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The II Encontro de Gestão Sustenta e Inova took place on June 5 to 7, at the facilities of SEBRAE, the ¨Support Service for Micro and Small Enterprises¨ in Brazil. Sustenta and Innova is a DeSIRA project aiming at developing and implementing sustainable and innovative agricultural practices in the Brazilian Amazon. The meeting brought together agriculture and development professionals from the organizations members of the consortium- SEBRAE, EMBRAPA, IPAM and CIRAD- who discussed strategies to move forward on promoting biodiversity conservation, deforestation reduction, landscape restoration, mitigation and agriculture adaptation to climate change.

DeSIRA LIFT specialists Ricardo Ramírez, Renaud Guillonnet and Priscila Henríquez participated in the meeting. Ramírez presented elements of the Theory of Change (ToC) and Utilization Focused Evaluation (UFE) in support of the consortium's efforts, which elicited a rich conversation as the project documents its outcomes and potential impact. DeSIRA LIFT experts have been coaching members of the consortium in monitoring, evaluation and learning (MEL) to help inform decisions and improve the project's performance. Each organization also presented the advances made in the project implementation and consolidated a joint action plan for the coming years.

Sustenta and Innova is carried out in the State of Pará, located in micro-regions in the territory of Marajó and counties along the Trans-Amazon Highway (Xingu territory) and Belém-Brasília territory (Rio Capim region). It is hoped that this project will have a long-term effect on encouraging the sustainable use of land, strengthening local entrepreneurs and encouraging sustainable businesses in the Amazon.

For the PowerPoint presentation of the meeting, please see here

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The II Encontro de Gestão Sustenta e Inova

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The II Encontro de Gestão Sustenta e Inova took place on June 5 to 7, at the facilities of SEBRAE, the ¨Support Service for Micro and Small Enterprises¨ in Brazil. Sustenta and Innova is a DeSIRA project aiming at developing and implementing sustainable and innovative agricultural practices in the Brazilian Amazon.

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Intitulé "Agriculture et chaines de valeur durables et innovantes en Amazonie Brésilienne", ce projet a pour objectif d'encourager des innovations durables, notamment pour permettre une transformation des systèmes alimentaires et une adaptation et mitigation du changement climatique. Sustenta & Inova est coordonné par le Sebrae et implique comme co-demandeurs le CIRAD, l'Embrapa et l'IPAM (Instituto de Pesquisa Ambiental da Amazônia).

Le Cirad, avec plusieurs partenaires l'UFPA, l'UFRA, l'IMAZON et l'Imaflora, ménera ses actions dans le Pará, le long de la BR-010, dans le Nordeste du Pará et le pole de Paragominas, pour promouvoir des transitions agroécologiques visant à restaurer les terres dégradées et la gestion des ressources naturelles. Avec les acteurs de terrain (municipalités, services d'assistance technique, coopératives, entreprises, association d'agriculteurs), les chercheurs accompagneront la restauration de pâturages, le développement de culturelles annuelles sans brûlis et l'implantation de systèmes agroforestiers, tout en renforçant la connectivité forestière, la gouvernance et la réglementation des paysages.

Ce projet fera suite aux actions menées dans le projet Refloramaz sur restauration forestière et agroforesterie, le projet Forland sur la restauration des paysages forestiers et le projet TerraCert sur la certification territorial, et sera mené en lien avec le projet Terramaz (avec soutien financier de l'AFD). La première réunion scientifique aura lien début novembre 2021 et les activités sur le terrain commenceront début 2022.

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Sustenta & Inova, un projet de développement soutenu par un financement DESIRA de l'Union Européenne, a commencé officiellement en juillet

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Intitulé Agriculture et chaines de valeur durables et innovantes en Amazonie Brésilienne , ce projet a pour objectif d'encourager des innovations durables, notamment pour permettre une transformation des systèmes alimentaires et une adaptation et mitigation du changement climatique. Sustenta & Inova

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Lancement du projet Sustenta e Inova / Actualités - Le Cirad au Brésil

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Le projet, qui vise le développement durable en Amazonie, a été lancé le 11 novembre 2021 à Belém-Pará, à l'Estação das Docas. Cofinancé par l'Union européenne (UE), le projet est géré conjointement par le Service brésilien d'appui aux micros et petites entreprises (Sebrae) du Pará, l'Institut de

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Incentivando o crescimento econômico e o desenvolvimento sustentável por meio da inovação.

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Foto: Vinicius Braga

Chefe-geral da Embrapa Amazônia Oriental, Walkymário Lemos, na cerimônia de lançamento do projeto

O trabalho em parceria foi a tônica do lançamento do projeto Sustenta e Inova, em Belém (PA), nessa quinta-feira (11). A iniciativa busca implementar práticas agrícolas sustentáveis e inovadoras em três regiões do estado do Pará com o objetivo desenvolver cadeias de valor, reduzir o desmatamento, conservar a biodiversidade e contribuir para a mitigação das mudanças climáticas.

As atividades serão articuladas entre Sebrae, Embrapa, Centro de Cooperação Internacional em Pesquisa Agronômica pelo Desenvolvimento (Cirad) e Instituto de Pesquisa Ambiental da Amazônia (Ipam), sob a coordenação do primeiro. O projeto Sustenta e Inova conta com financiamento de 4,65 milhões de euros aportados pela União Europeia e vai atuar nos territórios do arquipélago do Marajó, da rodovia Belém-Brasília e do entorno da rodovia Transamazônica.

À Embrapa caberá principalmente fornecer tecnologias inovadoras para a produção sustentável, restauração florestal, para agroindústrias de base comunitária e para o manejo sustentável de mínimo impacto de produtos das florestas de várzea, como açaí, óleos e castanhas. "O principal ativo da Embrapa é o conhecimento. E nossa principal contribuição para esse projeto é traduzir esse conhecimento em tecnologias que beneficiem agroextrativistas, técnicos e extensionistas", disse o chefe de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento da Embrapa Recursos Genéticos e Biotecnologia, Wagner Lucena.

Presente no evento, o embaixador da União Europeia no Brasil, Ignacio Ybáñez, lembrou que o projeto nasceu de uma idéia que surgiu durante a pandemia entre as diversas instituições que o compõem. Já o superintendente do Sebrae Pará, Rubens Magno, ressaltou que sua instituição já mantém convênio com a União Europeia desde 2019.

Continuidade - As ações da Embrapa no projeto Sustenta e Inova vão se concentrar em dois territórios: Marajó e rodovia Belém - Brasília. Em ambos as atividades darão continuidade a projetos desenvolvidos em anos anteriores nessas localidades. "Trata-se de um exemplo exitoso da necessidade de buscarmos parcerias para avançar em outros temas além da inovação tecnológica, como agregação de valor e organização de circuitos de comercialização e empreendedorismo", avaliou o chefe-geral da Embrapa Amazônia Oriental, Walkymário Lemos.

No Marajó, haverá continuidade às ações do projeto Bem Diverso, que de 2016 a 2020 levou a tecnologia de manejo de mínimo impacto de açaizais nativos para diversas comunidades do arquipélago. Um primeiro eixo de atuação foi contemplado por esse projeto com a criação do Centro de Referência em Manejo de Açaizais Nativos do Marajó, no qual o foco foi a extensão da tecnologia aos agroextrativistas e o fortalecimento da organização comunitária. "Agora vamos atuar em outros dois eixos: a organização da produção e a relação com o mercado, a partir da cooperativa Manejaí", explica Cesar Andrade, supervisor das atividades da Embrapa no Marajó.

Já na região da rodovia Belém - Brasília, o projeto Sustenta e Inova vai dar seguimento ao trabalho que a Embrapa vem realizando nos últimos anos em parceira com o Cirad, no município de Paragominas, e ao projeto Refloramaz, focado na restauração florestal por agricultores familiares.

De acordo com a pesquisadora Joice Ferreira, da Embrapa Amazônia Oriental, a restauração é um conceito amplo que envolve o sistema produtivo, solo e demais processos na propriedade rural. "Trabalhamos para implementar nas propriedades sistemas agroflorestais, tecnologias para a agricultura sem fogo e recuperação de pastagens degradadas", explica. Para viabilizar essas atividades o projeto vai oferecer assistência técnica aos produtores, capacitação de técnicos extensionistas e formação de redes, avaliação dos sistemas introduzidos e apoio à formulação de políticas públicas.

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Projeto Sustenta e Inova dará continuidade a ações da Embrapa no Pará

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Iniciativa tem financiamento da União Europeia

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Restauración de paisajes forestales en la Amazonia

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Restauración de paisajes forestales en la Amazonia

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Video: Restaurer des forêts, transformer des vies

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Video: Restaurer des forêts, transformer des vies

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Restaurer des forêts, transformer des vies

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Mapa dos tipos de recuperação florestal encontrados no Nordeste do Pará (Brasil)

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Mapa dos tipos de recuperação florestal encontrados no Nordeste do Pará (Brasil)

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Carneiro Renan, Tavares Paulo, Almeida Felipe. 2019. Mapa dos tipos de recuperação florestal encontrados no Nordeste do Pará (Brasil). Belem : EMBRAPA-UFPA-CIRAD, 1 carte Coudel Emilie, Navegantes Lívia, Almeida Aurea, Carvalho Rosileia, Costa Ana Paula, Garcia Vitor, Gonzaga Layse, Mota Dalva, Nunes Heloiza, Silva Socorro, Pepper Leonora, Perrier Eva, Ferreira Joice,

Titre français : Carte des types de restauration forestière présents dans le Nordeste du Pará (Brésil)

Note générale : Carte illustrée à destination des agriculteurs, techniciens agricoles et écoles, pour présenter les résultats du projet Refloramaz (financé par Agropolis Fondation et Embrapa)

Mots-clés libres : Agroforesterie, Amazonie, Restauration forestière, Agriculture familiale, Abaetetuba, Bragança, Tomé-açu

Agences de financement européennes : European Commission

Agences de financement hors UE : Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária

Programme de financement européen : H2020

Projets sur financement : (EU) Observatory of the Dynamics of Interactions between Societies and Environment in the Amazon

Auteurs et affiliations

Carneiro Renan, UFPA (BRA)

Coudel Emilie, CIRAD-ES-UPR GREEN (BRA)

Navegantes Lívia, UFPA (BRA)

Almeida Aurea, UFPA (BRA)

Carvalho Rosileia, UFPA (BRA)

Costa Ana Paula

Garcia Vitor, UFPA (BRA)

Gonzaga Layse

Mota Dalva

Nunes Heloiza

Silva Socorro

Pepper Leonora

Perrier Eva, AgroParisTech (FRA)

Ferreira Joice, EMBRAPA (BRA)

Contributeurs et affiliations

Tavares Paulo - collaborateur

Almeida Felipe - illustrateur

Source : Cirad-Agritrop (https://agritrop.cirad.fr/594902/)

Voir la notice (accès réservé à la Dist)

[ Page générée et mise en cache le 2023-04-16 ]

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Mapa dos tipos de recuperação florestal encontrados no Nordeste do Pará (Brasil)

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Carneiro Renan, Tavares Paulo, Almeida Felipe. 2019. Mapa dos tipos de recuperação florestal encontrados no Nordeste do Pará (Brasil).

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Understanding Landscape Multifunctionality in a Post-forest Frontier: Supply and Demand of Ecosystem Services in Eastern Amazonia

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Understanding Landscape Multifunctionality in a Post-forest Frontier: Supply and Demand of Ecosystem Services in Eastern Amazonia

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Farming Systems Ecology, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, Netherlands

Agroecology and Sustainable Intensification of Annual Crops (AIDA), University of Montpellier, French Agricultural Research Centre for International Development (CIRAD), Montpellier, France

International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Sustainable Intensification Program, Nairobi, Kenya

Agroecology, Environment and Systems Group, Instituto de Investigaciones Forestales y Agropecuarias de Bariloche (IFAB), INTA-CONICET, San Carlos de Bariloche, Río Negro, Argentina

Groningen Institute of Evolutionary Life Sciences, Groningen University, Groningen, Netherlands

Sustainable food production requires approaches that reconcile agricultural production with the conservation and sustainable use of natural resources, biodiversity and associated ecosystem services. While the contribution of agriculture to the provision of individual ecosystem services has received considerable scientific attention, little is known about the extent to which tropical landscapes can meet societal expectations related to food production and environmental sustainability simultaneously. We assessed how the spatial configuration of pedo-morphology and land uses influences the provision of three soil-based ecosystem services in eastern Amazonia: carbon storage (CS), habitat for biodiversity (HB), and agricultural commodity production (CP). We use the Functional Land Management framework to assess the supply and demand of these ecosystem services in a spatially explicit manner to identify areas of (mis)matches and trade-offs in the municipality of Paragominas, Brazil. The supply of ecosystem services was informed by a literature review for the various combinations of pedo-morphological characteristics and land uses in the region. The demand for ecosystem services was mapped based on federal and state policy targets. Mapping the supply and demand of CS indicated that half of the carbon in the region is stored in remnants of undisturbed forest which cover only a third of the municipality. Demand for HB in terms of forested area is met but it does not guarantee safeguarding biodiversity. Roughly a third of the territory shows scarce quality of HB even when compliant with legislation. Concerning CP, we identified areas where both supply and the demand to increase production are relative high due to road access and lower intensification costs. The demand for agricultural production can eventually incentivize the expansion of agriculture on fertile soils, which could compromise environmental targets. Our results suggest that the simultaneous delivery of multiple ecosystem services may require land-use pathways that combine land sparing and sharing approaches. Our analysis can inform integrated land-use planning initiatives where, historically, the supply and demand for CP have been the single dominant driver for the current landscape configuration.

Introduction

With the growing human population in many parts of the world there is a challenge to reconcile food production with the conservation of biodiversity and associated ecosystem services. This requires that the production of higher volumes of food is accompanied by profound changes in the way food is produced, accessed and distributed ( Holt-Giménez et al., 2012). The Amazon basin is a crucial region to tackle this challenge due to its unrivaled biodiversity, its regional and global regulating function of the carbon and hydrological cycle ( Barthem et al., 2004; UNEP et al., 2009; Townsend et al., 2011), and its massive potentially available area for cropland expansion ( Eitelberg et al., 2015). More than half of the Amazon rain forest is in Brazil, and of this portion, one fifth of the forestland has been cleared since the 1970s ( WWF, 2019). The major cause of this loss is land-use changes driven by the development of subsistence agriculture, large-scale monocultures, and livestock production ( Barthem et al., 2004).

Between 2004 and 2012, public and private forest conservation measures triggered a sharp decline of deforestation rates in the Brazilian Amazon ( Nepstad et al., 2014). Nevertheless, these have resurged since then, casting doubts on the long-term effectiveness of control and command measures to protect biodiversity ( Fearnside, 2017; Schielein and Börner, 2018). In forest frontiers of eastern Amazonia land-use change from primary forest to agricultural land takes different forms depending on road accessibility, population density, governance and cultural background of settlers ( Schielein and Börner, 2018). Therefore, in addition to restrictions on deforestation, agricultural intensification, and diversification is recognized as a critical step to conciliate biodiversity conservation and agricultural production ( Macedo et al., 2012; Barretto et al., 2013). In light of this, it is not clear which spatial land-use configurations can reconcile ecosystem services at the landscape scale. Since land-use change often threatens natural resources and the continued delivery of ecosystem services, there is an urgent need for developing land-use planning that better accounts for the societal demands for ecosystem services, and the biotic and abiotic characteristics of the land to support these ecosystem services ( Tittonell, 2014; Schulte et al., 2015).

We explore transition pathways in the municipality of Paragominas in northern state of Pará by taking a spatial approach and asking what spatial arrangements of land uses can enhance the provision of ecosystem services given a recent past of deforestation. Our study focuses at the landscape scale in order to draw an integrated assessment of the land in terms of the delivery of ecosystem services and societal demands thereof. We focus on three soil-related ecosystem services, carbon storage (CS), habitat for biodiversity (HB), and commodity production (CP) due to the tension between nature conservation and agricultural production (i.e., trade-offs between ecosystem services) that originated since the inception of the current landscape six decades ago ( Schmink and Wood, 1992).

The objective of this study is to identify priority areas and targeting of interventions aimed at augmenting specific functions of land management, including carbon storage, the enhancement of biodiversity and the provision of agricultural commodities. We analyze the landscape at the lower jurisdictional level (i.e., municipality), in order to integrate multi-scale demands and local governance to manage potential trade-offs between conservation and development. Jurisdictional approach is a term recently coined to indicate a landscape governance that seeks common goals among government, community stakeholders and businesses ( Pacheco et al., 2017). In the Amazonian context, this approach refers specifically to greening commodity chains and complying with zero-deforestation policies. By identifying areas where land-use changes would be most effective to meet societal demands while preserving the region's natural capital, our analysis can contribute to develop context-specific transition pathways in order to enhance landscape multifunctionality and resource-use efficiency in eastern Amazonia.

Methods

Study Site

Our study was conducted in the municipality of Paragominas in the north-eastern state of Pará, Brazil. The municipality is located at one of the oldest agricultural frontiers in the Brazilian Amazon currently transitioning toward land-use intensification as an array of policy measures have prompted the end of extensive deforestation. Such measures include the revision of the Forest Code in 2012 with a strong focus on protecting natural vegetation both in public and private lands, restricting credits to illegal deforesters, blacklisting municipalities deforesting illegally, implementing supply chains moratoria and command and control mechanisms ( Piketty et al., 2015; Azevedo et al., 2017; Nunes et al., 2019).

Paragominas, nevertheless, has a history of intensive forest logging and livestock grazing that ignored key biophysical and environmental aspects for the spatial planning of these activities, such as land relief and soil characteristics ( Poccard-Chapuis et al., 2014). This trajectory has shaped the landscape of the region ( Rodrigues et al., 2014) into a disconnected mosaic of regrowth and degraded forest, old fields, and low-productivity pastures ( Nepstad et al., 1991; IBGE, 2016). In turn, these land-use dynamics have led to soil degradation, disruption of nutrients cycling, biodiversity loss, and increased fire susceptibility ( Uhl and Kauffman, 1990; Nepstad et al., 1999; Barlow et al., 2016).

Pedo-morphological conditions in the region follow a specific pattern of monoclinal sedimentary units with a lateritic pedo-genesis that results in geomorphological surfaces of different soil textures and erosion conditions ( Laurent et al., 2017). In Paragominas this manifests as plateaus of 160-190 m.a.s.l., separated by valleys of up to 10-12 km wide ( Laurent et al., 2017). As a result of the genesis of the bedrock and the local topography, plateaus in the Paragominas region are covered by the so-called Belterra clay (clayey Ferralsols with 70-80% kaolinite), upper valley slopes are covered by gravel soils, while the bottom of the valleys are covered by loamy sand Ferralsols ( Rodrigues et al., 2003; Laurent et al., 2017). Soil texture, in turn, is one of the main determinants of soil fertility, erosion, compaction, cation exchange, and water holding capacity ( Laurent et al., 2017). Therefore, our study site was first classified into pedo-morphological units that represent combinations of soil texture, slope, and proximity to water bodies ( Figure 1). We limited our analysis to clayey plateaus and sandy valleys, which account for 77% of the territory in Paragominas. We assumed a consistent soil type-pedo-morphology relationship across the study area ( Laurent et al., 2017). Regarding land use, we classified the region into managed areas (mechanized agriculture, pastures, and forest plantations), unmanaged areas (natural regeneration and degraded forest), and conservation areas (undisturbed forests).

Research Approach

We define a landscape as the spatial organization of biophysical characteristics and land uses driven by ecological processes and management practices ( Poccard-Chapuis et al., 2014). Land-use decisions, however, are mostly made at the farm scale and public policies are regulating these decisions. In this conception, socio-economic, institutional, and environmental dimensions interact across farm, landscape, and municipal scales composing a socio-ecological system ( Gallopín et al., 2001). We use the conceptual framework of Functional Land Management (FLM) ( Schulte et al., 2014, 2015) to spatially identify areas where land is being used and managed in such a way that ecosystem services provision is not optimal and can be enhanced. By recognizing soil multifunctionality, FLM aims at the optimization- rather than maximization- of soil-based ecosystem services, given the difficulty of maximizing all functions at the same time across scales. We refer to "supply" as the provision of soil-based ecosystem services as a function of biophysical characteristics, land use and management; whereas "demand" is derived from agro-environmental policies acting as proxies of societal expectations ( Schulte et al., 2015).

We considered pedo-morphology and land use as the two main drivers of the supply of ecosystem services in Paragominas. Thus, in order to manage the complexity of the socio-ecological system at the municipal level (19,342 km ²), we first categorized the region into landscape units (LU) defined as the combination of pedo-morphological conditions ( Figure 1) and land-use categories ( Schulte et al., 2014; Coyle et al., 2016). To assess the ecosystem services supply for each LU, we reviewed the literature on the link between the provision of ecosystem services, pedo-morphological conditions, and land use. We assumed that these two bio-physical conditions (i.e., pedo-morphology and land use) will be the prime drivers of ecosystem services supply at the landscape scale because of their link with soil texture and land cover, respectively. First, we focused on the relation between each one of the ecosystem services and soil textural class as it conditions soil carbon storage capacity, soil fertility, and the likelihood that habitats for conservation will be competing with agricultural production in the region. We selected only studies from the Amazon and Cerrado biome except for the soil texture-soil biodiversity link as we did not find a relevant study for Brazil. This first literature review allowed us to qualitatively assess the (spatial) heterogeneity of the supply in relation to soil texture in order to build an informed categorization of LUs and capture general trends at the municipality level in relation to pedo-morphology.

A second literature review was conducted to assess the local delivery of CS and HB at land-use level using studies conducted in Paragominas. Carbon storage for major land use/land cover types was assessed using the Invest Carbon Model ( Sharp et al., 2014). We estimated carbon stocks by summing secondary data on soil carbon and aboveground biomass. Data on carbon in belowground biomass, dead and harvested wood were not available and were therefore not included in the analysis. For the supply of HB, we derived an index based on recorded number of species for birds, dung beetles, orchid plant bees, and ants for each land use type (i.e., α-biodiversity at the site level) reported in the literature. To calculate indices, we took the highest value for each indicator specified in Table 1 and assigned this a value of 1. The remaining values were divided by the maximum value to generate a relative scale with a maximum value of 1. Concerning CP, we selected the three main commodities produced in the region: soybean, beef and wood products, and assessed their gross profit margin and investment return period as indicators of commodity supply. We chose economic indicators because these capture one of the three main dimensions to assess productive performance of land use systems (besides the ecological and agronomic dimension; Murray et al., 2016), and can be quantified for crop, beef, and forest production. We estimated the gross profit margin for each commodity based on official exports statistics for the year 2017, and other sources from scientific and gray literature reporting on internal markets, production costs, and profit margins in Brazil from 2004 to 2018 ( Table 2).

To frame the societal demands for ecosystem services delivery, we conducted reviews of the relevant policy frameworks related to CS, HB, and CP in Brazil. These included national policies, state legislation, and municipal regulations. We selected policies that explicitly state specific targets for our three ecosystem services. The selection of the demand indicators was based on these targets. In the case of CS, the targets include reducing national carbon emissions by 37% in 2025 in relation to 2005, and a ban on deforestation at the municipal level. The demand for HB was taken as the mandate to preserve 50-80% of each rural property as a forest conservation area, whereas the demand for CP was derived from the state-level targets aiming at annual production increases until 2030. We also took into account road infrastructure as underlying drivers of agricultural intensification.

Once indicators and values were developed and estimated both for supply and demand, we generated maps for the supply of ecosystem services by intersecting a map of pedo-morphological units (which encompasses the corresponding soil textural categories) with a map of land use of Paragominas in Esri ARCGIS 10.4. This generated a map of LUs that then were attributed the indices derived from the literature ( Figure 2) and illustrated in our supply matrix ( Figure 3). Regarding the demand maps, the spatial variation was not defined based on the LU classification, but rather on the targets established in the policies and their application at the municipal level.

Figure 3. Supply matrix of ecosystem services in Paragominas for different pedo-morphological units and land uses associated with different land use processes. Supply of carbon storage (brown), habitat for biodiversity (green), and commodity production (gray) are indicated by bubbles, and bubble size is indicative for relative supply level. This analysis is informed by a literature review ( Tables 1, 2) and personal observations.

Finally, to explore land use pathways to enhance landscape multifunctionality, we integrated the supply and demand maps for CS, HB and CP ( Figure 5) to generate a trade-off map for these ecosystem services ( Figure 6). We first standardized the supply and demand maps for CS, HB, and CP by generating maps with z-scores at the pixel level (630 × 630 m = 40 ha). Then the z-score transformed demand and supply maps were subtracted for each ecosystem service to reveal areas where supply meets or fails demand. The spatial distribution of trade-offs between CS, HB and CP were then integrated in a single map by systematically considering all eight (2 ³) combinations of potential (mis)matches between CS, HB, and CP ( Figure 4). All calculations were conducted in ArcGIS 10 using the raster calculator.

Supply of Soil-Based Ecosystem Services

Clay content is an important factor driving carbon dynamics and storage in tropical soils whereby clay content is usually positively associated with soil carbon storage capacity ( Feller and Beare, 1997; Six et al., 2002; Telles et al., 2003). For example, in a study conducted on arable and native vegetation land in the Cerrado biome, Neto et al. (2010) reported a significant linear increase of soil organic carbon (0-20 cm) with clay content. In a study conducted in eastern Amazonia, Silver et al. (2000) reported significantly greater soil carbon content in clayey soils than in sandy soils at 20 cm. Another study conducted in clayey and sandy soils of the same forest in the Amazonia state, reported that at 40 cm depth, the soil carbon stocks in Oxisols (61-71 Mg C ha −1) were significantly higher than in Spodosols and Ultisols with higher sand content (46 and 42 Mg C ha −1) ( Telles et al., 2003). Overall, these studies indicate that soils with higher clay content in the region tend to store more carbon and for longer times.

Regarding CS and land use, in a forest degradation gradient in Santarém, western Pará, Brazil, undisturbed primary forest had the highest stocks of soil carbon, followed by secondary forest, while disturbance by fire significantly reduced soil carbon ( Durigan et al., 2017). Soil carbon stocks were not affected by the conversion of primary forest to pastures but decreased significantly when conversion to cropland took place ( Durigan et al., 2017). Along a similar forest degradation gradient in Paragominas, carbon stocks in aboveground vegetation, dead wood, litter and soil (upper 30 cm) decreased from undisturbed forest (276 Mg C ha −1) to logged forest (238 Mg C ha −1), logged and burned forest (187 Mg C ha −1), and secondary forest (125 Mg C ha −1) ( Berenguer et al., 2014). Furthermore, Sommer et al. (2000) reported significant changes in soil carbon and root biomass after undisturbed forest (196 Mg C ha −1) was converted to annual cropping agriculture (146-167 Mg C ha −1), but no significant difference when converted to slash and burn agriculture (185 Mg C ha −1). Data from these studies indicate that there are major differences in the amount of carbon undisturbed forests store as compared to croplands Intermediate values are reported for other land uses.

Soil texture in combination with climate and management are also important factors influencing the activity of soil macro-fauna that produce biogenic structures ( Brussaard et al., 2007). Moreover, soil texture also has been reported to be an important regulator of microbial communities in the soil after deforestation. For instance, Crowther et al. (2014) found that clayey soil textures act as a buffer for micro-organisms against altering soil moisture conditions, pH, and nutrients concentrations that may result from forest removal. They reported minimal differences of microbial communities between forest and grassland soils in 11 sites across the United States. The same authors compared their results in the United States to those of Rodrigues et al. (2013) who found that the mean bacterial richness in the soil increased by 47 taxa after forest clearance in western Amazonia. Crowther et al. (2014) found that the species richness of bacteria in the clayey Brazilian soils is relatively stable across sites with different clay textures. These results point at the apparent protective effect of clay textures to micro-fauna even after deforestation. Furthermore, Hassink et al. (1993) reported a higher grazing pressure by nematodes on bacteria in sandy soils than in clayey soils, which in turn was linked to higher N mineralization rates per bacterium. It is recognized that micro-organisms, such as bacteria, might stimulate nutrient cycling, as many are considered to be keystone species ( Lupatini et al., 2014). As in the case of CS, clayey textures and their higher soil organic matter content appear to provide protective effects to both soil micro- and macro-fauna.

Concerning HB and land use, the α-diversity of birds, dung beetles, orchid plant bees and ants declines from a gradient of undisturbed forests to mechanized agriculture in Paragominas (undisturbed primary forest > logged primary forest > logged and burnt primary forest > secondary forest > pastures > mechanized agriculture) ( Solar et al., 2015, 2016). In addition, Barlow et al. (2016) reported that forest fragmentation and disturbance was associated with the loss of 46-61% of the biodiversity conservation value of forests in Paragominas. Rodrigues et al. (2013), found that in western Amazonia bacterial communities were significantly higher in α-biodiversity in pasture soils than in forest soils. Nevertheless, the opposite was the case for β-biodiversity (i.e., differentiation across space) suggesting a process of biotic homogenization after forest conversion that leads to endemism loss and invasion of broad range taxa. Conversion of primary forests to pastures also has been found to reduce fungal richness and affect community fungal composition of specialized species in the Amazonian region ( Mueller et al., 2016). These data were used in our study to estimate HB indices for land use ( Table 1).

We also used soil texture as an indicator of agricultural soil quality since clayey soils in the Paragominas region have a greater inherent fertility and water holding capacity, as well as slower rates of nutrient leaching than sandy soils. For this reason, mechanized annual cropping such as soybean, maize, and sorghum production, and forest plantations are typically located on clayey soils, whereas sandy and gravel soils are used for pastures ( Piketty et al., 2015). Due to this distribution, our assessment distinguishes areas of crop production located on the plateaus where clayey soils are predominant, areas of forest plantations located both on plateaus and on sandy valleys, and pastures located mainly in the sandy valleys.

The capacity of different land uses to produce soybeans, beef and wood products were assessed in terms of gross profit margin. In 2017, Paragominas soybean exports amounted a total of US$219 million ( MDIC, 2018). On the other hand, operation costs of no-till, genetically modified soybean in different parts of Brazil ranges from US$112-132 ton −1 ( Goldsmith, 2008; Babajev, 2012). These figures give an estimated production cost of $80 million (exported net weight of soybeans from Paragominas in 2017 was 604 thousand tons). Including transportation costs, estimated at 85$ ton −1 for Mato Grosso ( Goldsmith, 2008) signifies a gross profit margin of around 40%. Concerning beef production, the herd in Paragominas consisted of 253 thousand heads in 2017, with an export revenue of US$12.2 million ( MDIC, 2018). The total weight of exported frozen meat and edible offal in 2017 was 1,893 and 599 tons, respectively ( MDIC, 2018). Using conversion factors of 61% for frozen meat and 42% for edible offal ( Holland et al., 2014) we estimated a total of 3,156 and 1,437 tons of live weight, respectively. Taking 545 kg as an average weight for live animal means that the number of heads devoted for exports was around 11,000, equivalent to roughly 4% of the total livestock in Paragominas. The other largest fraction of beef production was destined to local processors in other municipalities such as Belém and Castanhal. Taking US$2 kg −1 ( Globo, 2014) as a general market price in the region, this signifies a revenue between US$ 290-320 million. Summing up exports and local market indicates that revenues from beef production in Paragominas amounts to roughly US$330 million. While no data were available on the fraction of the animals that are not exported and remain as livestock or as a commodity in the local market, Somwaru and Valdes (2004) reported a gross profit margin of 24% for beef production in Paragominas. Finally, exports concerning forest products including wood, wood products and charcoal amounted to a total of US$0.64 million in 2017 ( MDIC, 2018). In the state of Mina Gerais, the gross profit margin of eucalyptus plantations was estimated at 57% during a period of 7 years equivalent to a mean yearly profit of 8% ( de Lima Filho, 2014). Another feasibility study for eucalyptus plantations in the Amazonia reported for a 5-year rotation plantation a profitability index ([Net Present Value + initial investment]/initial investment]) of 4.97. A profitability index larger than 1 indicates the financial attractiveness of a project; however, the payback period of a eucalyptus plantation in the Amazonia is around 5-7 years when destined for pulp and 12 years when destined for energy. Other forest species such as paricá ( Schizolobium amazonicum Huber ex. Ducke) are used in the region for plywood production with investment return periods of 7 years in Paragominas ( de Paula et al., 2014).

These economic data indicate that soybean has the highest supply of commodity production based on a 40% profit margin and a short period on return on investment ( Table 2). Forest plantations can have a high profit margin (57%) but have a return on investment period ranging from 5 to 12 years. Therefore, we rank forest plantations as a medium supply of commodity production. Finally, beef production is ranked as low supply of commodity due to a relative low profit margin. Indeed, the greater profitability of soybean is one of the factors hindering beef production and restoration of degraded pastures in eastern Amazonia ( Santos et al., 2007). It is important to acknowledge that this classification depends on price volatility. Due to its inelastic demand soybean is considered as one of the most volatile agricultural commodities. Beef, in contrast, is much less volatile ( OECD/FAO, 2018).

Demand for Soil-Based Ecosystem Services

National policies established in the Climate Change Policy (Lei 12.187/2009), the Plan for Prevention and Control of Deforestation in the Legal Amazonia (PPCDAm) and the Low Carbon Agriculture Plan (Plano ABC) of Brazil, include targets to reduce carbon emissions by 37% from 2005 levels by 2025, to end illegal deforestation, to restore 12 M ha of forest by 2030, to restore 15 M ha of degraded pastures by 2030, and to implement 5 M ha of crop-livestock-forest integrated systems by 2030. At the state level, the Plan for Prevention, Control and Alternatives for Deforestation of Pará State (PPCAD-PA) translates this into a 42% reduction target for deforestation in the period 2016-2020 in relation to the previous period from 2011 to 2015. Furthermore, the Green Municipality project in Paragominas advanced a zero-deforestation pact among an array of stakeholders since 2009, which was renewed in 2016 ( Vilhena, 2016).

A crucial aspect for our analysis was to determine the implications of national targets at the local level in the absence of an explicit municipal target concerning carbon storage. Paragominas' agricultural sector gross domestic product represents <0.5% (US$95 million in 2016; IBGE, 2018) of the national agricultural primary sector estimated at US$77 billion in 2017 ( Ministério da Agricultura, 2016). A calculation based on this proportion would equate to a target of 0.67-0.81 million tons CO ₂eq for Paragominas (the mitigation potential of the national agricultural sector amounts to 133.9-162.9 M tons CO ₂eq as estimated in Plano ABC). An estimation based on agricultural area results in a similar value of 0.5% of the total agricultural land in Brazil. These estimates show that based on these criteria, the national target would correspond to a municipal target in the order of magnitude of 0.7 M tons of CO ₂ eq. We did not further identify a spatial variation of this target within the municipality.

The demand for habitat for biodiversity was informed by the habitat requirements stated in the Forest Code (Código Florestal, Lei n° 12.651). It stipulates that all rural properties in the Amazon spare conservation areas known as Legal Reserves equivalent to 80% of the property and preserve all riparian forest (known as APPs, permanent conservation areas) within a distance of 30, 50, 100, 200, and 500 m from rivers, depending on their length. An exception to this rule is contemplated in the Decree No. 7.130/2010, which concerns the Ecological-Economic Zoning. In practice this often means that Legal Reserves within productive areas make up for 50% of the farm. We framed the demand for HB in relation to the regularization plan of each rural property in order to comply with the 80/50% legal requirement.

Regarding the demand for CP, the state development plan, Plano Pará 2030, targets yearly increases of 15-18 and 2-4% for soybean and beef production until 2030, respectively. An important factor for delivering on the intensification of commodity production is market access ( Piketty et al., 2015). Paragominas is located near the intersection of two interstate roads of which the federal road BR0-10 is a major transport route for agricultural produce. In recent years, mechanized agriculture and forest plantations have expanded predominantly in areas of clayey soils close to the Paragominas urban center due to easy road access ( Piketty et al., 2015). We accounted for these trends by generating a map indicating traveling-time (areas of 1, 2-3, and >3 h) to the city of Paragominas near the main interstate road (BR0-10) to distinguish areas where the demand to increase production is more likely to materialize. Such increases in CP can only take place in areas already cleared since opening new forest areas is forbidden. We identified those areas, where the policy targets to increase production will be more likely to manifest in the landscape, by intersecting our traveling-time map with non-forested areas.

Results

Mapping the Supply and Demand for Ecosystem Services

We identified critical areas of carbon storage to mitigate carbon emissions from deforestation and forest degradation ( Figure 5A). Using the Carbon Invest Model and secondary data, total C stocks in Paragominas in the soil and aboveground biomass were estimated at 279 million Mg C. Areas covered by undisturbed forests were estimated to store 247.8 Mg C ha −1, while the lowest values were modeled for croplands (46.2 Mg C ha −1). This indicates that undisturbed forests in Paragominas store 142 million Mg of carbon. Since the demand for CS has been downscaled from the national to the municipal level there is no spatial variation for demand of CS ( Figure 5D).

Figure 5. Maps of supply (A-C) and demand (D-F) of carbon storage, habitat for biodiversity, and commodity production in Paragominas.

Regarding the supply of HB, undisturbed forest supports the highest supply of HB ( Figure 5B). These areas account for 36% of the total municipality. Areas of lower habitat quality are located mostly close to the city within 1 h away from the main road where agriculture dominates the landscape. Concerning the demand, the total area of Legal Reserves and APPs stipulated in the regularization plans of farms in Paragominas adds up to 1.02 M ha ( Figure 5E) and represents 52% of the municipal area. The total forest area in Paragominas is 56% ( INPE, 2018), which suggests that in terms of forested area the demand for HB is met in the region.

Regarding CP, the highest supply in terms of gross profit margin takes place on clayey soils located near the main road with soybean production. Forest plantations, which provide intermediate supply, are also concentrated in the central area of the municipality, while pastures for beef production are mostly distributed to the east, in areas more than 1 h away from the road ( Figure 5C). Targets framed at the state level represent the demand to increase CP. In areas where mechanization and access to inputs and markets is less costly the demand is higher ( Figure 5F). Nevertheless, considering the projected yearly increase of crop and livestock production up to 2030, intensification could also increase in more remote areas. Furthermore, the demand for CP could turn into pressure on forested areas that are located on clayey soils close to the city.

Potential Spatial (Mis)matches and Trade-Offs

Non-CP areas where the supply of CS and HB meet the demand (Mismatch type 1 in Figure 4) represent 32% of the analyzed area ( Figure 6). These are areas covered by undisturbed forest on clayey plateaus and on sandy soils (i.e., " Nature areas" in Figure 6). " Production areas" (Mismatch type 8 in Figure 4) represent 18% of the area (shown in blue in Figure 6). These are pastures in sandy valleys and croplands on top of the plateaus. Here, CP is happening at the expense of CS and HB. " Suboptimal areas" (Mismatch type 4 in Figure 4 and indicated in red in Figure 6), represent 49% of the total area and are likely suboptimal for CP as these areas are mostly composed by pastures in floodplains and plateaus and agriculture in sandy valleys. These areas can also be sub-optimal for CS and HB because of forest degradation or abandonment ( Figure 6). The identification of trade-off areas in conjunction with the supply-demand maps were the basis to identify possible pathways for landscape multifunctionality ( Table 3).

Discussion

Meeting Carbon Storage and Biodiversity Conservation Targets

Our analysis indicates that undisturbed forests fulfill the demand for carbon storage ( Figure 5A). These critical areas, however, are located on clayey soils that are also suitable for grain production. Thus, even though extensive deforestation has been controlled and minimized in the region, these forests may face pressure in the near future due to forest degradation ( Berenguer et al., 2014). Conversely, other land uses such as degraded pastures and croplands with lower carbon stocks offer potential to meet the further demand for carbon storage. For example, it has been estimated that land-use conversion in the tropics, from cropland to pastures, to forest plantations and to secondary forests can increase soil carbon by 20-50% ( Guo and Gifford, 2002). Similarly, restoring degraded pastures and implementing silvo-pastoral systems has a storage potential of 1.0 and 1.7 tons C ha −1 year −1, respectively ( Gurgel and Costa, 2015). Other studies suggest that integrated silvo-pastoral systems in the Amazonia can store an additional amount of soil carbon (at 1 m depth) of up to 1.9 tons C ha −1 compared to extensive traditional pastures ( de Moura Oliveira et al., 2018). Paragominas possesses 300,000 ha of degraded pastures that, if managed and restored, would represent a carbon storage potential of 0.3-0.5 M tons C year −1 ( Gurgel and Costa, 2015). This means that Paragominas could theoretically contribute its share of the national target (0.81 million tons of CO ₂ eq) in only 2-3 years.

Concerning HB, in 2010, 56% of Paragominas was covered by forest ( INPE, 2018), 51% consisted of primary forest (including degraded forest), and 5% of natural regeneration ( Nunes et al., 2015). According to the Rural Environmental Registry (CAR), 67% of the rural properties of Paragominas comply with the Forest Code requirements, 31% have some pending issue, and only 2% of the properties have been assessed as not meeting the requirements. If we compare these records with the available data from our literature review, we can notice that, for example, most of the rural properties located close to the main road comply with the legislation However, according to the secondary data it is precisely in these areas where the lowest levels of biodiversity can be found ( Figure 5B). This suggests that the current legislation was not framed in the most pertinent way to effectively safeguard HB. Indeed, there is an increasing concern that Legal Reserves tend to be disconnected from the network of protected areas ( Siqueira et al., 2015) because there are no explicit policy targets concerning forest habitat connectivity at the landscape scale that take into account forest patch size, patch shape, and landscape fragmentation ( Oakleaf et al., 2017).

Landscape Multifunctionality, (Mis)matches, and Trade-Offs

In this paper we argue that the trade-offs between ecosystem services in the region emerged from historical agrarian dynamics, i.e., colonization by pioneers from other regions of the country, characterized by land-use changes that ignored key landscape characteristics. It is in this context that we envision a multifunctional landscape as one that matches supply and demand of different ecosystem services through synergistic interactions between multiple ecosystem services. However, attaining these synergies is difficult in complex agroecosystems and therefore FLM aims for the spatial optimization rather than the ubiquitous maximization of all ecosystem services ( Schulte et al., 2015).

Our notion of landscape multifunctionality aligns with what Manning et al. (2018) define as ecosystem service multifunctionality as opposed to ecosystem function multifunctionality. The former concerns the supply of an ecosystem service according to the value assigned by human judgement, whereas the latter focuses on the ecological processes. Furthermore, following the classification of landscape multifunctionality proposed by Mastrangelo et al. (2014) (i.e., pattern-based multifunctionality, process-based multifunctionality, socially relevant process-based multifunctionality), our approach is based on a spatial approach in order to identify priority areas (i.e., trade-offs and mismatches) where interventions via land-use change and management practices could be pertinent. However, we also integrate social elements by taking the policy framework as proxies of societal demands, and by taking into account aspects such as infrastructure and markets access. Additionally, our supply matrix ( Figure 3) illustrates the concept of landscape multi-functionality in terms of natural processes linked to pedo-morphology and land use driving the supply of each ecosystem service. By applying the FLM framework we integrate elements of the main three multifunctionality categories defined by Mastrangelo et al. (2014) despite the constraints of primary data availability and direct stakeholder participation for ecosystem services selection.

Furthermore, our trade-off map integrates the analysis of CS, HB, and CP by dividing the region into three main types of landscape configurations ( Figure 6). Suboptimal areas cover around half of the municipality but encompasses a variety of land uses and covers located in different pedo-morphological areas ( Table 3). "Production" and "Nature areas" cover the other half of the region and are typically spatially separated, often located 1 h away and more than 3 h away from the urban center, respectively. We could conjecture that the spatial patterns of these two areas follow a land sparing arrangement. Phalan (2018) defines land sparing as the conservation intervention to increase agricultural productivity and free up land for habitat conservation. Areas of high-intensity practices in Paragominas are expected to be incompatible with biodiversity conservation (due to practices such as heavy use of pesticides) and tend to have a relatively coarse spatial grain (e.g., the average rural property size in the region is 800 ha). At the municipal scale, this results in an emergent pattern of relatively large areas with intensified agricultural production that are spatially separated from high quality habitats for biodiversity conservation. The caveat of this spatial arrangement in Paragominas is that a pure land sparing configuration in tropical contexts is generally followed by a transition to a cleared landscape ( Angelsen and Kaimowitz, 2001). Although environmental legislation in Brazil may prevent large-scale forest clearing, forest degradation and habitat disconnection may still be considered a threat to biodiversity conservation in the region.

Our spatially explicit categorization of landscape units and the (mis)matches and trade-offs between ecosystem services may guide the implementation of measures to reorganize the landscape. Our analysis is based on what Driscoll et al. (2013) denominates the "patch-matrix model" of fragmented landscapes, i.e., patches of native vegetation surrounded by a highly modified matrix due to agriculture. Our analysis points out the importance of managing this matrix in order to match supply and demand of ecosystem services. Specifically for biodiversity, the same authors suggest that managing the matrix in a fragmented landscape can have effects on movement and dispersal, resource availability, and the abiotic environment. Therefore, one strategy in Paragominas should be to make the matrix structurally more similar to the remaining forest patches. In this way the landscape could benefit from incorporating a land-sharing approach in "Production" areas to increase forest connectivity in order to enhance species dispersal, food availability and improve microclimatic conditions. This could also be the case for some "Suboptimal" areas where forest enrichment, reforestation, afforestation, or the incorporation of integrated systems such as silvo-pastures or agroforestry could be designed toward a land-sharing approach. A focus on the catchment level may be required to explore new conservation strategies that take into account matrix heterogeneity in space and time, and adaptation of species to changing landscape conditions ( Driscoll et al., 2013). Such measures to make the matrix resemble patches of natural vegetation could simultaneously increase the supply of carbon storage.

On the other hand, a land-sparing format for biodiversity conservation could be kept in "Nature areas" and in "Suboptimal" areas that are unsuitable for agricultural production. This mosaic of land-sharing/sparing based on our maps could reconcile what some authors point out as the false dichotomy between land sharing and sparing ( Renwick and Schellhorn, 2016). Kremen (2015) calls this a "both-and" design characterized by the establishment of large protected areas able to host endemism and specialist species, and a matrix of agricultural landscapes surrounding conservation areas allowing for species dispersal and room for human activities.

Pathways to Match Supply and Demand of Ecosystem Services

Following this "both-and" logic, we distinguish two pathways to match supply and demand of ecosystem services, while minimizing trade-offs in Paragominas. A first pathway centers on agricultural management at the field scale. For example, land for soybean production under conservation agriculture practices is expected to yield different results on the supply of CS or HB compared to soybean monoculture under conventional practices ( Corbeels et al., 2006; de Pontes et al., 2017). Thus, a farmer aiming to increase grain production on a clayey plateau can adopt intensification measures such as precision agriculture, no-tillage, or crop-livestock integration to increase commodity production without compromising the supply of CS and HB ( Corbeels et al., 2006; Maia et al., 2010; Sentelhas et al., 2015; Gil et al., 2016). A second example includes pastures that are integrated into silvo-pastoral systems to increase the production of meat and timber, while at the same time increasing CS and HB. Tree-livestock-crop integrated systems may foster positive interactions between different ecosystem services and resource-use efficiency in the Amazon and the Cerrado ( Campos et al., 2015; da Conceição et al., 2017; Stark et al., 2017; Gil et al., 2018). Considering the supply matrix ( Figure 3), this pathway means that within a landscape unit (e.g., mechanized agriculture on clayey plateaus) the supply of all ecosystem services can be increased (i.e., the size of the bubbles) by adopting management practices that modify soil properties as well as energy, nutrient and water fluxes at the field and farm level. This in turn, can lead to an agricultural matrix that resembles as much as possible the ecological functionality of the forest. Importantly, the absence of management as a result of abandonment can also play a role in the supply of ecosystem services in the region. For instance, unmanaged pastures can lead to natural regeneration and subsequent increases in botanic biodiversity ( Poccard-Chapuis et al., 2014). Conversely, the absence of management of degraded forest can have detrimental effects on carbon stocks due to the incidence of forest fires ( Berenguer et al., 2014).

A second pathway concerns land-use changes. In terms of the supply matrix ( Figure 3), this implies a displacement from one landscape unit to another, e.g., from natural regeneration in clayey soils to crop land on clayey soils. These land-use changes should aim at increasing forest connectivity. Under this scenario, trade-offs between CP and CS-HB are minimized by prioritizing conservation in selected areas that have less potential to produce commodities (i.e., "Suboptimal" area). Suboptimal areas where production has less potential (i.e., natural regeneration in sandy valleys close to water bodies) could also be prioritized for conservation to minimize trade-offs at the landscape scale. This pathway, however, has the challenge of managing at a higher scale than the farm, the main operational level of functional organization in the region ( Poccard-Chapuis et al., 2014).

A critical point for optimizing ecosystem services is to distinguish where to follow which pathway. This revolves around the question of where the clayey soils, roads, forests, and cleared areas are located because this will determine the aptitude of a particular area to perform certain ecosystem service. Therefore, optimization of the landscape means that intensification activities with emphasis on integrated systems should be placed in open areas without forests located on plateaus and in valleys ("Production" areas and "Suboptimal" areas with natural regeneration). These areas account for 20-25% of the municipality. Reforestation should be prioritized to increase forest connectivity in areas with low production potential, such as "Suboptimal" areas on floodplains (10-15% of the municipality). "Nature" areas (a third of the total area) should be kept protected, while forest restoration should be implemented in areas of forest degradation with low production potential covering between 10 and 15% of the territory. This leaves between 15 and 20% of "Suboptimal" areas with degraded forest located on plateaus or in valleys that could have potential for production or forest restoration ( Table 3).

As pointed out by Schulte et al. (2015), it is important to acknowledge that FLM is not a call for a top-down approach to impose a zoning in the region. Rather, we intend to offer tools that foment land-use planning discussions that go beyond the farm level and take into consideration biophysical aspects that require a landscape approach, for example, at the catchment level. The development and implementation of pathways through the identification of trade-off areas may involve a highly complex governance challenge that requires the engagement of all relevant actors in the region. Given the recent success story of a societal agreement toward environmental compliance in Paragominas through the "Green Municipality" project ( Viana et al., 2016), the region appears in a good position to embark in such a task.

The development of these pathways is the subject of further research under the approach of what Huppes and Ishikawa (2007) define as environmental cost-effectiveness; that is, an environmental prime as the criteria to rearrange the landscape. These could potentially counter the "artificialization" of the landscape in Paragominas ( Poccard-Chapuis et al., 2015) and move toward more endogenous landscape systems that are better at fulfilling the demands for ecosystem services in a way that is both ecologically and economically sustainable. One of the main challenges in this regard is to make the jurisdictional approach operational to attain landscape governance given the diversity of scales, actors, and demands ( Pacheco et al., 2017). What are the options within conventional, resource-intensive agriculture to introduce spatial changes oriented toward the transition of food systems? Can land-use planning offer a way to contribute to this transition? Does matching the supply and demand of ecosystem services offer a model of ecological intensification in a tropical post-forest frontier? As pointed out by Tittonell (2014), processes of ecological intensification require a landscape approach that takes nature as an active ally. Contrasting the supply and demand for ecosystem services offers a hint of what the current role of nature is in the landscape of Paragominas and the possible pathways to be implemented at the farm level to "work with nature" and attain landscape multifunctionality.

Limitations

A few limitations in our approach emerge from our conceptualization of landscape multifunctionality. First, we established a (mis)match in terms of policy targets that we take as a proxy of societal demands ( Schulte et al., 2015). These targets were established at federal and state level and do not necessarily reflect the actual demand and use of ecosystem services by local stakeholders. In the original case study conducted in Ireland, FLM takes policy targets as societal demands as Ireland has policies explicitly stating agricultural and environmental targets. However, the representativeness of policies in a relatively small country like Ireland as compared to a country with continental scales such as Brazil can vary greatly. For example, in 2018, the Economist Intelligence Unit's Democracy Index placed Ireland in the 6th place worldwide with a score of 8.33 for political participation, while Brazil ranks number 50 with a score of 5.00 ( The Economist Intelligence Unit, 2019). Assuming the same policy-making process in such a different context as Brazil can be misleading but given the complexity of all the different governance layers that affect land use in eastern Amazonia, these policy targets become a useful starting point to examine the relationships between international, national, and local demands that shape the landscape of Paragominas. This paper thus, does not consider direct stakeholder participation because it attempts to provide an overarching panorama of the landscape in terms of ecosystem services and environmental policies. Further studies on the comparison of policy targets and the perception and actual demand of ecosystem services by stakeholders could provide valuable insights to what extent demands for ecosystem services at policy levels align with demands by other stakeholders.

A second limitation of our study is that we considered only three particular ecosystem services. The selected ecosystem services have the advantage that their supply can be upscaled with a reasonable degree of reliability from a landscape unit to the whole landscape. Other ecosystem services, such as nutrient cycling, water regulation, pollination, and pest control and cultural ecosystem services are equally important but involve spatial aspects or complexities that make upscaling from plot to landscape level fraught with uncertainties ( Manning et al., 2018). For example, insect-mediated ecosystem services, such as natural pest control is governed by the dispersal ability and behavior of natural enemies, which are species-specific and hard to generalize ( Karp et al., 2018). Ecosystem services associated with water and nutrient flows pertain complexities, such as vertical distances from tree to soil, livestock mobility, and surface infiltration ( Poccard-Chapuis et al., 2014; Lavelle et al., 2016). Cultural ecosystem services are often bundled with food values and are difficult to localize and to correlate with other ecosystem services ( Cooper et al., 2016). Our three focal ecosystem services on the other hand, can be quantified at large spatial scales and enables identifying "pressure points" (i.e., mismatches) at relevant spatial scales for policy making.

A third limitation of this study is our reliance on only secondary data. By restricting our literature review on studies from the Amazon and Cerrado biome we harnessed the context-specificity of CS and HB data as much as possible. The supply of CP was estimated in part from studies from more remote areas and from different years over the last 15 years. Our results, therefore, should be interpreted with caution, and used as indicators of spatial patterns (i.e., areas of trade-offs between ecosystems), rather than interpreted as geo-referenced quantification of ecosystem services.

Conclusions

In this paper we defined landscape multifunctionality in terms of the values that are assigned to different functions by different stakeholders. However, the landscape of Paragominas is conditioned by different sets of values: from environmental to productivity-oriented, from global to local, from a desire to urbanize to a call for pristine wilderness in the region. How can the landscape satisfy all these values?

Combining land-sparing and sharing formats can generate a multifunctional mosaic that satisfies as much values as possible in line with the philosophy of Functional Land Management. This could also provide enough flexibility to cope with the bio-physical heterogeneity, while taking into account aspects such as land tenure and accessibility. This strategy, however, may require that conservation areas are delimitated beyond the boundaries of a single rural property (e.g., the watershed level).

Ultimately, the multifunctionality of the landscape ought to be constructed by the decision makers of the region who are local farmers in the first place deciding based on individual values. In this paper we provide a delimitation of three areas at the municipal level characterized by different trade-offs between ecosystem services. This is intended as a source of terms, concepts and data, around which stakeholders can gather around in order to engage in a complex decision-making process toward enhancing landscape multi-functionality in Paragominas.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated for this study are available on request to the corresponding author.

Author Contributions

DP and RS conceived the idea. DP and FB conducted the analysis. DP, FB, RP-C, MC, PT, and RS wrote the manuscript.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

We thank two reviewers and the editor whose suggestions helped improve this manuscript. This work has been supported by the European Commission under the Erasmus Mundus Joint Doctorate Program AgTraIn (Agricultural Transformation by Innovation) and by the EU Horizon 2020 LANDMARK (Land Management: Assessment, Research, Knowledge Base) project.

References

de Paula, M. T., Pontes, A. N., Ferreira Filho, H. R., Cardoso, L. A., Silva, I. M., Damasceno, M. C. S., et al. (2014). Economic viability of production of tree paricá ( Schizolobium amazonicum Huber ex. Ducke) of reforestation project in the municipality paragominas-PA, Brazil. J. Life Sci. 8, 967-971. doi: 10.17265/1934-7391/2014.12.006

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Understanding Landscape Multifunctionality in a Post-forest Frontier: Supply and Demand of Ecosystem Services in Eastern Amazonia

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Sustainable food production requires approaches that reconcile agricultural production with the conservation and sustainable use of natural resources, biodiversity and associated ecosystem services. While the contribution of agriculture to the provision of individual ecosystem services has received considerable scientific attention, little is known about the extent to which tropical landscapes can meet societal expectations related to food production and environmental sustainability simultaneously.

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Mapping Land Suitability to Guide Landscape Restoration in the Amazon

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Mapping Land Suitability to Guide Landscape Restoration in the Amazon

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1. Introduction

Land use in the Brazilian Amazon over the last six decades has been marked by deforestation resulting from planned and spontaneous human colonization and migration, massive land appropriation, and agricultural expansion [ 1]. Starting in 2004, Brazil designed a set of command and control measures to reduce deforestation that were very successful [ 2, 3, 4]. Although efforts to control deforestation are clearly not over, sustainable development is now progressively including two other land use processes [ 5].

The first increasingly relevant process covers forest dynamics, degradation, and restoration [ 6, 7]. Degradation is mainly linked to the use of fire, timber extraction, and scattered deforestation [ 8, 9]. It is estimated that around 20% of deforested areas in the Brazilian Amazon have been restored to secondary forests [ 10, 11], although the quantification of restoration processes in the long-term is extremely challenging [ 12]. The Brazilian law for forest protection (forest code) and current environmental policies, based on command and control, can efficiently tackle deforestation, but deal with degradation and restoration less efficiently [ 13, 14]. Innovative protection and conservation practices and policies are thus urgently required to simultaneously speed up forest restoration, and slow down forest degradation [ 15].

The second process refers to the land occupation strategies in the cleared areas. Historically, agricultural systems in the Amazon were based on slash and burn [ 16], under which forest soil fertility was acceptable for short-term land productivity [ 17]. Thus, slash and burn was a main driver of deforestation [ 18, 19], but is no longer accessible. Extractive production systems are consequently facing a slow but steady decrease in land productivity, particularly under extensive cattle ranching, resulting in millions of hectares of degraded land [ 20]. However, new technologies are available for restoring soil fertility, improving incomes, and achieving high environmental performances, for example, through carbon sequestration [ 21, 22]. The dissemination of these technologies on a large scale is a priority for public policies, agricultural extension services, private actors in the commodity chains, NGOs, smallholders, and large-scale farmers alike [ 23].

These land use processes are currently being applied in certain innovative regions of the Amazon, and are thus contributing to the agrarian transition, with a shift in resources management from extraction to efficient use, increased land productivity, and the restoration and protection of forests [ 5, 24, 25]. The agrarian transition not only raises the question of how to improve agricultural productivity and preserve existing forests, but also how to restore landscapes while targeting agricultural production and forest ecosystem services simultaneously [ 26].

Accounting for land suitability is indispensable when planning landscape restoration, and land suitability is also key to the success of improved agricultural technologies and intensification [ 27]. However, in the Amazon, land suitability has not been taken into account in planning since the first steps of colonization in the 1950s, when the federal government planned highways and undertook land titling without the necessary topographic information, which had negative impacts on land use dynamics. Bertha Becker is the Brazilian geographer who introduced the concept of macrozoning for regional development planning to the Environment Ministry [ 28]. Her initiative turned mapping into a privileged tool for public policies in the 1990s. At the same time, Embrapa (the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation) developed thematic mapping, particularly concerning soils, and later, classified land suitability for agriculture [ 29]. More recently, new tools and studies have mapped land suitability for a particular crop, for example, soybeans [ 30]. However, as these approaches are designed for other objectives than land use planning, and their use for landscape restoration purpose is limited, we classified their limitations in four categories:

Scale and spatial resolution. Some land mapping tools, including macrozoning tools [ 2, 31] are designed for macroscopic planning using scales from 1/500,000 to 1/1,000,000, which are not suitable for the characterization and management of local landscapes [ 32]. Their coarse spatial resolution is a major limitation in existing maps and methodologies, because it does not capture the spatial variations of landscape features that are visible at a finer resolution [ 33], especially concerning topography, hydrography, and soil, where local variations are key to successful mapping aimed at optimizing landscape restoration at a local scale.

Top-down information processing. Researchers may choose criteria and define classes that are relevant from a scientific point of view, or in line with national standards, but may not include ground information and local knowledge about specific biophysical or social features, perceptions of natural resources, and conditions that are specific to the agrarian transition. As a result, in practice, maps and tools may not actually be used by farmers or stakeholders, because they do not match their own definitions or meet their criteria. The lack of stakeholder engagement in this process may also affect the calculation of land suitability: the weight of each criterion may be calibrated approximately for local conditions, affecting the results and applicability [ 34].

Temporal dynamics. Multicriteria suitability maps are mainly temporary, as are the criteria used to define them (logistic, technological, socio-economic, and legal aspects), and thus require regular and complex updating [ 35]. This issue is especially important in the Amazon, where rapid changes are underway and improving technologies may involve modifying spatial rules [ 36]. For example, logistics are expanding, connecting new areas to specific markets or investments [ 37, 38], public and private policies are increasingly prioritizing decentralization [ 39], and biophysical events like fire or drought are reshaping risk maps [ 40].

They focus on a single crop. Most land suitability maps are designed for one land-use class and are unable to support the arrangement of multiple land uses in complex landscapes. The tools used in some holistic approaches can describe the organization of the landscape and reveal mismatches between land uses and land suitability, but cannot guide landscape restoration dynamics [ 41].

Today, neither municipalities nor farmers have access to a suitability map for supporting landscape restoration processes that would help them balance the trade-offs between agricultural production and forest restoration. New suitability maps are thus needed to support the agrarian transition in the Amazon. In this context, the design of bottom-up methodologies would be useful for landscape restoration, as often discussed in the Global Landscape Forum [ 42]. Local approaches are particularly appropriate for adapting mapping to local specifications, achieving high spatial accuracy, and getting farmers and local institutions involved in launching landscape restoration dynamics.

The purpose of this paper is to present an applied method for mapping land suitability for landscape restoration at a local level that accounts for local specificity and farmers' perceptions. This methodology will produce a map of land suitability classes that enables a better understanding of landscape characteristics and can serve as a decision support tool for landscape restoration. The added value of our method is that it gives priority to simplicity and to local farmers' perceptions and logic, and will be easy to extrapolate to other municipalities in the Brazilian Amazon to support their own specific landscape restoration strategies.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area and Agrarian Context

The methodology was developed for the municipality of Paragominas in Pará State in the Eastern Brazilian Amazon ( Figure 1). The municipality covers 19,342 km ², with a population of 115,000. According to the Köppen classification, the climate of Paragominas is "tropical wet and dry" (type Aw), with a permanently high temperature (26.6 °C), high annual rainfall (1805 mm), and a six-month dry season accounting for only 14% of annual rainfall. The vegetation is equatorial rainforest, but that has been highly deforested since 1960, and in 2018, the deforestation rate reached 45% [ 43].

2.1.1. Landforms in Paragominas

As reported in Laurent et al. [ 44], the Paragominas territory is part of the Grajaú geological basin, which is composed of clastic sediments from the Cretaceous to the Paleogene [ 45]. Paragominas is located at the northern extremity of the Itapecuru series, as illustrated in Figure 2, which is composed of kaolinitic sandstone (Albian-Cenomanian) capped by a wide duricrust and covered by a ten-meter-thick clay layer called "Belterra clay" [ 46]. Erosion during the late Oligocene led to major dissection of the relief and to the formation of wide valleys. Today the topography is organized into wide sandy valleys and a flat clay plateau, 70 to 150 m above the valleys, called "Planalto Setentrional Pará-Maranhão", extending 400 km from north to south [ 44].

The soils are mainly ferralsols (latossolos according to the Embrapa classification [ 29]), but with variable characteristics. The plateaus are covered with Belterra clay, the soils are clayey ferralsols with 70-80% kaolinite. Gravel soils formed by the dismantling of the duricrust cover the upper slopes of the valleys. Sandy ferralsols formed by weathering of sandstone cover the lower slopes and valley bottoms [ 45].

2.1.2. Landscape History Explains the Current Agrarian Issue

Landscape changes started in 1960; Paragominas was one of the first planned settlements in the Amazon, along the Belém-Brasília highway. At the time, the entire territory was covered with rainforest, and the federal colonization agency delivered 4,200 hectares of land tenure titles for cattle ranching. Valleys were the preferred location for deforestation to create pastures because of the availability of surface water to water the cattle. In parallel, intensive timber extraction was expanding, since the regional forest was rich in high value species [ 47]. Paragominas successively became the capital for cattle ranching and for wood production. Both systems were based on the extraction of natural resources (soil fertility for pasture production, forest biomass for timber extraction), which progressively declined. Pastures became part of the degradation process as cyclical fire-based cleaning was used to avoid forest regeneration, wasting soil resources [ 48]. Pasture productivity also declined [ 17], and the timber industry simultaneously shut down or moved to western regions and intact forest [ 49].

By the end of the 1990s, some local farmers understood that mechanized agriculture would be appropriate for soil and pasture restoration, and could improve economic benefits, as previously demonstrated in the savannas in the Brazilian Central-West. Between 1998 and 2003, technical systems designed for the Cerrados were adapted to the ecological conditions in Paragominas. Due to their more favorable topography (flat) and soil structure, plateaus were preferred over valleys that in any case, were already deforested [ 50]. A complex landscape structure composed of degraded and restored land cover emerged. At this time, Paragominas became the first producer of grain in Pará state, and, in 2017, accounted for 100,000 hectares of mechanized soy and maize cropping.

To sum up, in the last six decades, landscape dynamics experienced two main periods: one of deforestation, extraction, and degradation, and the other of land use diversification and intensification. During both periods, forests were affected by several processes, deforestation, degradation, and restoration, that are typical of a Brazilian Amazon post-frontier region [ 51].

2.2. Land Suitability and Landscape Restoration: Conceptual Definitions

Normally, land suitability is defined based on a specific activity or land use [ 29]. Suitability for pasture, annual crops, palm oil, and cocoa are commonly mapped in the Amazon. Like in agronomy, forest sciences also apply the concept of land suitability. Landscape ecology produces maps of forest suitability, with preferential areas for specific objectives, generally a set of ecosystem services such as habitat for biodiversity, carbon storage, and regulation of the water cycle [ 47]. Both approaches are needed to support landscape restoration, i.e., to identify the areas that are most suitable for agricultural intensification and those most suitable for increasing or conserving forest ecosystem services, both on the same map.

Our definition of agricultural intensification aims to be as simple as possible and to distinguish between soil depletion practices and sustainable soil management practices. From this perspective, agricultural intensification is defined by practices aimed at restoring and/or managing soil fertility, and improving land productivity. This general definition applies to different land uses in Paragominas, mainly the production of annual crops, pasture, tree plantations, and some fruit production.

Regarding forest cover, we focus on three critical forest ecosystem services: insuring habitat biodiversity, soil conservation, and protecting surface water. The Brazilian forest code defines rules for forest protection, but, except for riparian forest (delimited including a buffer zone around permanent springs and water courses), the rules are not linked to land suitability. Farmers do not have spatially explicit guidelines on how to restore forests that also account for their suitability for providing ecosystem services. Here, we only focus on land suitability for forest; we consider that primary or conserved forests provide services in every part of the landscape, as they correspond to the climax land cover. In contrast, forest restoration can provide more or fewer ecosystem services depending on the location and on whether the land is suited to achieving the aim concerned.

Landscape restoration is achieved through the spatial organization of restored land uses that match land suitability and enable the optimization of two objectives: the conservation of natural resources and the production of goods. In a restored landscape, agriculture intensification takes place in areas that are the most suitable for the production of agricultural goods, and forests are located in areas that are the best suited to maintain or increase forest ecosystem services. Landscape reordering is a strategy for organizing land uses according to land suitability for conservation and production aims.

2.3. Methodological Framework

As illustrated in Figure 3, our landscape analysis is based on a spatial database that includes open-source land use maps (including the deforestation map) and our own suitability map. We added a simplified land tenure map (separating smallholders' and medium-scale farmers' areas), and a remoteness map (i.e., that distinguishes between areas that are isolated, areas located at a medium distance from the main paved road, and areas located close to the main paved road) to better understand the landscape dynamics.

Our suitability map is a mosaic of spatial units or land suitability categories that are delimited by a combination of four key biophysical factors: soil texture, flood risk, a hydrographic network, and declivity. This combination was defined based on the farmers' criteria, identified in a large-scale field survey, and ground checking. Soil texture was already mapped by Laurent et al. [ 44].

2.4. Farmers' Land-Use Strategies

Field surveys were conducted to understand the farmers' decision systems when they had to make land-use decisions, especially when the decisions involved agricultural intensification processes. Our objective was to understand the spatial logic linked to agrarian transition at a farm level. Three PhD theses were set up with this aim in view, each using a contrasting methodology and the tools described below. Based on their primary data and results, we conducted an additional qualitative analysis of 100 farm strategies focused on the spatial distribution of land uses and role of landforms.

Plassin, [ 52], developed a retrospective and prospective methodology to understand the farmers' decisions that drive changes in the landscape, from the creation of the farm to the planned future situation. She identified the criteria used by farmers to apply specific land use practices, to characterize land suitability, and to design the farm landscape. As she was aiming for a deep understanding and knowledge, she focused on a few cattle farms and visited them regularly over a period of two years. The study farms were chosen to represent the diversity of situations on cattle farms, based on participatory and expert knowledge (large-scale farmers and smallholders, extensive or improved systems, located close to or at a long distance from a city). Plassin used this information to build an agent-based model of landscape change, and tested scenarios of technology adoption by farmers. In this way, she built a robust description of the criteria farmers used to define land suitability for intensification [ 53].

Osis, [ 54] simulated land use changes in Paragominas using an automated cell model derived from Dinamica [ 55]. The objective was to understand and map where land use changes may occur, with several scenarios of land policies, prices, and technologies. He also identified the criteria farmers use to define land suitability and to make spatial decisions, especially when changing land uses between forest, agriculture, and pasture. Osis surveyed 113 farms identified using spatial criteria to build a homogenous geographical sample in Paragominas territory. The surveys were semi-directive as they included a set of key questions plus free discussion linked to the questions. The responses were collected in one or two visits to each farm.

Pinillos [ 56] surveyed 41 farms to understand not only the farmers' decisions but also the farmers' perception of forest conservation on private land (i.e., in the legal reserves) and its implications for the spatial distribution of forest within farms and across the landscape. He also adapted a supply and demand model to identify areas potentially suitable for agricultural production versus for forest conservation at the municipal scale [ 26]. Like Osis, he sampled farms throughout the Paragominas territory, and, like Plassin, he took the diversity of agrarian situations into account. Like Osis, his interviews were semi-directive, and the data was collected in one or two visits to each farm.

All this field work contributed significantly to our knowledge of farmers' land use decisions, landforms, and perceptions of land suitability, as well as landscape dynamics at the farm level. Based on this knowledge, the authors of the present paper defined classes of land suitability as used by the farmers. This represents the first component of our methodological framework ( Figure 3).

2.5. Spatial Data

2.5.1. Biophysical Data for Suitability Maps

As the present study focuses on a single municipality and farm-level decisions, we can assume that suitability is affected little by atmospheric variations (pluviometry and solar insolation are relatively constant throughout the study area, and annual variations are higher than spatial variations). Based on the farm surveys described above, we found that decisions concerning land use are usually influenced by four terrain criteria: soil texture, slope, river network, and flooded area. We used specific data to map each criterion.

For soil texture, we used the map generated by Laurent et al. [ 44] based on the shuttle radar topography mission (SRTM), global digital elevation model (DEM), ground checks, kriging extrapolation, and field surveys. For the river network, we used the map produced by Pimentel et al. [ 57], based on the methodology of Pereira et al. [ 58], using Topodata DEM, and the Hydrology Tools available in TerraHidro ©. Topodata is a digital elevation model (DEM) derived from the STRM data by resampling using a spatial resolution of 30 m [ 59]. To map slope, we used the Topodata declivity data, organized in classes defined by Embrapa [ 59].

Floodplain areas were mapped using the Height Above the Nearest Drainage (HAND) model [ 60, 61, 62]. HAND's algorithm identifies pixels in a DEM according to the altitude difference with the main watercourse. Adapting the method of Nobre et al. [ 61], we ran the HAND model with Topodata DEM. Based on the watershed map, we separated the main water course in each valley in the study area, and the HAND program separated all pixels whose altitude was less than 10 m relative to the point of confluence with the main river to identify flood risk areas (see Section 3.2 for the definition of floodplain that includes local knowledge).

2.5.2. Land Use, Land Cover, and Socioeconomic Data

These data were not used when we were drawing the land suitability maps, but are part of the geodatabase for spatial analyses, as shown in Figure 3. By cross-analyzing this spatial information with the land suitability map, we produced knowledge and indicators concerning landscape dynamics to support any landscape restoration strategy.

For deforestation, we used the data of the National Institute for Spatial Research (INPE), Amazonian deforestation monitoring project (PRODES) [ 43], aggregating periods around two key dates. The first was 2008, which is an important date with respect to public policies against deforestation [ 63]. In 2008, the forest code became the reference for illegal deforestation, initiating both the "arc of fire" operation that significantly affected the study area, and the green municipality local policy. The other key date was 2012, as after 2012, given the lower deforestation level in Paragominas and in the Brazilian Amazon, deforestation began to stabilize with a low increasing tendency.

For land cover, we used mapbioma.org data, collection 4.1 [ 64]. Crossing INPE and Mapbioma forest cover, we separated forest that has never been cut, called primary forest (i.e., all forest mapped by INPE/PRODES), from secondary forest (mapped only by Mapbioma.org). For pasture cover, we used Mapbioma.org, merging two classes: pasture and mixed annual crops/pasture; in Paragominas, this pattern corresponds to the most degraded and heterogenous pasture. For mechanized agriculture, we used data from Gibbs et al. [ 30].

The land tenure data was comprised of the SEMAS (Pará State Environment and Sustainability Department) public information about property limits delineated in the Environmental Rural Cadaster (CAR), available in the National System of Environmental Rural Cadaster (SICAR) geodatabase [ 65]. We classified land tenure into five relevant classes regarding the local agrarian dynamics (Indigenous reserve, mining company, land grabbing area, agrarian reform settlement, other). We also built a remoteness map of the study area, using the road map available in the SEMAS geodatabase.

All the data, listed in Table 1, were collected in vector format (shape file) and converted into the same geographic projection and datum. To facilitate cross-analysis of the overlays, improve the spatial adjustments, and to avoid fragmenting shapes, we converted each vector file into a 30 × 30-m grid that covered the whole study area. This geodatabase was built and analyzed in ArcGIS © software.

3. Results

3.1. Understanding Landscape Dynamics at Farm Level

Our surveys confirmed that, given the regional post-frontier context, land use systems in the study area are in transition. Farmers are involved in a generic trend in which the production systems are changing from early colonial extractive systems to intensified managed post-frontier systems. Each farm follows its own specific pathway through the transition, and farmers are consequently at different stages. Some farmers are still involved in extraction, while other farms are already highly managed and intensified, and still others are between the two, with progressive or intermediate levels of intensification.

Several factors encourage farmers to move away from the extraction logic and to begin intensification. Their decision will be the result of different historical factors such as extreme pasture degradation since the 1990s, diversification through mechanized agriculture or forest plantation since the 2000s, and public policies that tackle deforestation after 2008. In addition, sporadic access to funds or knowledge and the variety of farming family projects, also explains the absence of synchronization between farms, and that is also consequently absent in the landscapes.

A wide range of technologies are used in agrarian transitions, all of which require financial investments by the farmer and management efforts by the farmer and by farm workers: more labor, more equipment, more rural infrastructure, more inputs, and more knowledge. Such efforts aim to increase land productivity, and for this reason, locations are selected carefully, the priority being to identify and exploit the areas with the highest suitability. New rules for the location of different land uses are emerging and these will differ from the locations chosen for systematic deforestation or access to surface water for cattle during the extraction era. Agricultural intensification affects the spatial organization of the landscape. Land suitability becomes a driver of new farming and landscape design.

The farm surveys showed that agriculture intensification increased the interest in locating more suitable areas and reduced the interest in unsuitable areas. As farmers invest in more suitable areas, they also tend to abandon unsuitable ones, and these areas then become available for restoration of secondary forest. Abandonment is the result of the low economic returns on investment in unsuitable areas, but also because the labor force is a limiting factor for all farms: the concentration of efforts in certain parts of the landscape requires the abandonment of other areas. The key objective of our suitability analysis was to understand how farmers identify these two areas, one for intensification and the other for abandonment. As explained in Plassin et al. [ 53], agricultural intensification thus becomes a strong driver of forest restoration, both by occupying different areas, and by designing new mixed landscapes.

3.2. Defining Land Suitability Classes

Land suitability classes were defined using the suitability characteristics listed in Table 2, shown in Figure 1 and illustrated in Figure 4.

The upper Paragominas' topography is formed by flat clayey plateaus. These plateaus currently have the highest economic value, as they are very suitable for intensified land uses, such as soybean or mixed crop-livestock systems and tree plantation. The clayey soil, called "Belterra clay", is permeable thanks to its octagonal macrostructure that allows infiltration, but retains moisture and some of the mineral elements required for fertility near the roots because of a medium cation exchange capacity. This means agricultural machinery can be used with no risk of bogging down, and chemical inputs are not leached out. Overall, the flat homogenous topography means cultivated plots can be large and geometric in shape, thus facilitating mechanization. Consequently, the plateaus have been the main sites of agrarian transition in Paragominas since 2000, and the expansion of soybean and maize cropping puts the primary forest under increasing deforestation pressure, at least where the trucks needed to transport the harvest can access the plots from the main roads.

All the plateaus are bordered by a consistently abrupt escarpment, whose height ranges from 50-150 m. The top of the escarpment is covered by a ferralitic crust overlying a thick layer of mottled clay. Neither is useful for cultivation, and the sleep slope prevents any agricultural activity. The escarpment is narrow but elongated, and crosses all the different landscapes in the municipality. Escarpments are prone to severe erosion and are exposed to fire damage because of their steep slope. However, a dense forest cover can prevent soil erosion, hence the siltation of downstream rivers, and help maintain ecological corridors, which are crucial for forest connectivity in the landscape.

Wide valley slopes extend from the bottom of the escarpments, with sandy soils and undulating topography with low declivity. Chemical soil fertility is low. However, these areas are defined as suitable for agriculture intensification, even if the sandy texture of the soil is less favorable (very low cation exchange capacity) than on the plateaus. Intensified pasture in particular is well suited to these conditions. The main limitation for mechanized agriculture is the density of the hydrographic network: valley slopes are cut by deep ravines formed by erosion, and, as a result, the plots are small and irregular in shape, thus increasing costs.

Water that infiltrates into the plateau re-emerges at the foot of the escarpments in the form of temporary or permanent springs and streams. Heavy rainfall in the rainy season exploits the huge capacity of sandy soils for erosion. Ravines are carved out that are as unsuitable for agricultural activities as escarpments. Forest cover plays a very important role here in limiting erosion and in enhancing habitat biodiversity linked to soil moisture, in addition to which, the continuity of the ravines as part of the hydrographic network expands riparian corridors.

The center of the valley is occupied by the floodplain, in turn surrounded by a wider perimeter the farmers identify according to the risk of bogging down. This is the area where the annual groundwater table oscillates, the soil loses its bearing capacity in the rainy season and consequently cannot be mechanized or used for grazing because of the risk of the machinery or the cattle getting stuck. Only a few gramineous species are grown here, and inputs of fertilizer are leached out. In the past, floodplains were intensively deforested and planted as pasture to provide forage during the first part of the dry season with species like Brachiaria humidicola, which is well adapted to soil moisture. The suitability for agricultural intensification is considered low or limited to very specific activities. However, tree root systems can easily access groundwater resources throughout the dry season. A forest cover is even better as it can pump water from the water table and inject it into the atmosphere, thereby reducing recurrent drought. These characteristics are decisive for the provision of ecosystem services. In addition, in the center of the floodplain, the banks of the river channel are usually occupied by a narrow but continuous strip of riparian forest. These riparian areas, protected by the Brazilian Code as Areas of Permanent Preservation (APP), play a critical role in habitat biodiversity that would be strengthened by expanding the forest cover to the wider floodplain.

3.3. Mapping Land Suitability Classes

A critical step in our methodology is how to map the five land suitability classes identified with farmers. For each class, we formalized the criteria and attributes that define it, then identified the appropriate data sources, as described in Table 3. Finally, we consolidated the data in an integrated spatial geodatabase, using the Union tool in ArcGIS software ©.

To extract the correct attributes from each data source, we undertook the following adjustments.

For soil texture, we used data from Laurent et al. [ 44] with no adaptation: the soil texture classes are the same as those used by farmers.

For ravines, we made three adjustments to the classification proposed by Pimentel et al. [ 57]. First, as we needed to map temporary water courses, not only permanent ones (ravines are carved out in the rainy season), we reduced the minimum threshold watershed area in the ArcGIS Hydrology © tool. Based on field observations, we used a parameter of 900 pixels (81 ha) as the minimum size of a contribution area to define the uppermost point of a temporary water course. Second, we eliminated all the water courses in Belterra clay soils (where rainwater infilters and there is thus no surface runoff). This resulted in the complete hydrographic network, including temporary watercourses. Third, we applied a 10-m buffer around the flow lines to represent the common path of a ravine.

For declivity (i.e., the "slope" class), TOPODATA is available in three different classifications. We used the Embrapa classes, as they correspond to the farmers' practices in our study area. Mechanized agriculture is impossible when the slope is more than 8-10% because heavy rainfall in the rainy season can cause severe erosion. For this reason, we only kept the "flat" and "slight slope" classes in the Embrapa classification as suitable for cropland. For managed pasture, in addition to the flat and slight slope classes, the results of our interviews showed that the "8-20% slope" class is also suitable.

To map the area influenced by groundwater oscillation, locally called "floodplain", we used a 10-m oscillation as a parameter in the HAND model.

The next step was to delimit each land suitability class according to the combination of the specific attributes listed in Table 3. To aggregate polygons in the database, we successively applied the rules listed in Table 3. These rules are complex because one criterion may apply to different attributes, for example, one type of soil in different slope conditions (e.g., in the escarpment class). In addition, some cartographic imprecisions due to the low spatial resolution cause border effects, and specific rules are needed to eliminate them, as explained in Table 4 below. The land suitability cartography is illustrated in Figure 5.

3.4. Using the Land Suitability Map to Analyze Landscape Structure and Dynamics

3.4.1. Recent Changes in the Forest Cover of the Landscape Structure

Cross-analysis of the land suitability map and land cover, land use, and socio-economic information provided a comprehensive landscape analysis. Some brief examples derived from this analysis are explained and illustrated below.

The plateau is the largest land suitability class for agriculture intensification, and accounts for 753,000 hectares, equally distributed throughout the municipal territory, except in the eastern part which is occupied by the wide plain of the Gurupi River ( Table 4). Areas suitable for agricultural intensification (plateaus and valley slopes) account for two thirds of the territory, while areas essential for forest restoration account for the final third. Table 5 shows that, originally, the deforestation process was not linked with land suitability that corresponds to the current intensification process. Up to 2008, deforestation involved all land suitability classes, including those that were unsuitable for agricultural intensification. Since 2008, and even more clearly since 2013, remaining deforestation has only increased on the plateau, whereas it has been considerably reduced in unsuitable areas and on valley slopes.

Aggregate land tenure information helps with understanding which kinds of land users are responsible for illegal deforestation (Neither indigenous deforestation nor mining deforestation is illegal, the latter because the mining company received legal authorization from the state of Pará.) over time and why. Table 6 shows that after 2012, deforestation decreased in every suitability class and for each type of land tenure, but the decline was slower on the plateau; high suitability is spatially linked to continuing deforestation. Smallholders are unable to reduce deforestation in this class, and other farmers (medium and large-scale) have more difficulty than in other classes.

Table 7 shows contrasted dynamics between primary and secondary forest. Primary forest, by definition, is not expanding, and its rate of decline has almost stopped (−1% in the last seven years of the study period). In contrast, secondary forests are expanding, except on the plateau suitable for mechanized agriculture. This table illustrates the importance of the two main roles of secondary forest: as a reserve of agricultural land for expansion in areas that are suitable for mechanized agriculture, and representing the progressive restoration of a forest matrix in ravines, escarpments, and floodplains, which is critical for the provision of ecosystem services.

3.4.2. Long-Term Land-Use Dynamics in the Landscape

Mapbiom.org data combined with the suitability classes enables a long-term retrospective view of the organization of landscapes ( Table 8). Long-term retrospective analysis is useful to illustrate how the landscape was organized before the beginning of the current agricultural transition.

Since 1985, pastures have always been highly concentrated in the valleys, including in areas that are not suitable for mechanized agriculture, confirming the systematic occupation of entire valleys. From 1985 to 1995, the extent of pastureland decreased as a result of pasture degradation; pastures were invaded by shrubs to form secondary forests. From 1995 to 2005, the extent of pastureland expanded due to clearing of primary and secondary forest, including in the escarpments and ravines. Pasture area on the plateau also increased during this period, before decreasing from 2005 to 2015.

Table 9 shows that these landscape changes were not homogeneous throughout the municipal territory, but were also influenced by biophysical factors and logistics, as explained by the farmers. First, 92.6% of the area under soybeans is concentrated on the fertile plateaus, particularly in the most accessible areas, i.e., located not farther than 20 km from a paved road. Soybean expansion generally replaces pasture and secondary forest and increases pressure on primary forest. However, more recently, in 2014, we observed a substantial expansion in soybean production in the moderately remote zone.

Table 9 also shows that primary forests have largely disappeared from the central part of the municipality, where both logistics and biophysical factors (soil and topography) are more favorable. However, secondary forest dynamics are strong at this location due to the abandonment of areas that are unsuitable for agricultural intensification (floodplains, ravines, and escarpment). In this context, the map of land suitability classes shows where forest could be restored to create an efficient interconnected forest matrix.

4. Discussion

4.1. Land Suitability Mapping Enables Knowledge and Assessment of Landscape Dynamics and Restoration

Our review of the literature showed that many land analyses have been performed in the Paragominas municipality involving, respectively, soils, zoning, deforestation, and land use [ 47, 50, 66, 67, 68]. However, none provide a spatially explicit representation and quantitative assessment of the complexity of land use change. The original methodology presented in this paper produced an appropriate map of land suitability, a valuable tool for building knowledge and increasing our understanding of the structure and dynamics of the Paragominas landscape. The definition of land suitability classes produces a pertinent description and quantification of specific landscape dynamics with respect to the complex land use processes involved in the agrarian transition. The main components of landscape restoration can be assessed and monitored at a local level, supporting local landscape governance. Such results may also support regional discussion of the drivers and trajectories of agrarian transition in the Amazon.

Our results also provide details about the deforestation dynamics, such as the fact that smallholders are less successful in preventing deforestation in two kinds of situations: in poor sandy soils and in remote locations, and on the plateau near paved roads. In the first case, deforestation is probably continuing due to the persistent use of slash and burn techniques, which are the main option for smallholders in unfavorable conditions. Conversely, the second situation occurs in very favorable conditions; in this case, deforestation by smallholders can be linked to land market drivers, as generically described by Pacheco et al., [ 69]. These results confirm the importance of the functioning of the land market in the profitability of mechanized agriculture in suitable areas [ 50]. Many authors have already identified these land-use mechanisms and land tenure stages, but the land suitability map provides a much more precise spatial record of changes, and a better understanding of landscape dynamics.

For many authors, forest restoration in the Amazon is a main priority [ 25, 70]. Two other important issues are linked to the spatial organization of the forest, which, in turn, are directly linked to specific ecosystem services [ 71] and to the lack of economic drivers for promoting forest restoration [ 72]. Our land suitability analysis suggests that promoting forest restoration is compatible with the intensification of existing cleared areas, and could enable an advance in the search for a solution to the two problems. Further economic and ecosystem service assessments are required for the purpose of confirmation. Our results provide evidence that pressure on primary or secondary forest continues mostly on plateaus and where there is good access to a paved road, and that forest regeneration occurs in areas that are less suitable for agricultural intensification. Deforested areas that are unsuitable for agricultural intensification may be progressively abandoned, as shown by the results of our quantitative assessments, and then become available for forest restoration. Secondary forest, when restored in ravines, on the escarpment, and in the floodplain, could enable the construction of a new, highly connected forest matrix, since these landscape portions are continuous and transversal. Flowlines of ravines cross the escarpment and the floodplain forests, thereby linking the forests and connecting with the large primary forest that remains on the plateau. The new matrix should be more efficient in providing the required ecosystem services.

Local governance is decisive in promoting landscape restoration [ 73], and the mapping of land suitability can support such processes. In this study, the municipal level is the right level to monitor landscape dynamics and to plan its restoration [ 26, 74]. However, land use changes are linked with farmers' decisions and their capacity and willingness to engage in an agricultural intensification process. From this perspective, the map of suitability classes provides decisive information for both levels of decision, i.e., the farm and local authorities, to support and monitor landscape restoration. Figure 6 is one possible municipal restoration plan, where cleared areas on the plateau and valley slopes are selected for the intensification of agriculture, while forest restoration is preferred in ravines, escarpments, and floodplains. The zoning map is accessible to all farmers, and each can use the plan for their own farm project, adapted to the agrarian transition.

Regarding land saving/land sharing models for preserving biodiversity in agricultural landscapes [ 75], the Paragominas case is ambiguous, and the land suitability map helps us understand why. On the one hand, the principle of defining intensification/restoration priorities according to land suitability is consistent with the land saving strategy, i.e., concentrating agricultural intensification in dedicated areas and forest restoration in other dedicated areas. On the other hand, the design of land suitability is framed by topographic contour lines and hydrographic flows lines, both of which are dispersed in the landscape, creating numerous forest corridors that cross agricultural areas in a landscape with a mixture of forest and agriculture ( Figure 6) that is typical of land sharing models.

4.2. Main Limit of the Methodology Is the Topographic Data

TOPODATA DEM is based on SRTM data and considers the vegetation canopy and not the ground. This is a problem in study areas comprised of rainforest, where the canopy is from 20 to 30 m above the ground; deforested areas appear as depressions and the remaining forest can be confused with hills. The tools available for correction [ 60] do not work over large areas where the height of the forest varies. The resulting hydrographic network map was affected by this limit. However, our map of ravines represents progress compared to existing hydrographic maps that only take big rivers into account.

Another limitation of TOPODATA DEM is its spatial resolution. SRTM original data has a resolution of 90 m, and TOPODATA applies a statistical method to reduce it to 30 m. However, the spatial landforms on the ground, particularly topography and hydrography, are more detailed, and our suitability map still cannot be used to monitor individual farms. Significant border effects affect multifactor cross analysis. This is especially clear in the escarpment units; we had difficulty defining the limit between plateau and escarpment at this resolution, which is problematic because their suitability is very different.

To improve the tool, and make it more operational at the farm level, a higher resolution DEM is needed.

5. Conclusions

The method presented in this paper can define land suitability classes that correspond to farmers' practices, and map them. These classes do not refer to specific agricultural activities, but to the two main agrarian processes underway in the region: agricultural intensification and forest restoration.

Linking the map of land suitability with land cover and land use maps has two advantages. On the one hand, the relevance of land suitability classes is confirmed, since they enable the characterization of real phenomena observed elsewhere, such as the persistence of slash and burn practices in agrarian reform perimeters or the attraction of mechanized agriculture to the best soils, even if they are covered with remaining forests. On the other hand, thanks to a better understanding of farmers' logic in relation with the natural factors that determine land use suitability, this spatial tool makes it possible to monitor landscape reorganization processes that are better suited to the ongoing agrarian transition, and provides operational information on key processes such as deforestation, restoration, and intensification at a detailed scale.

We identified an organic link between intensification and restoration, and provide the spatial tool needed to organize it in the landscape. Managing intensification and restoration according to land suitability can improve all ecosystem services in a given landscape, particularly production and regulation services. If this principle is consistent with the land saving strategy, the landform characteristics in Paragominas also result in a land sharing configuration.

This advance is compatible with another aspect of the current scientific literature that underlines the relevance of local jurisdictional approaches and the decentralization of environmental responsibilities to promote sustainability in tropical forest areas. Here, we provide some reliable guidelines to ensure that these jurisdictions are equipped with an appropriate landscape design, assessment, and monitoring tool. However, to monitor landscape change at the farm level, the tool needs to be improved, particularly the spatial precision of the topographic data.

Agricultural intensification and forest restoration dynamics are entering a new phase in landscape dynamics. Mapping land suitability is useful for identifying and monitoring landscape restoration opportunities from this perspective. Geodatabases, including suitability mapping, may be a strategic tool at the farm and local jurisdiction levels for optimizing such landscape restoration.

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Mapping Land Suitability to Guide Landscape Restoration in the Amazon

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Beyond reducing deforestation, the control of forest degradation, the promotion of forest restoration, and the improvement of agricultural practices in the Brazilian Amazon are becoming increasingly important for sustainable development. To enable farmers and authorities to organize their landscapes and optimize both agricultural practices and the provision of ecosystem services, mapping land suitability is essential, but it is lacking in the region.

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Projeto Sustenta e Inova será apresentado em Breves, no Marajó

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Projeto Sustenta e Inova será apresentado em Breves, no Marajó

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Financiado pela União Europeia, o projeto é coordenado e executado pelo Sebrae no Pará; outros executores e correalizadores são o CIRAD, Embrapa, IPAM e Funarbe

Lançado pelo Sebrae em novembro de 2021, em cerimônia em Belém, o Projeto Sustenta e Inova chega em nova fase e será apresentado no município de Breves, na ilha do Marajó, um dos territórios em que o programa será executado. O evento será no dia 30 de maio, às 19h, Auditório da Escola Técnica,

O objetivo geral do Sustenta e Inova é desenvolver e implementar práticas agrícolas sustentáveis e inovadoras, além de promover o desenvolvimento das cadeias de valor na Amazônia brasileira, com o foco, principalmente, na conservação da biodiversidade, redução do desmatamento e restauração da paisagem.

Financiado pela União Europeia, o projeto é coordenado e executado pelo Sebrae no Pará. Outros executores e correalizadores são o CIRAD, Embrapa, IPAM e Funarbe. Serão investidos no projeto 4.650.000 EUR (4 milhões, seiscentos e cinquenta mil euros) - mais de 28 milhões de reais

A Amazônia possui a maior reserva de biodiversidade do mundo e, sendo assim, influencia diretamente na estabilidade climática do planeta. Mudanças climáticas são bastante discutidas na atualidade, especialmente as alternativas existentes para reduzir os impactos que o meio ambiente sofre devido a tal instabilidade do clima no planeta.

"O Sebrae no Pará, por estar na Amazônia, precisa olhar para a necessidade da sustentabilidade, da inovação e da bioeconomia. O projeto visa agregar um valor à Amazônia e mostrar que é possível gerar desenvolvimento, renda, e, também, ser sustentável", pontua a analista do Sebrae no Pará e coordenadora do projeto, Paula Couceiro.

O Sebrae atuará não só como coordenador, mas também como executor do projeto, por meio das Agências de Negócio Marajó, Capim e Xingu. A atuação da instituição será transversal, cabendo a ela complementar a ação de cada parceiro. "A Embrapa irá trabalhar a questão da agricultura familiar e o Sebrae, por sua vez, vai proporcionar abertura de mercado para os produtores rurais das regiões em que o programa atua", exemplifica a coordenadora.

Segundo Paula, outro exemplo está na atuação do CIRAD, que tem a competência de trabalhar com a restauração de áreas degradadas. "Ele utilizará da experiência do Sebrae em encontrar oportunidades de empreendedorismo nas regiões trabalhadas pelo parceiro em questão, desenvolvendo estratégias para continuar utilizando a terra de maneira sustentável, assim, estimulando a economia local", destaca Couceiro.

Os outros correalizadores também atuarão nas comunidades locais das regiões, por meio das competências de cada um, focando, especialmente, com os produtores familiares, com a população ribeirinha e nos grupos de maior vulnerabilidade social.

A iniciativa leva em conta a diversidade de vivências e culturas da Amazônia, sempre com a perspectiva da pluralidade que faz parte do território.

O projeto Sustenta e Inova também terá atuação nos territórios da Transamazônica e da BR-010, a Belém-Brasília.

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Projeto Sustenta e Inova será apresentado em Breves, no Marajó | ASN Pará - Agência Sebrae de Notícias

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Financiado pela União Europeia, o projeto é coordenado e executado pelo Sebrae no Pará; outros executores e correalizadores são o CIRAD, Embrapa, IPAM e Funarbe

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Projeto Sustenta e Inova dará continuidade a ações da Embrapa no Pará

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Projeto Sustenta e Inova dará continuidade a ações da Embrapa no Pará

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Projeto lançado pela Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária em novembro de 2021 e que prevê uma série de ações de promoção de práticas agrícolas sustentáveis na Amazônia ao longo de quatro anos. Um de seus focos é a restauração da paisagem, além do desenvolvimento de cadeias de valor e inovação sustentável. Ele é desenvolvido pela Embrapa

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Sustena & Inova made a video presentation during COP 28 in Dubai, lollokg forward to COP 30 in Brazil.

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Canal do Youtube do projeto.

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