able to give him a monarch. Henry started to develop feelings for his mistress, Anna Boleyn, but still cared deeply for Catherine. Henry went to the pope to request an annulment, but the pope refused. Henry was very upset with the pope and went to the Archbishop of Canterberry who agreed to annul his marriage. When the Roman Catholic Church heard about this they were furious with Henrys actions and excommunicated him. In response to the excommunication, Henry gets the Parliament of England to pass the Act of Supremacy. This act made Henry the head of the new Church of England. This was Englands way of reforming from the Roman Catholic Church, making it a pivotal moment in the history of England, and the world.

The Act of Supremacy was a a major development in the protestant reformation. Many new Christian denominations were forming in Europe, and more people were leaving Catholicism. The Act brought a lot of good to the people of England, it came with its down sides. The Act of Supremacy stated that the King is the head of the Church. This meant one man controls the government and all religious practices, showing an extreme example of absolute monarchy. It also lead to a lot of violence between the Roman Catholic Church and the Church of England supporters. It created division in England, and several rebellions.

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3rd November 1534: English Parliament passes the Act of Supremacy

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The heliocentric theory says that the Sun is at the center of the universe, and the Earth and other planets revolve around it. The idea came from a Greek astronomer, Aristarchus of Samos, but it only gained popularity after Copernicus brought it up again in the 1500s. Before this, people believed in the geocentric theory, which said that Earth was the center of the Universe, and this was supported by the Catholic Church for decades until Copernicus's theory blew up across the continent. Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler were other scientists that, with more evidence and proof in support, gradually brought about the idea that the sun was at the center of the universe to gain more attention and popularity. Although they didn't make the discovery, they provided more proof We now know that the heliocentric theory is, accurate, and it became the standard by which space exploration and our understanding of the universe were dramatically changed.

The heliocentric theory had a tremendous effect on the perception of humankind regarding the position of Earth as a planet in the universe. Apart from the Copernican view, many people held the geocentric view, placing Earth as the center of the universe, for many centuries. The idea was aligned with religion and very rampant in the culture. Copernicus' heliocentrism met a lot of opposition from the Roman Catholic Church, which claimed that the view was against Christian teachings. The theory was later, however, proved right by Galileo and Kepler. Their contribution convinced many of the validity of the Copernican view. Acceptance of the heliocentric theory led to many other discoveries about outer space and our galaxy. It also encourages people to question other traditional ideas, do more expirements to prove their theories, which helped fuel the scientific revolution

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Geocentric vs Heliocentric Model of the Universe

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On the Structure of the Human Body: Andreas Vesalius

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On the Structure of the Human Body: Andreas Vesalius

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Written in 1543 by Andreas Vesalius, On the Structure of the Human Body is an important work in the history of medicine. In this book series, Vesalius studied the human body observing and experimenting on dead human bodies. This was something doctors did at the time because it was the only real way to see inside the human body. Most doctors at the time, such as Galen, studied animals, not humans but its results weren't as accurate. Vesalius' work showed and proved that a lot of what people thought they knew about the human body was wrong. He made detailed drawings of muscles, bones, and organs that helped people understand the body better. The drawings were a lot more accurate than other things made before. Vesalius' book helped doctors learn more about how the human body works and encouraged others to do the same. Vesalius' work was a big step in the progression of medicine, showing us that it is very important to carefully study and understand the world around us.

Vesalius' book helped to revolutionize how doctors study the human body. He studied real bodies to understand the many aspects of the body where. Before this, a lot of people in the medical field only treated simple diseases, and normal sicknesses. Vesalius's work showed and proved that the older theories of the human body were wrong and his drawings helped others understand the body and its functions. His work was very important, but some people did not agree with his methods, because the dissection of human bodies was not viewed as okay back then. Yet, Vesalius still showed that observing and testing things to learn about the human body was a better way. Vesalius' book On the Structure of the Human Body, helped start a new way of studying medicine and made a big difference for future doctors.

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The council of Trent was a council created by the Roman Catholic Church after Protestantism started to gain followers and draw people away from Catholicism. Its know for its many changes it made for the corrupt Roman Catholic Church. Many individuals were leaving the Church because it was so corrupt. They were charging unfair taxes, forcing people to believe in only their ideologies, and its followers were getting sick of the lack of representation and independence they had. So when they left, the Church realized they had to make a change before it was too late. They created the Council of Trent who ended the sale of indulgences, created seminaries where people could learn more about Catholisism, and created the Jesuits. The Jesuits were a military like group that traveled across Europe to try to recruit more people to Catholicism. This was all a part of the Catholic reformation, and really changed the Roman Catholic Church for the better.

The Council of Trent is something that can be overlooked very easily. Its effect to the world remains prominent and important to this day. The council got rid of the corruption in the Catholic Church, without it, who knows what Catholicism would look like today. It also expanded christianity and created the branch of the Jesuits. The Council of Trent had a main goal to get rid of all corruption in the Church. Many can learn from what they did and use it in their everyday life. They teach us to stand for what we believe in, but make sure what your doing is benefit for everyone: not just yourself.

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The Peace of Augsburg was a treaty in 1555 that ended religious conflict between Catholics and Lutherans in the Holy Roman Empire. The Peace of Augsburg was created under the reign of Emperor Charles V, and every prince in the empire was in a position to decide the religion within their state: either Catholic or Lutheran, under a principle that said "whose realm, his religion.". This was the agreement, that was made for the nations that were affected by the Protestant Reformation. Although Lutheranism received recognition with this treaty, all other Protestant branches like Calvinism, were excluded from the allowed religions (which were just Catholicism and Lutheranism). The Peace of Augsburg, stopped to the current religious wars giving peace for a short amount of time. It inspired peace and coexistence between the protestants and the Catholics. Still, it never truly gave citizensns religious freedom. Its lack of detail and equality would only cause future conflict, like the Thirty Years' War, as religious tensions continued to build.

The Peace of Augsburg was a big step toward the solution for religious divisions in the Holy Roman Empire, but it was not a lasting solution. By allowing princes to choose the religion of their territories, the treaty acknowledged the growing influence of Protestantism (Lutheranism) and reduced immediate conflict. But, it also made the citizens upset because their ruler was choosing their religion instead of themselves, limiting their personal freedom. This excluded other Protestant groups, such as Calvinists, and produced a fragile peace that did not think about the other religions that were developing in Europe. The Peace of Augsburg provided temporary stability for the region but did little to resolve latent tensions that would eventually contribute to future conflicts, one of which being the Thirty Years' War.

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What Was the Peace of Augsburg?: AP Euro Bit by Bit #17

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The Edict of Nantes was issued by King Henry IV of France in 1598. This edict was an attempt to bring an end to the religious wars between Catholics and Protestants in France. It accorded French Protestants, referred to as Huguenots, the right to practice their religion in certain areas. They could also build churches, be employed in public offices,and receive military protection. The Edict showed a movement ofallowing different faiths to coexist. Protestants were able to live with less concern in a predominantly Catholic country, yet it did not make all religions equal. Catholicism still remained the dominant state religion. This Edict was one of conciliation after long years of religious wars, notably the French Wars of Religion. It remained in effect until 1685. Then, King Louis XIV suppressed it by means of the Edict of Fontainebleau. The revocation of the Edict compelled the Protestants either to modify their religion or to leave France. Even after it ceased to exist, the Edict of Nantes stands as a symbol of early attempts atcoexistence among different European faiths.
The Edict of Nantes was a new idea for religious peace and political calm in France. It gave Protestants legal rights and safety during a time of strong religious fights. This edict was a short-term answer to the religious wars hurting the country. It also showed how limited tolerance was in a very Catholic society. Catholics remained the main faith while Protestants got some freedoms. This balance was between allowing differences and keeping control. The edict brought some peace for a while. But when Louis XIV canceled it in 1685, it showed religious tolerance was fragile. The country chose religious unity instead. The Edict's story reveals both the hope and challenges of early modern efforts at living together peacefully. Its end shows how hard it is to keep these agreements when politics and religion push against them. This difficulty is important.

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The Edict of Nantes (AP Euro Review with Tom Richey) // Fiveable

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William Shakespeare’s "Henry V" is a historical play about the journey of King Henry V. It shows his leadership and battles, especially at the Battle of Agincourt. The story looks at ideas of kingship, honor and the identity of a nation. It presents Henry as a smart leader and a man of strong beliefs. Shakespeare compares Henry’s character with that of his enemies, highlighting his skill in inspiring loyalty and bravery among his soldiers. Challenges in leadership also appear, as Henry deals with the duties of ruling a country at war. The play talks about the price of war, right and wrong in fighting and the deep questions of royal power. Through Henry’s speeches, like the famous "St. Crispin’s Day" speech, it shows how powerful words can really motivate people. The play finishes with Henry’s victory and his marriage to Catherine of France. This event symbolizes the joining of England and France.

Henry V is a deep look at leadership and the heavy load of being a king. Shakespeare explores ruling's hard issues, wars' ethics and how leaders use words to persuade. Henry appears as a hero, but the play also asks us to think about war's harsh effects on people and what power costs a nation. His well-known speeches push soldiers into battle, raising thoughts about using words to drive others. The play also touches on national identity, showing how fighting and leading maybe shape a nation's unity. Yet, Henry V hints that glorifying war hides the pain and sacrifices. This dual view presents leadership as both a triumph and a critique of war's true nature.

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The scientific method is the way of understand the world and what happens in the world based on observation, experimentation, and analysis. This involves making a hypothesis, experimenting, and making a conclusions based on the results. The method makes sure that results are reliable and can be remade if ever necessary. Although the scientific method has existed for a very long time, it began to take on a more defined structure during the 17th century with the help of scientists. Their names were Francis Bacon and Galileo Galilei. They did planned experiments and observation which was a new approach at the time. Until then, most explanations were based on tradition or religion rather than evidence. The scientific method had helped people to question the old ideas and think based on evidence, which resulted in major discoveries. One could say it helped form the Age of Enlightenment because it helped scientific fields like physics, biology, and chemistry make huge discoveries. Over time, the method has grown to be a major factor in modern science, for it shapes the way we look at and understand the world around us.

The scientific method really changed the way people approach knowledge and discovering things both in the past and today. It changed from depending on religion and beliefs to a way of observation and experiment with a new concept in the world. Scientists like Francis Bacon and Galileo helped promote this method, which helped others believe in the new way for new ideas to be tested and proved. Although it has its down sides, like being confined to the current technology or the ability to test a certain hypothesis, which was a bog issue when first created, the scientific method is still needed. To this day, it shapes how we explore and understand everything from nature to technology, helping to progress and expanding the understanding in many fields.

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The Origin of the Scientific Method | Origins: The Journey of Humankind

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Jamestown, established in 1607, was the first permanent English settlement in North America. Established by the Virginia Company to reap the land of its riches through trade and the exploitation of natural resources, early years were extremely hard, with the settlers facing famine, disease, and violence with Indigenous peoples. This led to what became known as the "Starving Time" during the winter of 1609-1610. Leadership under figures like John Smith, and growing tobacco as a cash crop by John Rolfe, finally got the colony to stabilize. Tobacco became the core of Virginia's economy, hence attracting more settlers and building plantations. In time, Jamestown developed as a commercial and administrative center and became the basis upon which the Colony of Virginia and, eventually, the United States were built. But this came at a cost, in terms of feeding the transatlantic slave trade and displacing the Indigenous peoples. The success of Jamestown is that it represented the beginning of English colonial America, which would define and shape future economic, social, and political systems.

Jamestown is symbolizes the resilience and the hasher realities of early colonialism. While it marked important milestones in the expansion of English influence in the New World, its failures can be a lesson regarding the risks of poor planning and over reliance on profit driven motives. Success with tobacco farming brought an economic boost but also entrenched systems of coerced labor, including enslaved Africans, that would shape the racial and economic inequalities of the United States. Additionally, the colony's expansion came at the expense of Indigenous peoples, leading to displacement and violence that set a precedent for future colonial interactions. Whereas many celebrate Jamestown for the role it played in American history, the legacy is that of innovation, survival, and exploitation.

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Jamestown Settlement | Jamestown Colony | Educational Story for Kids | Kids Academy

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The telescope, invented during the early 1600s, was an invention that completely changed the thinking of the universe. A Dutch lensmaker, Hans Lippershey, invented the telescope, but Galileo Galilei is know to have improved it and used it in studying outer space. Galileo made many discoveries, like the moons of Jupiter, the phases of Venus, the rough surface of the Moon, and he explained that space was a lot more complex than people had originally thought. His findings also supported Copernicus' heliocentric theory that Earth moves around the Sun. The telescope's purpose was for more than helping astronomers; it encouraged everybody to rely on evidence and what they observe rather than what the Bible says, and their beliefs. As times change and technology becomes more advanced, better telescopes have helped people gain more knowledge about other planets, galaxies, and our universe. The telescope helped to open up new ways to explore space, and engaged made people to be curious about our universe.

The invention of the telescope had a major impact in science, changing how people view the universe, and outer space. The telescope showed us proof and new evidence of what space looks like, and it helps us understand how the universe works. This invention helped advance astronomy and encourage new ways of thinking based on what you observe and evidence rather than going off what the Bible says. The creation of the telescope inspired austronomers to study outer space, because it made it easier for them to do it. However, its early findings, especially those that supported the heliocentric theory, were very controversial and the Roman Catholic Church immediately disregarded its findings. Although it's had its challenges, the telescope is still one of the most impactful inventions in history, because it sparked curiosity and people's want to explore outer space.

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The Thirty years war, took place from 1618 to 1648, in the territory of the Holy Roman Empire. It was one of the longest recorded wars during that time period, and resulted in a lot of death and population loss. The war started as a religious conflict between the Protestants and the Catholics. One of the many fuels for the Thirty years war, was that Calvinism was excluded from the Peace of Augsburg. Meaning the only religions acceptable in the Holy Roman Empire were Lutheranism and Catholicism. This caused a lot of tension between the Calvinists and the Holy Roman Empire. In addition to this protestants and Catholics had disagreement and were power hungry. They both wanted to be the biggest religion, which was another factor in the beginning of the war. As the war progressed, it became a fight over territory and wealth. When this changed, other countries joined in to try end up on top.

The Thirty Years war had an everlasting effect on Europe. The reason the war happened in the first place is because the peace of Augsburg didn't fully give citizens of the Holy Roman Emipire freedom of religion. Yes, they could choose to be Catholic or Protestant, but Lutheranism was the only one you could pick. The war then turned into a battle for territory and wealth, which was when the bigger countries joined in the war. The war resulted in millions dead, and a horrible economy. When the war ended with the Peace of Westphalia, it introduced the idea that countries should respect the independence of other countries, and their citizens independence. This war showed how, when not dealt with, little disagreements can become big problems, and how important it is to find peaceful solutions. Its lessons still remind us of the cost of war and the value of compromise.

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Galileo Galilei was an Italian scientist and inventor who made important discoveries about space. He made a telescope to see the stars and outer space, proving that Earth was not at the center of the universe. Instead, he found that Earth, and other planets, circle the Sun. This idea was called the heliocentric theory, which was first discovered by Copernicus. At the time of Galileo, the Catholic Church supported another idea known as the geocentric theory, that Ptolemy came up with. The geocentric theory said the Earth was said to be at the center of the universe. Galileo's ideas made the Church mad, because he went against their beliefs. They took Galileo to trial in 1633, and the Church declared that his ideas were wrong and went against what the Bible say. They forced Galileo to say he was wrong, and put him under house arrest for the rest of his days. But his ideas still came to revolutionize space, when his supporters spread his teachings, and they are very important in the field of science today.

The trial of Galileo remains a historical moment because of the controversy that was developed between science and faith. Galileo's discovery that Earth revolving around the Sun was true, but the Church never accepted it since it changed what they believed. People started thinking more about the role of science and less about religion in understanding their world. Though Galileo had to retract his theories, his work helped prove the reliability of science and reasoning over old beliefs. His trial also made people begin to question concepts and think for themselves. Galileo's discoveries, though he was punished for them, changed science forever.

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The Trial of Galileo (1633): Science vs. Doctrine

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Generally considered to be one of the very first speculative bubbles in history, Tulip Mania occurred in the Netherlands during the early 1630s. It involved the trading of tulip bulbs, with those rarest and most unusual being highly in demand by Dutch high society. Prices drastically increased as more people sold and bought bulbs, sometimes reaching such extraordinary values that they matched or even outweighed that of a house. This speculation was fanned by a belief that the price of tulips would go ever higher, engendering widespread investment into a feverish market. It burst in February 1637 as demand suddenly fell and prices collapsed. This caused the many investors substantial financial losses, especially for those who bought tulips on credit or well in advance of an expected continuing rise. Where the immediate effects on directly involved people were grave, the general economy did not take too long to get up, and that did not lead to longer crisis afterwards. The famous tulip mania remains one of the very popular examples of market speculation and simultaneously one of the earliest warn

While Tulip Mania is generally viewed as a cautionary tale of market excess, the long-term consequences of it were less catastrophic than once thought. The crash led to financial ruin for many, but it did not cause a general economic collapse in the Netherlands, which suggests that its effects were more insular among those involved in the tulip trade. The event nevertheless has shown that speculative bubbles are the ones wherein market prices are tacked to more emotional and hype factors rather than intrinsic values. This irrationality of the market during the tulip frenzy finds its parallel in several other historical financial bubbles like the South Sea Bubble and the 2008 housing crisis. Another factor that tulip mania showed was how large amounts of people were drawn to investments, even the speculative type that some investors may not financially understand. While the actual economic consequences of Tulip Mania were minimal, it did serve as a lesson about the instability of markets and one of the risks from chasing short-run gains in risky investments.

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The Dutch Tulip Mania (aka Tulipomania, aka Tulip Bubble) Explained in One Minute

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Rene Descartes was a French philosopher and mathematician who is often called the “Father of Rationalism” believing in that best way to comprehend the world was through reasoning rather than trusting our senses. By his logic, the various senses, including the need for eyesight, and touch, can sometimes deceive, so they should not be completely relied upon. Instead, he argued that the use of common sense and reasoning could provide the best chance of insatiable truth. One of his most well-known ideas is “I think, therefore I am,” which is to say that the ability to think itself serves as evidence that a person exists. In this context, Descartes’ works were a catalyst to the emergence of modern philosophy and science by instilling in people a sense of being skeptical of everything and rational as a norm in order to comprehend various aspects of this universe. His ideas still stand as a valuable asset today and make an incredible influence on the way we go about exploring topics in the physical sciences, mathematics or simply the brain.

For Descartes, reason is the only rational way to get and acquire knowledge. All knowledge and ideas, before him, were taken from trust in senses, others and traditional beliefs. His famous saying is "I think, therefore I am," helped people to view self awareness and existence from an entirely different perspective in which reality is complementary to one's narrative. As some critics have pointed out, his ideas were too complex and failed to properly explain and account for the physical world and its interactions. Still, one cannot ignore Descartes’ ideas, for they are constantly being used in the world today.

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King Louis XIV of France, aka the "Sun King," ruled France for 72 years, which was the longest reign of any European king at the time. He believed that he should have control over everything, which is called Absolute monarchy, and famously said, "I am the state," which meant that he controlled every part of France's government. Louis built the Palace of Versailles to show his wealth and power. The palace became a place where noble people lived under his watch, but it cost a lot of money, which negatively affected the citizens. He made France stronger by improving the military, whicb would become one of the most powerful in Europe. He supported the arts, and helped France become very cultured, with beautiful paintings, music, and plays. Although he did many good things for the country, he fought many expensive wars, like the War of Spanish Succession, which left the country in debt, and many citizens unhappy. Paying for all the wars and his extravagant life, Louis taxed the citizens so much that it made life very difficult to survive for them. While his reign brought France into fame and power, it also caused struggles to the people and left the country with money problems after his death.

King Louis XIV made France very strong, but his way of ruling had a lot of problems. He built a huge army and made France important in Europe, but the constant wars he fought were very expensive and hurt the people. He created the Palace of Versailles, which showed his power and brought nobles together, but it also cost a lot of money. Louis liked being in control over everything, something that made him a very strong leader yet made the lives of the common people hard through the heavy taxation. In as much as his reign made France both powerful and famous, it also was an example showing how possessing so much power in one man's hands develops into an enormous problem in a nation.

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Louis XIV - King of France & Known as the Sun King | Mini Bio | BIO

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The Peace of Westphalia was a series of peace treaties signed to end the Thirty Years War. The Thiry Years war was a religious dispute that turned into a war over wealth and territory. After thirty devastating years, a peace treaty was finally signed ending the horror. It was a Spanish-Dutch treaty signed on January 30, 1648. One of the main causes of the war was that Calvinism was not included in the Peace of Augsburg, thus individuals were not allowed to observe it. The Peace of Westphalia validated Calvinism, and gave the state the power to decide their countries religion instead of the Holy Roman Empire. The main religions were Catholicism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism. The treaties also caused the Holy Roman Empire to split up into smaller parts so one person was unable to control many countries. The Peace of Westphalia, brought many countries spiritual and intellectual freedom giving them the power to govern themselves.

The Peace of Westphalia ended the Thirty Years' War and brought lasting change to Europe. Each country now had the ability to decide its own official religion. These were: Catholicism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism and they were free to practice their religion without the Holy Roman Empire interfering. It made new religions more normal and separated them from political conflicts. The treaties also broke the Holy Roman Empire into small, independent states and gave them control over their own territory. The broken up states closely resemble how Europe is broken up today. The Peace of Westphalia helped make and encouraged state sovereignty, where nations can govern themselves. It brought much needed stability to Europe after thirty years of devastating war and set a foundation for future peace and cooperation.

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Leviathan is a book by Thomas Hobbes, written in 1651, explaining why strong governments are needed when maintaining peace in society. It was written during one of the worst wars and when there was a lot of chaos in England, it inspired Hobbes mind to think about why people fight and how to prevent this situation. Hobbes thought that, humans are naturally selfish and competitive, and without rules and leaders to hold everyone in a good position, it would create many problems. His solution to this was the "social contract." The social contract is that people should give up some of their freedoms and be loyal to one leader or government in return for safety and peace. Hobbes believed a leadership had to be strong to hold all of its citizens together and not allow any fighting to take place. Without government, Hobbes believed, life would be filled with fear and chaos, and he showed his support to absolute monarchy. His work helped people to understand why rules, leaders, and laws are so important for a society, and his ideas still influence how governments work today.

Thomas Hobbes' ideas were very important in Leviathan, and changed how many thought about rulers and governments. Still some people did not agree with him. He said that in order to have peace, we need one very strong leader, but many people worried that having an absolute monarchy could result in unfair treatment, favoritism, or even a dictator. Hobbes thought that people should give up some of their freedoms to a strong leader, which made others fear that it could lead to abuse of power. Though some of his ideas seemed like a lot, his book made people think more about how governments should work and how to balance safety with freedom. His work still affects how we think about government today, even if we don't agree with everything he said.

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In 1621, the Netherlands established the Dutch West India Company primarily to capitalize on trade with both West Africa and the Americas. Its purpose was to challenge the commercial hegemony of Spain and Portugal with an emphasis on trade in sugar, tobacco and slaves. This was a company that founded several colonies in the Caribbean, South America, and North America that includes present day Suriname and Dutch Antilles. It also helped bring enslaved Africans to the Americas in order to work on plantations, further expanding its role in the Atlantic slave trade. The firm was able to obtain and control vital shipping lanes mainly due to their military navy fleet, and for a long time, it was quite profitable and made great contributions to the economy of the Dutch. However, over time, other European powers also challenged its dominance as it faced internal issues of corruption and economic malpractices. By the late 18th century, most of its powers were lost which marked the end in the influence of Dutch West India Company over colonial trade.

It played a major role in expanding the colonial empire of the Netherlands, but did so at a high human cost: given its focus on profits deriving from sugar, tobacco, and the slave trade, it supported systems of exploitation and thus contributed to the suffering of both Indigenous people and enslaved Africans. While it helped to increase Dutch wealth and influence, the company's reliance on slavery and colonization reinforced inequalities harmful and persistent long after the company's decline. These criticisms notwithstanding, the company contributed to the shaping of global trade networks and early development in European empires, and its legacy can still be seen in colonial history today.

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The Dutch West India Company's Role in New York's Rise

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Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was the Dutch discoverer of a very fundamental thing in the 1600s. This man now known as the Father of Microbiology, was the very first to observe tiny living organisms, by now called bacteria, with his self-developed microscope. He analyzed things like pond water, scraps from his teeth, and rainwater and saw tiny creatures moving there. No person could then know of the existence of these microorganisms since they were not visible to the naked eyes. Leeuwenhoek's discovery changed the thinking about life and health; his work showed that invisible creatures are living among us. Although he did not fully understand bacteria, his discovery opened the door to future scientists studying the tiny organisms, which would improve understanding of germs and their role in disease. His observations are still important today as we know that bacteria can both infect and help with vital processes within our bodies, such as digestion. His curiosity and precise work helped lay the foundation for modern microbiology.

Leeuwenhoek’s amazing discovery of bacteria was a big deal in science and the Enlightenment, because it introduced the microscopic creatures to the wold. With a simple microscope, Leeuwenhoek was able to see water and surfaces and watch the bacteria move around. While he didn't completely realize how the miniature organisms worked, or what their role was in diseases, other scientists eventually made it possible to learn many more aspects about germs and other bacterias. His work completely changes peoples' ideas of life and disease causing them to make great advances in medicine. He did not have the instruments and knowledge that we have today, but Leeuwenhoek had made plenty of observations, and with that, he was among the first scientists to say the world is full of living organisms that cannot be seen but complexly affect our lives.

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Leeuwenhoek and Microscopic Life | AMS OpenMind

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Isaac Newton was an amazing scientist on the 1700s who had many discoveries in physics, mathematics, and astronomy. Newton is known for his discoveries in the spheres of motion and gravity. Newton stated that everything in the universe has to do with, and is affected by gravity. He discovered that it pulls objects towards each other at the same speed apart from their mass. He also created calculus, which helps people understand big problems, especially in science and engineering. He has a very famous book, Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica, which is also known as the Principia. Newton explains how gravity and motion work, changing the understanding in relation to the universe. His discoveries are one of the things that started the scientific revolution and his work had a big impact on many other scientists. Newton's work provided the tools for us not only to understand Earth but also the stars and the planets and all of outer space. His ideas are still important today, and Isaac Newton remains one of the greats, and most well know, scientists.

Isaac Newton made some of the greatest and most impactful discoveries in science. His laws of motion and theory of gravity explained how objects move and why things fall, important knowledge both for everyday life and space exploration. But not everyone was on board when Newton's ideas first came out. Some of his theories were too difficult for people to understand or prove at that time. However, over time, his ideas were proved right, and it changed how we view everything around us. Newton's work provided a more clear, understanding of the universe, but it couldn't explain how the universe was made or why certain forces have the behavior they have. Still, his discoveries are considered the building blocks of the science that are still being studied today. Newton's work continues to shape physics and math.

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Isaac Newton: Principia - Summary and Analysis

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During the 1600s King Charles of England wanted absolute power. However parliament and the citizens of England wanted a bigger say and role in the government. They came up with the petition of rights that stated the king cannot tax without parliament's approval, the king cannot imprison without a just reason, and the king cannot declare a state of emergency unless at war. Charles ignored the petition which caused a civil war in England and the execution of Charles. A few years later, King James II also disregarded parliament, but he was scared he would also get executed so he fled the country. Parliament asked Mary who was James's daughter, and her husband William to take the throne and they accepted. This event became known as the Glorious Revolution because Mary finally agreed to the rules of Parliament. England became known as a constitutional monarchy and gave both the royal family and the parliament an equal say in the laws and the rights of the people. The revolutionizing event still affect England today, and many other nations.

The Glorious Revolution had an important impact on modern democracy, as it lessened the powers of the monarch and gave more to Parliament, laying the foundation for constitutional government. Its was to help to avoided violence experienced in other revolutions, making it a model of political transition. However, it reinforced Protestant dominance in England and lessened Catholics and other minority groups, entrenching religious divisions. It mainly benefited the elite, furthering individual rights for them first while it barely touched the lower classes. Regardless of these limitations, the Glorious Revolution was a landmark that made an impact on democratic ideas the world over.

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Two Treatises of Government: John Locke

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Two Treatises of Government: John Locke

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One of the most important works in political philosophy, Two Treatises of Government is a book written by John Locke in 1689. It consists of two parts. In the first part, Locke argues against the concept of absolute monarchy, which is when one sole ruler has all powers of the government. He claimed that all men are born with certain natural rights.These rights were, the right to live, have liberty, and own property. It is the job of the government to protect these rights. In the second part, Locke explains that governments are a creation of the people to keep their rights safe. If a government were ever not protecting its people's rights, John Locke thought that the people have a right to change and even overthrow their government. His ideas on democracy and natural rights made a deep impact on the development of modern governments, especially in the United States. Locke's work remains very important today and shapes the way we think about freedom, government, and the rights of people.

John Locke's Two Treatises of Government had a huge impact on how we think about government today. His ideas of natural rights, which were life, liberty, and property, became very big and important in the idea of a democracy. He did not believe that anyone should be ruled by a single king or leader, rather, governments should be to protect the people's rights. The revolutionary idea he supported was that people should have the ability to change their government when it no longer worked for them. These ideas helped shape a good deal of the modern democracies, such as the United States. Yet, a lot of Locke's ideas applied only to a particular group in his time. This main focus group was the white male. It didn't include women, enslaved people, and others. Although he didn't produce many ideas, his work is still very influential, and is used as a base for many democratic nations.

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John Locke's Two Treatises of Government: Unveiling the Foundations of Modern Political Philosophy

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Frederick II of Prussia, also known as Frederick the Great, was one of the most important kings in European history. From 1740 to 1786, he ruled over Prussia and is known to have made it one of the strongest countries in Europe in his time. Frederick was a military leader who won many wars for his country. Some of his victorious wars include the War of Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War, both of which helped Prussia to gain more land and authority. Fredrick was also strong in improving the livelihood of his people. First, he believed in the ideas coming from the Enlightenment. He supported education, altered the legal system of Prussia and made it more just, and allowed different types of religion to be practiced by his subjects. He assisted the growth of the economy by improving farming and importing more skillful workers to Prussia in order to help agriculture. Despite having full control, Fredrick the great believed that as the king, it was his responsibility to take care of the country and its people. Under his leadership, Prussia became one of the most powerful and respected European countries.

He was an important king who made Prussia very strong, but not everything he did was perfect. The military victories of Frederick the Great extended Prussia in size and power, but it took a tole on the people. The constant wars that took away much money and other resources from the counties citizens. Frederick improved schools and made laws that were fair, which helped many people, but he did most of these things to make his government stronger, not to give people more freedom. Even though he allowed different religions, it was mainly to keep peace in his kingdom, not because he believed everyone was equal. Frederick was a brilliant and talented leader who improved Prussia, but some of his decisions were more about power than helping people. His ideas still influenced Europe and showed how a king could use new ideas to strengthen a country.

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The Life of Frederick the Great Explained in 2 Minutes | Rapid History

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The Spirit of the Laws, written by Montesquieu in 1748, is a very important book about the way governments should work. In the book, Montesquieu said that power in a government should be divided into three different branches of government: legislative, executive, and judicial. The "separation of powers" is meant to prevent any one person or group from having too much control and power in the government. He thought that the system could give the people more freedom and it would result in a more fair government. He studied all the forms of government from different countries and used reason and logic to make his ideas. His work was a major part of the Enlightenment, because his work about improving society and using his knowledge to make life better for both the ruler and the citizens. The ideas Montesquieu had became very famous and are now used in democracies, in structures like the Constitution of the United States. The Spirit of Laws is remembered today one of the most important books written about government.

Montesquieu's The Spirit of the Laws gave ideas that changed how governments should work forever. His idea of separating powers into three branches was groundbreaking and pretty much unheard of at the time. His ideas helped to create much safer, fairer systems of government. Unlike King Louis XIV, who believed in absolute monarchy and one should have all the power in the government, Montesquieu believed that to avoid corruption, the roles and areas of government needed to be divided among three independent branches. By preventing one group or leader from having too much control, Montesquieu’s ideas brought balance and fairness, which influenced democratic countries around the world both in the past and today. However, some people argue that his ideas were too unrealistic and hard to apply in real life, especially in the countries with unstable governments. Still, his work remains one of the most fundamental contributions to political ideas, and is still inspiring how governments are made and improved today.

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Catherine II of Russia - “Catherine the Great”

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Catherine II of Russia - “Catherine the Great”

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Catherine II, also known as Catherine the Great, was the Empress of Russia in the period between 1762 and ended with her death in 1796. Catherine is remembered as a very successful ruler over Russia. She came to power after her husband, Peter III, was overthrown by the people. She was very passionate in her attempts to modernize Russia. She supported the arts, education, and science, and made important governmental changes to help it function effectively and fairly. Catherine also expanded Russia's borders by adding territory taken from Poland, the Ottoman Empire, and others in war. She made Russia a powerful European country. Though she made a lot of good changes for Russia, she faced her challenges too. She had to face many revolts and uprisings, as some people did not agree with the way she ruled. Still, Catherine is remembered as one of Russia's greatest rulers who made Russia closer to European culture and made it a much stronger and more enlightened country.
She was a strong and clever leader who helped make Russia stronger and more modern. She worked to improve education and the arts, further helping new ideas to creep into Russia. While supporting change in many areas, though, she didn't always help the poor. Indeed, she relied upon nobles to run things, which made life hard for the peasants, who still had little freedom. She also expanded Russia's borders through wars, which made the country stronger but at a high price. Though she was not fair in all her dealings, the reign of Catherine is remembered in history for making Russia strong and respectable in Europe.

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Catherine the Great: Empress of Russia in the Golden Age | Mini Bio | Biography

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The Slavery Abolition Act of 1833 was a significant piece of legislation in that freed slaves in the British Empire. It freed over 800,000 enslaved people in the Caribbean, Canada, and South Africa. It was a major victory for abolitionists, (people that were opposed to slavery) such as William Wilberforce, but the Act provided for an "apprenticeship" system that many didn't like. This made freed people work for their old masters for up to six more years, stopping them from being completely free. It also gave 20 million pounds to slave owners for their lost "property," but no money was given to the freed people, which many people did not like. Places like India and St. Helena were not included, so slavery in those areas would continue until later changes were made. Even with the problems, the Act was an important step in the global fight against slavery, setting a strong example for future efforts to end slavery. However, it did not bring justice and full equality for those enslaved; it was a crucial event in the struggle for human rights.

While the Slavery Abolition Act of 1833 was a big accomplishment, it was still problematic. The system of "apprenticeship" delayed the full freedom for newly freed people, keeping their exploitation continuous in breach of the promise of real freedom the Act had pronounced. In fact, the very act that was meant to liberate enslaved people reinforced inequality, paying owners rather than the enslaved and leaving newly freed individuals without the necessities to restart life. Also, the Act's limited use, leaving out places like India and St. Helena, showed political deals that favored economic and imperial interests instead of fairness for everyone. While it was an important step in ending slavery worldwide, the Act did not quickly provide equality or deal with the lasting effects of slavery. Even with these limits, it had great importance in inspiring anti-slavery movements all over the world by setting a legal and moral example for the eventual end of slavery in many countries.

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A Short History of Slavery | 5 Minute Video