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ɪɴᴛʀᴏᴅᴜᴄᴛɪᴏɴ 

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ɪɴᴛʀᴏᴅᴜᴄᴛɪᴏɴ 

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English is the mother tongue and the main communication system in many countries around the world, especially in countries with a British influence, where it is understood and spoken by the vast majority of their inhabitants. The evolution of English recognizes three main stages: the first is Old English, also known as Anglo-Saxon, from 449 to 1066 or 1100; the second is Middle English, from 1066 or 1100 to 1500; and the third is Modern English, with two stages, Early Modern English from 1500 to 1660, and Contemporary English, from 1660 to the present day. In this Timeline corresponding to week #19 of the Introduction to English Linguistics course, the 5 eras or stages and 5 important events per era that marked the English language are presented, as well as an analysis for each era highlighting significant changes, for example, in grammar, phonology, pronunciation and status of the language, adding the difference between slang and Jargon- Informal vs. technical English.

The closer we get to the origins of English words, to the origins of English in general, the easier it is to understand the convoluted history of English as a language. So here is a detailed guide to the history of the English language covering all periods, right up to the English of today.

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ᴏʟᴅ ᴇɴɢʟɪsʜ 

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ᴏʟᴅ ᴇɴɢʟɪsʜ 

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Initially, Old English was a group of several dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England.

Old English-the oldest form of the English language-was spoken and written in Anglo-Saxon Britain from 450 CE to 1150 CE (so it continued to be used for a few decades after the Norman Conquest of 1066). According to the Dictionary of Old English Corpus at the University of Toronto, all surviving Old English material from 600 to 1150 consists of only 3,037 texts (excluding manuscripts with minor variants), totaling a mere three million words. Although three million words is not much data for a period of linguistic history spanning five centuries, it is sufficient to enable us to make a confident description of the linguistic character of Old English. In this first space we will highlight 5 important events of this early era.

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𝟏 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬

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𝟏 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬

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𝟒𝟓𝟎
𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐨-𝐒𝐚𝐱𝐨𝐧

The first ever civilizations to speak a form of English (old English) were the Anglo-Saxons in 450 AD after they conquered England in about 450 AD. This era is now what we call 'old English.

Old English or Anglo-Saxon was the first major English event, spoken in various parts of Scotland and England in the early Middle Ages, until the Norman invasion in 1066. It was originally written using the runic alphabet, which was gradually replaced by the Latin alphabet as missionaries Christianized the British Isles. But regardless of whether the Latin or runic alphabet was used, speakers of English today would have real difficulty understanding it.

Nevertheless, Anglo-Saxon left its mark on the history of the English language. A phrase like My brother is strong is basically English eald (old!) because brother is brodor and strong is strang. It is estimated that about 90% of the 1000 most used words in English come from Old English, including days of the week, numbers and such common terms as dog (docga) or house (hus).

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Anglo-Saxon, one of the first complete alphabet books, written in old English. 

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𝐖𝐡𝐨 𝐖𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐨-𝐒𝐚𝐱𝐨𝐧𝐬?
The Anglo-Saxons, known in Old English as the “Angul-Seaxan”, shaped much of the English language, culture, and identity.

The most important factor in the formation of Old English was its Germanic heritage in vocabulary, syntax and morphology, which it shared with related languages in continental Europe.At first, Old English was written with runes (Anglo-Saxon futhorc) introduced by the Anglo-Saxon people.

Approximately 15% of the 30 000 Anglo-Saxon word given to English survives today mostly basic verbs: Earth, house, food, sing, night and sleep.

𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒔

𝐊𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐬𝐡

𝐌𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐢𝐚𝐧

𝐍𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐡𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐧

𝐖𝐞𝐬𝐭 𝐒𝐚𝐱𝐨𝐧

𝑾𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎

𝐑𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐜, 𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐋𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐧 (𝐎𝐥𝐝 𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐡 𝐚𝐥𝐩𝐡𝐚𝐛𝐞𝐭).

Video for More Information about Old English Anglo-Saxon

https://youtu.be/Kw6dIxg6PjE

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𝟐 𝐢𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬

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𝟐 𝐢𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬

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𝟓𝟗𝟕 AD
𝐂𝐇𝐑𝐈𝐒𝐓𝐈𝐀𝐍𝐈𝐙𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍

The second historical event of momentous importance to Old English was undoubtedly the Christianization of the Island. Christianization began in 597, with Augustine's mission to the kingdom of Kent.

The conversion of King Etelbert meant the acceptance of the Christian religion throughout his kingdom; and the small chapel of Kent-wara-byrig ( = "Canterbury"), built by Etelbert for Queen Bertha, would soon become the great religious center of the English people (already almost entirely evangelized at the beginning of the 8th century).

The religious and cultural revival of the Benedictine Reformation, encouraged at all times by the bishops of Canterbury (Dunstan), Winchester (Aethelwold) and York (Oswald), also awakened in the British Isles a great interest in theological, philosophical, historical and natural science works, hitherto written almost exclusively in Latin.

The introduction of Christianity in 597 AD brought about immense changes to England in social and religious matters. It also had far-reaching effects on the English language. It did not only introduce a rich source of Greek and Latin words but also opened up a new Visa for the formation of words from native Sources.

And this new yearning for Christian culture and religion has a notable impact on the language:

𝟏 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒂𝒅𝒐𝒑𝒕𝒔 𝒂 𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒔, related to the Church and Religion: apostle, cell, cloister, creed, demon, idol, history, term, title...

𝟐 𝑪𝒉𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒏 𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍𝒔 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒔, or in earlier traditions, which would later become literary texts.

𝟑 The following are introduced or 𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒆𝒎𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒅𝒊𝒅𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒏 𝒕𝒐 𝒃𝒆 𝒘𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒏,essentially Christian (based on the Holy Scriptures, on the legends of the early Christians, of the apostles, etc.: the schools of Ccedmon and Cynewulf).

And to make these doctrines and Christian virtues accessible to the people, the old English vocabulary begins to be modified, adapting it to the expression of the new ideas. for example.

Propheta    »     Witega
Patriarcha  »  Héah Fceder
Evangelium » God spell
Sanctus »  Haiga

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𝟑 𝐢𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬

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𝟑 𝐢𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬

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𝟕𝟖𝟕-𝟖𝟒𝟗
𝗩𝗶𝗸𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝘄𝗮𝘃𝗲 -𝗜𝗻𝗳𝗹𝘂𝗲𝗻𝗰𝗲 / 𝐏𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐧𝐚𝐦𝐞𝐬 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐧𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐝𝐬.

The vikings influence on Old English
The Vikings first made their presence felt in Britain in the 780s, but it was a further century before Old Norse words began to arrive in Old English. In c. 878–90 King Alfred (c. 849–899) made a treaty with the Viking leader Guthrum (d. 890), which roughly split England into two. Alfred was left in control of Wessex and London, and Guthrum took control over an area of eastern England which, because it was subject to Danish laws, came to be known as the Danelaw. Over 2,000 Scandinavian place-names are still found here, chiefly in Yorkshire, Lincolnshire and the East Midlands. These place-names are one of the most important linguistic developments of the period. Many are easily recognised. Over 600 end in -by, the Old Norse word for 'farmstead' or 'town', as in Rugby and Grimsby; the other element often referring to a person's name (Hroca's and Grim's farm, in these two cases), but sometimes to general features, as in Burnby ('farm by a stream') and Westerby ('western farm').

With this Viking wave, Old English laid a solid foundation for the language we speak today and gave us many essential words, such as be, strong and water.

With the Viking invasions (the Vikings were a Norse tribe that plundered everything in their path across northern and northwestern Europe some 1000 to 2000 years ago), Old English mixed with Old Norse, the language of the Viking tribes. Old Norse eventually contributed over 2000 new words to English, including give, take, egg, knife, husband, husband, run and Viking.

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𝟒 𝐢𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬

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𝟒 𝐢𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬

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𝟕𝟖𝟕-𝟖𝟒𝟗
𝗦𝗰𝗮𝗻𝗱𝗶𝗻𝗮𝘃𝗶𝗮𝗻 𝗶𝗻𝘃𝗮𝘀𝗶𝗼𝗻𝘀 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗶𝗻𝗳𝗹𝘂𝗲𝗻𝗰𝗲 𝗼𝗻 𝗢𝗹𝗱 𝗘𝗻𝗴𝗹𝗶𝘀𝗵.

The Scandinavian invasions began, interminably, around 787. In the second half of the ninth century the invaders had already taken over the city of York and almost all of East Anglia; their territory would come to be called Dena lagu or Dane-Law.

The language, culture and society of these Scandinavian tribes were very similar to those of the Anglo-Saxons: they too belonged to the Germanic group (although "northern"). This perhaps made their influence on the English vocabulary more considerable.

More than 600 names of English towns and cities still contain the forms today:

by («ciudad»): Derby, Whitby, Moresby, Rugby… thorp («pueblo»): Linthorpe, Bishopsthorpe, Gawthorpe. thwaite («pequeña porción de tierra»): Applethwaite.

And many people's names, the patronymic suffix -son; for example: Johnson, Paterson, Stevenson, Richardson, etc.

But the Scandinavian influence went beyond simple names of people or towns. A 14th century poem. Bruce, by Barbour, is a good example of the large amount of Scandinavian vocabulary that becomes part of Old English (vocabulary still used in some Northern dialects, where Viking action was most notable and long-lasting):

Some words persist in Old English as quasi-monikms of other Anglo-Saxon terms of the time; hence we have today, for example:

whole (Anglo-Saxon origin), and hale (Scandinavian origin); and likewise a multitude of pairs such as: to/till; from/fro; craft/skill; hide/skin; etc..

while others have acquired a slightly different meaning; for example, pairs such as: shirt/skirt, ditch/dike, shin/skin, ridge/rick, etc.. [in Scandinavian, always without "palatalization"].

Sometimes it is the Scandinavian word that has replaced the original English word, the latter acquiring a slightly different meaning:

The Scandinavian forms of the plural personal pronoun pai/pei; paim/pám and pair/peir, will also gradually displace the native forms: hl/hle, heom, heore, as already appears in some northern documents from the beginning of Middle English; although the adoption of these new forms would be later in the southern dialects, where the original forms are still intermingled until the 15th century (in the Canterbury Tales of G. Chaucer, for example).

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Boats and boating--Equipment and supplies

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𝟓 𝐢𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬

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𝟓 𝐢𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬

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𝑭𝒆𝒃 𝟐𝟎, 𝟏𝟎𝟔𝟔
𝟭𝟭𝘁𝗵 𝗰𝗲𝗻𝘁𝘂𝗿𝘆 𝗘𝗻𝗴𝗹𝗶𝘀𝗵
𝑵𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏 𝑬𝒓𝒂

The next major event that took place was the Norman Conquest: this was a French-speaking army of invaders, and it brought with it important linguistic innovations. Along with the Old Norse language, the Anglo-Norman accelerated the transformation of Old English into Middle English. The new ruling class introduced approximately 10,000 new words, in areas such as law, government, religion, cuisine and haute couture, many of which are still in use today.

Old English was a synthetic language with a large number of morphemes, but as grammatical endings fell out of use, Middle English became an analytical language. Spelling, capitalization, punctuation and similar rules began to standardize during this period. It would be around 1200 when the definite article þe would appear, which would later be spelled ye (due to the printing presses of the old continent) and finally adopt the current form: the.

In 1066 the Normans invaded England from Normandy, France. After the invasion the English language started to evolve, soon after that the Old English letters begin to die out. Some of the words that we got from the Normans are: catch, wage and reward.

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𝐖𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐠, 𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐦𝐦𝐚𝐫, 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐧𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐢𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧, 𝐬𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐮𝐚𝐠𝐞, 𝐞𝐭𝐜. 𝐨𝐜𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝐎𝐥𝐝 𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐡?

As we know the first great era or period of the English language was Old English is the name given to the earliest stage of the English language of which constancy is kept, up to about the year 1150 AD.  During this important era it is more than clear that many changes arose which were largely noticed and detailed below.

In grammar, Old English is chiefly distinguished from later stages in the history of English by greater use of a larger set of inflections in verbs, nouns, adjectives, and pronouns;  it also preserves grammatical gender in nouns and adjectives.

An example: The following couple of lines from Ælfric’s De temporibus anni:
Dunor cymð of hætan & of wætan.  Seo lyft tyhð þone wætan to hire neoðan & ða hætan ufan.'

may be translated word-for-word as:

Thunder comes from heat and from moisture.  The air draws the moisture to it from below and the heat from above.

The nouns hæte, ‘heat’, and wæta, ‘moisture’, both have the inflection –an in the first sentence, because both are in the dative case, governed by the preposition of ‘from’.

In the second sentence they both again have the inflection –an, but this time they are in the accusative case, as the direct objects of tyhð ‘draws’.

The forms of the definite article agree with these nouns, but you will note that they are different in each instance, þone wætan ‘the moisture’ (direct object), but ða hætan ‘the heat’ (also direct object). The difference arises because wæta ‘moisture’ is masculine but hæte ‘heat’ is feminine, and the article (like other adjectives) agrees in gender as well as case.

For another example of gender agreement, look at the pronoun hire (i.e. the antecedent of modern English her) referring to seo lyft (feminine) ‘the air’.

In vocabulary, Old English is much more homogeneous than later stages in the history of English. Some borrowings from Latin date back to before the coming of the Anglo-Saxons to Britain (i.e. they were borrowed on the continent), while many others date from the period of the conversion to Christianity and later. However, words borrowed from Latin or from other languages make up only a tiny percentage of the vocabulary of Old English, and the major influx of words from French and from Latin belongs to the Middle English period and later. (There are also numerous loan translations and semantic loans from Latin in Old English, reflecting the influence of Latin on the language of religion and learning.)

Some Old English words of Latin origin that have survived into modern English include belt, butter, chalk, chest, cup, fan, fork, mile, minster, mint, monk, pepper, school, sock, strop, wine.

Some borrowing from early Scandinavian is attested in later Old English, but again the major impact of contact with Scandinavian settlers becomes evident only in Middle English.

There is also a great deal of continuity between Old English and later stages in the history of the language. A great deal of the core vocabulary of modern English goes back to Old English, including most of the words most frequently used today.

The pronunciation of e.g. trap or man in many modern varieties of English comes close to Old English æ, whereas Old English a was more like the sound in modern German Mann ‘man’ or Spanish mano ‘hand’ (like the sound in modern English father, but shorter).

Verbs in Old English show an extensive range of inflections, reflecting distinctions of person and number (e.g. first person singular, first person plural, etc.), tense (present or past), and mood (indicative, subjunctive, or imperative); many other distinctions are realized by periphrastic constructions with be v., worth v., will v., or shall v. as auxiliary in combination with non-finite forms of the verb.

With the exception of some (mostly high frequency) irregular or anomalous verbs, Old English verbs belong to one of two main groupings: strong verbs and weak verbs.

The strong verbs realize differences of tense by variation in the stem vowel. They are assigned to seven main classes, according to the vowel variation shown. Thus RIDE v., a Class I strong verb, shows the following vowel gradation in its “principal parts”, from which all of its other inflections can be inferred:

infinitive: rīdan

past tense singular: rād

past tense plural: ridon

past participle: (ge)riden

Similarly, the Class III strong verb BIND v. shows the following principal parts:

infinitive: bindan

past tense singular: band (or bond)

past tense plural: bundon

past participle: (ge)bunden

Sound Changes

Many Old English words belong to large groups of words all derived ultimately from the same base, and are related to one another in ways that would have been fairly transparent to speakers of the language. However, in the period of our literary documents the relationships between words were often much less clear than they are likely to have been earlier, because sound changes and other developments had obscured the derivational relationships.

For example, cōl ‘cool’ (see COOL adj., adv., and int.) has a small family of related words in Old English, including cōlnes COOLNESS n., which clearly shows the same base plus ‘-NESS’ suffix. The relationship is similarly clear in the case of the derivative Class II weak verb cōlian ‘to become cool’ (see COOL v.¹).

However, the relationship is less immediately clear in the case of the derivative Class I weak verb cēlan ‘to (cause to) cool’ (see KEEL v.¹). In this case the difference in the stem vowel was caused by an important process called i-mutation which occurred before the date of our earliest records. The earlier form was probably *kōljan. In the process called i-mutation an i or j caused a change in the vowel in the preceding syllable, in this case *ō > *ē. In this word (as in many others) the j was then itself lost, so that by the time of our surviving texts we find cēlan in the same word family as cōl, cōlnes, and cōlian.

The status of Old English was important, after the Viking and Scandinavian conquests Old English was the most widely spoken language, the incorporation of dialects with French transformations positioned Old English as a popular language in its heyday.

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ᴍɪᴅᴅʟᴇ ᴇɴɢʟɪsʜ 

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ᴍɪᴅᴅʟᴇ ᴇɴɢʟɪsʜ 

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Middle English, so called because the rules of Anglo-Saxon are systematically broken down and compromised by the various influences of the Viking invasions, the Norman Conquest (1066) and of course Latin, which was the language of the church. We begin to find a greater influence of the Romance languages of continental Europe and a change in the sound of the language.

Its main characteristic is that it is a language that is difficult to define or delimit, as it varied in a rapid transition, in which the various changes that the language underwent over the years, in which it was subject to a strong linguistic variety, can be appreciated.

Moreover, during this period, due to the Norman invasion, French was the official language of the kingdom and Latin the official language of the church, so that Old English lost the prestige it had previously enjoyed. It was during this period that the Latin alphabet replaced the insular script characteristic of Old English, giving rise to new spellings, new phonemes and new diphthongs inherited from French. In this context, English acquired much lexicon from the Norman dialect of French and Old English declensions began to disappear, becoming a more analytical language.

This period of Middle English lasted until the mid to late 15th century when the chancery standard, a form of London English, began to spread. Several factors contributed to this process: the loss of Normandy in 1204, which passed into the hands of the French monarchy, a fact that boosted the use of English spoken in the area of London where the Courts were located. In the rivalry between England and France during the Hundred Years' War, English was again identified as the national language, which added to the introduction of the printing press in England caused English to begin to spread as a cultured language. And here are 4 important events that emerged or left their mark on Middle English.

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Norman Conquest Old English - Middle English 

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𝟏 𝐢𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬

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𝟏 𝐢𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬

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𝗧𝗵𝗲 𝗠𝗶𝗱𝗱𝗹𝗲 𝗘𝗻𝗴𝗹𝗶𝘀𝗵 𝗼𝗳 (𝟭𝟬𝟲𝟲)
𝐓𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐎𝐥𝐝 𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐡 𝐭𝐨 𝐌𝐢𝐝𝐝𝐥𝐞 𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐡

It is usually dated from the Norman conquest in 1066.At the end of the period, the language, which began as inflectional and declension, came to be determined by syntactic order.

During this period, after the Norman era of Old English, important changes in the Middle English language took place.

During this period, the gender, the dual, and the declension of the pronouns in dative and accusative take a unique form. To avoid confusion, the Scandinavian pronouns they, them are adopted, and the forms who, which and that acquire relative value. In the conjugation, the endings disappear and a single form is used for the singular and plural in the past tense of the so-called strong verbs (equivalent to the irregular ones in Spanish).

Middle English, which includes the centuries from the XII to the XVI. This period we can say that it begins with the Norman invasion. This invasion, like all of them, was conquered after fighting in several battles, among which we can highlight the Battle of Hastings (Gea Castillo, 2016).

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Middle English is difficult to identify because it is a time of transition between two eras that each have stronger definition: Old English and Modern English. Before this period we encounter a language which is chiefly Old Germanic in its character – in its sounds, spellings, grammar and vocabulary. After this period we have a language which displays a very different kind of structure, with major changes having taken place in each of these areas, many deriving from the influence of French following the Norman Conquest of 1066.

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𝟐 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 

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𝟐 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 

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𝟏𝟎𝟔𝟕-𝟏𝟎𝟔𝟖
𝐆𝐫𝐚𝐦𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐌𝐢𝐝𝐝𝐥𝐞 𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐡

The difference between Old and Middle English is primarily due to the changes that took place in grammar. Old English was a language which contained a great deal of variation in word endings; Modern English has hardly any. And it is during the Middle English period that we see the eventual disappearance of most of the earlier inflections, and the increasing reliance on alternative means of expression, using word order and prepositional constructions rather than word endings to express meaning relationships.

All areas of grammar were affected. Among the new kinds of construction were the progressive forms of the verb (as in I am going) and the range of auxiliary verbs (I have seen, I didn’t go, etc.). The infinitive form of a verb starts to be marked by the use of a particle (to go, to jump). A new form of expressing relationships such as possession appeared, using of (as in the pages of a book). Several new pronouns appeared through the influence of Old Norse.

Other areas of language were also affected. The pronunciation system underwent significant change. Several consonants and vowels altered their values, and new contrastive units of sound (‘phonemes’) emerged. In particular, the distinction between the /f/ and /v/ consonants began to differentiate words (e.g. grief vs grieve), as did that between /s/ and /z/ (e.g. seal vs zeal). The ng sound at the end of a word also became contrastive (in Old English the g had always been sounded), so we now find such pairs as sin vs sing. And at the very end of the period, all the long vowels underwent a series of changes. The way sounds were spelled altered, as French scribes introduced their own spelling conventions, such as ou for u (house), gh for h (night) and ch for c (church).

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𝟑 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 

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𝟑 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 

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𝟏𝟎𝟔𝟕-𝟏𝟎𝟔𝟖
𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐈𝐧𝐟𝐥𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐋𝐢𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐌𝐢𝐝𝐝𝐥𝐞 𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐡.

Literature marked an important period in Middle English, after the Viking, Scandinavian and Norman conquests that followed the Old English era and led to the emergence of Middle English literature with important additions from grammar to pronunciations, the most important text being The Canterbury Tales, a work written by Friar Geoffry Chaucer at the end of the 14th century. It is credited with having consolidated the English language. A work that highlights the religiosity, humor and blasphemy among the pilgrims protagonists that overlaps the rivalry between professions and social classes that were emerging in medieval society.Quoting the Bible, the author states that "everything written was written to teach us, and this was my only desire"

Video Canterbury Tales Middle English
https://youtu.be/mVG77xTPH6E

The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer, written late in the 14th century. These works are a collection of stories about English pilgrims on their way to Canterbury, one of the holiest sites in England. The Canterbury Tales not only contains a great deal of source material about the Middle English language but a vast amount of material on everyday life and social mores in England during the Middle Ages. Chaucer based his work on The Decameron, a collection of Italian stories written by Giovanni Boccaccio earlier in the 14th century. Italy was one of the major centers of European culture during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. A great deal of English literature is based on works that came from Italy.

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𝟒 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 

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𝟒 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 

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𝟏𝟎𝟔𝟖-𝟏𝟎𝟔𝟗
𝗜𝗻𝘁𝗿𝗼𝗱𝘂𝗰𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗼𝗳 𝗙𝗿𝗲𝗻𝗰𝗵 𝘁𝗲𝗿𝗺𝘀 𝗮𝗳𝘁𝗲𝗿 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗶𝗻𝘃𝗮𝘀𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗼𝗳 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗡𝗼𝗿𝗺𝗮𝗻𝘀.

One of the most significant events in English history took place in 1069. A French-speaking group called the Normans invaded and conquered England. The Normans descended from Vikings who had settled in France in the 10th century. However, they quickly adopted the French language and culture. By 1066, the Normans were completely French.

The Norman invasion created a French-speaking aristocracy that ruled England, but it had an enormous impact on the English language. Thousands of French words entered the English language after the invasion. French is a Romance language derived from Latin. Even though Latin is an Indo-European language, it differs considerably in grammar and vocabulary from Germanic languages.

The introduction of so many French words into English makes English vocabulary very different from the vocabulary of other Germanic languages. Over half the words in the English language are of French or Latin origin.

Most English people from the Middle Ages did not speak French; however, the language of the ruling classes seeped down into the speech of common people. Eventually, the ruling classes acculturated to England and spoke the modified English language as their native tongue.

During the Middle Ages, a great deal of literature was written in Latin, the international language of the educated people. However, flourishing English-language literature existed, as well. The most significant work written in the Middle English language is The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer.

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Middle English Literature: An Introduction

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Chaucer and Middle English

Probably the most famous author who wrote during the Middle English period was Geoffrey Chaucer, who penned the classic 14th-century work, "The Canterbury Tales," but also other works, which present fine examples of how the language was used in the same time period. The modern-English translation is presented in brackets following the Middle English passage.

Canterbury Tales
"Whan that Aprill, with his shoures soote
The droghte of March hath perced to the roote
And bathed every veyne in swich licour,
Of which vertu engendred is the flour..."
["When the sweet showers of April have pierced
The drought of March, and pierced it to the root
And every vein is bathed in that moisture
Whose quickening force will engender the flower..."]

(General Prologue. Translation by David Wright. Oxford University Press, 2008)

"Troilus and Criseyde"
"Ye knowe ek that in forme of speeche is chaunge
Withinne a thousand yeer, and wordes tho
That hadden pris, now wonder nyce and straunge
Us thinketh hem, and yet thei spake hem so,
And spedde as wel in love as men now do;
Ek for to wynnen love in sondry ages,
In sondry londes, sondry ben usages."
["You know also that in (the) form of speech (there) is change
Within a thousand years, and words then
That had value, now wonderfully curious and strange.

(To) us they seem, and yet they spoke them so,
And succeeded as well in love as men now do;
Also to win love in sundry ages,
In sundry lands, (there) are many usages."]
(Translation by Roger Lass in "Phonology and Morphology."

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Middle English Literature: An Introduction

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𝟓 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 

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𝟓 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 

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𝟏𝟎𝟔𝟖-𝟏𝟎𝟔𝟗
𝗔𝗰𝗾𝘂𝗶𝘀𝗶𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗯𝗹𝗲𝗻𝗱𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝗼𝗳 𝗙𝗿𝗲𝗻𝗰𝗵 𝘄𝗼𝗿𝗱𝘀 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗶𝗺𝗽𝗼𝗿𝘁𝗮𝗻𝘁 𝗰𝗵𝗮𝗻𝗴𝗲 𝗶𝗻 𝗽𝗵𝗼𝗻𝗼𝗹𝗼𝗴𝘆.

It is clear that the great invasion by the Normans at the time of Old English brought about a change in the English language and the beginning of Middle English. During this time, French dominated the political and cultural landscape for three centuries causing many French words to be included in English. In addition, the dominance of French caused the standardization of English (encouraged by King Alfred) to be lost and English fragmented into many more distinct dialects.

The main changes between the Old English and Middle English sound systems include:

Appearance of the voiced fricatives / v /, / ð /, / z / as separate phonemes , rather than mere allophones of the corresponding voiceless fricatives.
Reduction of Old English diphthongs to monophthongs, and the appearance of new diphthongs due to vowel breaks in certain positions, change of Old English / j /, / w / post-vocalic / (sometimes as a result of the allophone [ɣ] from / ɡ / ) to offglides and borrowings from French.
Merger of Old English / æ / and / ɑ / into a single vowel / a / .
Raising of the long vowel / æː / to / ɛː / / .
Rounding of / ɑː / a / ɔː / in southern dialects.
Disarming of preceding rounded vowels in most dialects.
Lengthening of vowels in open syllables (and in some other positions). The resulting long vowels (and other pre-existing long vowels) subsequently underwent quality changes in the Great Vowel Shift , which began during the later Middle English period.
Loss of gemination (double consonants came to be pronounced as singles).
Loss of weak final vowels ( schwa , spelled ⟨e⟩). In Chaucer's time , this vowel was silent in normal speech, although it was usually pronounced in verse as required by metre (as is the case in modern French ). In addition, the non-final unstressed ⟨e⟩ was dropped when adjacent to a single consonant on either side if there was another short ⟨e⟩ in an adjoining syllable. Thus, they all began to be pronounced as "evry" and palmeres as "palmers".
The combination of the last three processes listed above led to the spelling conventions associated with ⟨e⟩ mutes and double consonants (see under Spelling , below).

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𝑾𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈, 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒂𝒓, 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒔𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒂𝒈𝒆, 𝒆𝒕𝒄.  𝒐𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒊𝒅𝒅𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉?

In Middle English, in the same way, there were important changes in grammar, spelling, pronunciation and vocabulary, as it has been presented in some previous events of this time, but they will be summarized here.

All areas of grammar were affected. Among the new kinds of construction were the progressive forms of the verb (as in I am going) and the range of auxiliary verbs (I have seen, I didn’t go, etc.). The infinitive form of a verb starts to be marked by the use of a particle (to go, to jump). A new form of expressing relationships such as possession appeared, using of (as in the pages of a book). Several new pronouns appeared through the influence of Old Norse.

Other areas of language were also affected. The pronunciation system underwent significant change. Several consonants and vowels altered their values, and new contrastive units of sound (‘phonemes’) emerged. In particular, the distinction between the /f/ and /v/ consonants began to differentiate words (e.g. grief vs grieve), as did that between /s/ and /z/ (e.g. seal vs zeal). The ng sound at the end of a word also became contrastive (in Old English the g had always been sounded), so we now find such pairs as sin vs sing. And at the very end of the period, all the long vowels underwent a series of changes. The way sounds were spelled altered, as French scribes introduced their own spelling conventions, such as ou for u (house), gh for h (night) and ch for c (church).

Vocabulary was especially affected in Middle English in important fields such as ecclesiastical architecture, where French architects in England adapted Continental sources for their cathedral designs. The associated terminology needed to express this shift of vision was very large, covering everything from building tools to aesthetic abstractions.

Middle English also saw a huge increase in the use of affixes (prefixes and suffixes), producing an influx of new words. Excluding inflectional endings, there are just over 100 prefixes and suffixes available for use in everyday English, and at least one of these will be found in around half of all the words in the language.

The real importance of the Middle English period was the way in which this additional vocabulary became the primary means of introducing new concepts and new domains of discourse into the language, as well as giving novel ways of expression to familiar concepts within old domains of discourse.

Language status is clear. During Middle English we see the evolution of a language which is increasingly exploiting the potentialities of regional, social and stylistic variation.

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ᴇᴀʀʟʏ ᴍᴏᴅᴇʀɴ ᴇɴɢʟɪsʜ 

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ᴇᴀʀʟʏ ᴍᴏᴅᴇʀɴ ᴇɴɢʟɪsʜ 

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Early Modern English is the Old English form of today's English, as a variant of the Anglo-Saxon language. It is the English mainly practiced during the Renaissance, and most commonly associated with the literary language of William Shakespeare.

Chronologically, it is situated between the 16th and 18th centuries in the areas populated by the Anglo-Normans (years 1450 to 1700 approximately).

The standardization of English spelling falls within the Early Modern English period and is influenced by conventions predating the Great Vowel Shift, which is the reason for much of the non-phonetic spelling of contemporary Modern English.

The following are the five most important events that marked Early Modern English

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𝟏 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬

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𝟏 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬

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𝟏𝟒𝟓𝟎-𝟏𝟕𝟓𝟎
𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐆𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐭 𝐕𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐥 𝐒𝐡𝐢𝐟𝐭

Between 1450 and 1750 there is a great event in the history of the English language which saw the change from Middle English to Early Modern English – the Great Vowel Shift.

The Great Vowel Shift saw a complete change in the way people pronounced English vowels. Vowels started to be pronounced more towards the front of the mouth.

In addition to the change in pronunciation of vowels in English, the end letter ‘e’ on many words became voiceless.

For example, the word ‘name’ changed from using a short ‘a’ sound and a voiced ending ‘e’, pronounced as ‘a’ in Middle English (the word ‘name’ pronounced as ‘namay’), to how we say it today with a long ‘a’ and a voiceless ‘e’ (‘name pronounced as ‘naym’).

The Great Vowel Shift saw a movement away from its old French-style pronunciation of vowels. The change in pronunciation can be seen even in the names of letters of the alphabet.

For example, the letter ‘a’ is pronounced with a long ‘a’ sound in modern English (‘ay’), while in French it is pronounced with the short ‘a’ sound (‘ah’), as it was in English before the Great Vowel Shift.

Great Vowel Shift was a major change in the pronunciation of the English language. It was presumably the most significant sound change in the history of the English language. It started approximately in the 14th century and persisted into the 16th century. During that period most of the English vowels shifted their pronunciation.

In Ithe Early Middle English period, before the Great Vowel Shift, the vowel in the word "moon" was pronounced [o]; it sounded like our modern word "moan." Today, the vowel in "moon" is pronounced [u]. The word "moon" shifted its pronunciation from [mon] to [mun]. If we visualize this shift in terms of the phonetics chart for vowels, we could say that the English vowels shifted up the chart. The high vowels boost the chart and became diphthongs. The Great Vowel Shift did not involve a front and back vowel change.

It affects long vowels through the loss of vowel length and diphthongization. But there were further changes in this time:

Short vowels were influenced in writing as well as in pronunciation.

Therefore, Prosody, which means specific stresses on words and graphics, commas, capitalization and apostrophes, had changed

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William Caxton presented the printing press

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𝟐 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 

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𝟐 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 

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𝐏𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 (𝟏𝟒𝟕𝟔)

William Caxton (1422-1491), an English merchant, a diplomat, and a writer, is believed to be the first person, who introduced the first English printing press to England in 1476. He was known as a printer and a seller of the first English printed books.

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𝟑 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 

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𝟑 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 

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𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟒
𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐅𝐢𝐫𝐬𝐭 𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐡 𝐃𝐢𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬

The Early Modern period also saw the creation of the first English dictionary, published by Robert Cawdrey in 1604. This helped the push towards the standardisation of the English language.

Cawdreys’ dictionary was followed in 1755 by the more useful and comprehensive dictionary of Samuel Johnson. Explore more about these dictionaries and their impact on our History of the English Dictionary page.

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𝟒 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 

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𝟒 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 

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𝟏𝟔𝟔𝟓-𝟏𝟕𝟓𝟎
𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐆𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐭 𝐏𝐥𝐚𝐠𝐮𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐄𝐚𝐫𝐥𝐲 𝐌𝐨𝐝𝐞𝐫𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐡.

The Great Plague of 1665 – 1666 had a strong impact on the English language due to the cultural changes that resulted.

The pronunciation changes that took place during the Great Vowel Shift evolved in part due to the greater social mobility which happened after The Great Plague.

This was because the plague wiped out a large portion of the aristocracy as well as the lower classes. In just seven months, one fifth of the population of London was dead.

This merging of lower class English and higher class Anglo-Norman combined to create a new Early Modern English.

Although difficult, this English is intelligible to English speakers today. A good example of Early Modern English is the language used in Shakespeare’s works

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𝟓 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 

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𝟓 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 

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𝟏𝟔𝟕𝟓-𝟏𝟕𝟓𝟎
𝐒𝐡𝐚𝐤𝐞𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐚𝐫𝐥𝐲 𝐌𝐨𝐝𝐞𝐫𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐡 𝐋𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐮𝐚𝐠𝐞.

During Elizabethan times, Shakespeare was highly influential in society due to his position as the official Royal Playwright.

His hugely popular plays and sonnets used the English language in new and creative ways and he invented many new words and phrases never heard before.

We still use many of Shakespeare’s words and phrases today,often without realising it, and many of his witty lines have become classic English proverbs.

For example, these words, phrases, idioms and proverbs all come from Shakespeare’s writing in the Early Modern English era:

‘Scuffle’ (Anthony and Cleopatra)

‘Star-crossed’ (Romeo and Juliet)

‘Belongings’ (Measure for Measure)

‘Articulate’ (Coriolanus)

‘With bated breath’ (The Merchant of Venice)

‘Leap-frog’ (Henry V)

‘Fashionable (Troilus and Cressida)

‘A sorry sight’ (Macbeth)

Early Modern English - Shakespeare
William Shakespeare – image source

‘All that glitters is not gold’ (The Merchant of Venice)

‘To vanish into thin air’ (The Tempest and Othello)

‘At one fell swoop’ (Macbeth)

‘Addiction’ (Othello)

‘Swagger’ (Henry V)

‘Neither a borrower nor a lender be‘ (Hamlet)

‘Brevity is the soul of wit’ (Hamlet)

‘Foul play’ (Love’s Labours Lost and other plays)

‘Wild goose chase’ (Romeo and Juliet)

‘In a pickle’ (The Tempest)

‘Fair play’ (The Tempest and other plays)

‘Salad Days’ (Anthony and Cleopatra)

‘Cold blooded’ (King John)

‘Set your teeth on edge‘ (Henry IV Part I)

‘New-fangled’ (Love’s Labours Lost)

‘Truth will out’ (The Merchant of Venice)

‘The game is up’ (Cymbeline)

‘Short shrift’ (Richard III)

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𝟔 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 

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𝟔 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 

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𝐊𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐉𝐚𝐦𝐞𝐬 𝐕𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧, 𝐊𝐉𝐕 (𝟏𝟔𝟕𝟓-𝟏𝟕𝟓𝟎)

King James Version, KJV, known as the King James Bible (KJB) or simply the Authorized Version (AV), is the English translation of the Christian Bible for the Church of England, begun in 1604 and completed, and also published in 1611 under the auspices of James VI and I The books of King James Version include 39 old testament books, an intertestamental section containing 14 books of the Apocrypha, and 27 books of the New Testament.

The translation is known for its “majesty of style” and was named one of the most important books in English culture and a driving force in the formation of the English-speaking world.

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𝑾𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈, 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒂𝒓, 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒔𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒂𝒈𝒆, 𝒆𝒕𝒄. 𝒐𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝑬𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒚 𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒏 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉?

in Early Modern English there were many more notable changes, especially in spelling and the introduction of new forms of pronunciation, all influenced from Middle English.

By the sixteenth century English spelling was becoming increasingly out of step with pronunciation owing mainly to the fact that printing was fixing it in its late Middle English form just when various sound changes were having a far-reaching effect on pronunciation.

Chief among these was the so-called ‘Great Vowel Shift’, which can be illustrated (with much simplification) from the three vowel sounds in mite, meet, and mate. In Middle English these were three long vowels with values similar to their Latin or continental counterparts [i:], [e:], and [a:] (roughly the vowel sounds of thief, fete, and palm); the.  spelling was therefore ‘phonetic’.

Additionally, during the period a number of sets of vowel sounds that had formerly been distinct became identical, while their spelling distinction was largely maintained, resulting in a further mismatch of spelling and pronunciation.

Important examples are:

the long vowel a in mane and the diphthong ay or ai in may, main.

Numerous conditioned changes (i.e. changes in the sound of a vowel or consonant when in the vicinity of another sound) also contributed to the mismatch. When long vowels were shortened in certain positions a given spelling could show either on the one hand a long vowel or diphthong or on the other a short vowel that would normally be spelt another way.

For example:

ou in double, trouble and oo in blood, flood and good, hook became identical with short u (either as in bud or as in put).

Changes in the pronunciation of consonant sounds during the early modern English period contributed significantly to the incongruity between spelling and pronunciation. Accordingly consonant sounds ceased to be pronounced in many contexts.

For example:

in Early Modern Middle English l became a vowel after back vowels or diphthongs in certain positions (as in talk, folk), but the spelling remained.

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ᴍᴏᴅᴇʀɴ ᴇɴɢʟɪsʜ 

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ᴍᴏᴅᴇʀɴ ᴇɴɢʟɪsʜ 

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Modern English is conventionally defined as the English language since about 1450 or 1500. Distinctions are commonly drawn between the Early Modern Period (roughly 1450-1800) and Late Modern English (1800 to the present).

When the English merchant William Claxton introduced the first printing press in England in the 15th century, more precisely, in the year 1476, it led to a further standardization of the spoken and written language of London, which became even more popular with the rise of cultural and philosophical movements, mainly in the aristocratic and educated sectors of English society.

A process known as The Great Vowel Shift also took place between the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, the sound of the long vowels in English was modified. This caused changes in spelling, reading and comprehension of texts before and after this transformation.

Modern English emerged in the 16th century and continues today as a result of its evolution in the previous stages. The English spoken during these historical processes, between the 16th and 18th centuries, is known as Early Modern English. This language had its heyday during the Renaissance and was the language used by the English playwright William Shakespeare in his plays.

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𝟏 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑬𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 

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𝟏 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑬𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 

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𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎
𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐝𝐢𝐳𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐡

Modern standard English originated from the government's need for a standard language for official communication with citizens, record keeping, bureaucratic procedures and to consolidate the king's influence.

Later, with the development of printing and publishing, books and other works began to be printed that contributed to the spread and standardization of English. At the same time, the first studies on the use of English emerged, thus originating the beginning of English grammar. In 1604 the first English dictionary was published and in 1660 the Royal Society of London, a scientific association dedicated to supporting and disseminating knowledge, was created. In 1664, this association focused on the study of language and the importance of its correct use.

Until the 18th century, English morphology was simplified and acquired some forms and syntax that are used today, as is the case with verbs, adjectives and nouns in modern English. The number of prepositions and their use also increased, and compound verbs emerged, in addition to other changes.

The early part of the modern English period saw the establishment of the standard written language that we know today. Its standardization was due first to the need of the central government for regular procedures by which to conduct its business, to keep its records, and to communicate with the citizens of the land. Standard languages are often the by-products of bureaucracy ... rather than spontaneous developments of the populace or the artifice of writers and scholars.

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𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐜𝐞𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐝𝐢𝐳𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:
English is derived from the Roman alphabet that was brought by the Christian missionaries in Anglo-Saxon England (600s). Monks who wrote in Old English language added new sounds that could not be written with the Roman alphabet to represent Anglo-Saxon words . At this point, there was no standard orthography, or system of spelling words as the language was changing quickly. After the Norman Conquest in 1066, English was replaced by French and the language was used for writing official documents related to law and government. Scribes were trained in French, and they used different set of rules for spelling than used by the earlier scribes in Anglo-Saxon England. During this time writing was not only used for religious purposes but also for governmental purposes. With the development of printing in the 1400s English changed as the language that was used for financial and legal record keeping and bureaucracy. As the industry of publishing developed, thus it pushed for consistent spellings to facilitate their process. The need for economic profit lead the publishers to standardize the language. The process of development of England as a Protestant country had an effect on spelling and the standardization of English. Therefore the motivation behind the standardization of the language was National Identity. The King James Bible became the standard Bible and its spellings set standards for written English. The production of dictionaries in 18th century further standardized the language.

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𝟮 𝗜𝗺𝗽𝗼𝗿𝘁𝗮𝗻𝘁 𝗘𝘃𝗲𝗻𝘁𝘀 

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𝟮 𝗜𝗺𝗽𝗼𝗿𝘁𝗮𝗻𝘁 𝗘𝘃𝗲𝗻𝘁𝘀 

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𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑺𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚

Modern English was influenced in grammar and phonology by the arrival of the Spanish.

Eight centuries of Arab rule had determined the cultural distinctiveness and identity of Spain. Some researchers in particular Yu. Vasilenko have drawn Parallels between the historical destiny of Spain and Russia: the Tatar-Mongol yoke and the Arab conquest of the country separated from Western Europe and at the same time, he defended the latter from the further penetration of a foreign influence.

However, according to Spanish researchers, the Spanish national identity took shape about a century later, during the reign of the Habsburg dynasty.In based on 4 elements: centralized state under the control of the monarch, Catholicism: the official religion, one language

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𝟑 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 

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𝟑 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 

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𝟏𝟕𝟕𝟐-𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎
𝗗𝗶𝗰𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻𝗮𝗿𝗶𝗲𝘀 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗚𝗿𝗮𝗺𝗺𝗮𝗿𝘀

In the era of modern English by the introduction and creation of the first dictionaries in Early Middle English was very common in this era, The first English dictionary, "A Table Alphabetical", was published by English schoolteacher Robert Cawdrey in 1604 (8 years before the first Italian dictionary and 35 years before the first French dictionary, although it is admitted that some 800 years after the first Arabic dictionary and almost 1,000 after the first Sanskrit dictionary).  Cawdrey's little book contained 2,543 of what he called "hard words," especially those borrowed from Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and French, though it wasn't really a very reliable resource (even the word words was spelled two different ways in the title page alone, as words and words).

Various other dictionaries, as well as grammar, pronunciation, and spelling guides, followed through the centuries of modern English.  The first attempt to list ALL words in the English language was "An Universall Etymological English Dictionary", compiled by Nathaniel Bailey in 1721 (the 1736 edition contained about 60,000 entries) and was published at the earliest dates of modern English.

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𝟒 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 

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𝟒 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 

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𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐍𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐓𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

From its Modern English days, the Royal Society concerned itself with matters of language, setting up a committee in 1664 whose principal aim was to encourage the members of the Royal Society to use appropriate and correct language. This committee, however, was not to meet more than a couple of times. Subsequently, writers such as John Dryden, Daniel Defoe, and Joseph Addison, as well as Thomas Sheridan's godfather, Jonathan Swift, were each in turn to call for an English Academy to concern itself with language—and in particular to constrain what they perceived as the irregularities of usage," (Ingrid Tieken-Boon van Ostade, "English at the Onset of the Normative Tradition." The Oxford History of English, ed

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𝐌𝐨𝐝𝐞𝐫𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐡 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐭

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𝐌𝐨𝐝𝐞𝐫𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐡 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐦𝐦𝐚𝐫

From the 17th century until the first half of the 19th century, no changes were made in English grammar books and their teaching. But from the 19th century onwards, what is now called the traditional method of teaching grammar began to be implemented.

Traditional English grammar, or school grammar, determines what is correct in the English language, without updating or taking into account cultural changes. Because of its rigidity, traditional grammar is now often considered obsolete and ineffective, although it continues to be used in some schools.

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𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐬 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐌𝐨𝐝𝐞𝐫𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐡

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𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐬 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐌𝐨𝐝𝐞𝐫𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐡

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1928

The Oxford English Dictionary is published.

1950s

The number of English speakers as a second language exceeds that of native speakers.

1969

Canada becomes bilingual (French and English).

1989

Second edition of The Oxford English Dictionary published

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𝟓 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 

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𝟓 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 

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𝟏𝟕𝟕𝟐
𝐒𝐲𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐌𝐨𝐫𝐩𝐡𝐨𝐥𝐨𝐠𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐬

By 1776 the Modern English language had already undergone most of the syntactic changes which differentiate Present-Day English. Older patterns of word order with the verb at the clause end or in second constituent position had long been replaced by an unmarked order framed by the sequence subject-verb-object or subject-verb-complement. A subject noun phrase was virtually obligatory in simple clauses other than imperatives.

Great simplifications had taken place in morphology, so that the noun and adjective had already reached their present, vestigial inflectional systems, and the verb nearly so. The number and frequency of prepositions had expanded greatly, and prepositions now served to mark a variety of nominal functions. Prepositions, particles and other words frequently joined simple lexical verbs to form group verbs like 'speak to,' 'make up,' 'take notice of.' Such formations as the prepositional and indirect passives had become commonplace.

The complexity of the English auxiliary system had grown to encompass a wide range of mood and aspect marking, and much of its present systemic structure was already in place, including the dummy auxiliary do. Some patterns involving finite and nonfinite subordinate clauses had been rare or impossible in OE; by 1776 most of the present repertoire was available. However, the English of 1776 was linguistically by no means the same as that of the present day," (David Denison, "Syntax."

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𝑾𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈, 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒂𝒓, 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒔𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒂𝒈𝒆, 𝒆𝒕𝒄. 𝒐𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒏 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉?

Modern English looked very similar to today's English but still sounded slightly different. Although Modern English might sound a little strange to the ear today, we would still be able to understand it. We wouldn't, however, be able to understand Beowulf - this is because Early Modern English is an example of English after The Great Vowel Shift.

English, as we know it today, evolved from Modern English. We typically consider 'contemporary' to be the use of English from the 1800s onwards. The main change from Early to Late English was the vocabulary, as the spelling, pronunciation, and grammar largely remained the same.

Differences in vocabulary included the introduction of more Latin and Greek words and Skakespearian words, such as majestic, obscene, amusement, suspicious, and many more.

Let's now look at some common features of Modern English. We'll cover some features that are prominent in defining what Modern English is, as well as features that differ from Middle and Old English.

Phonology
Modern English underwent a consonant cluster reduction, meaning clusters of two or more consonant sounds were reduced to singular sounds. This resulted in many 'silent' letters, e.g., knight, gnat.

The emergence of rhotic and non-rhotic accents. The American accent is typically considered rhotic (i.e. does pronounce the /r/ sound), whereas the British accent is considered non-rhotic (doesn't pronounce the /r/ sound).

Several changes in vowel sounds, resulting in the approximate 20 distinct vowel sounds used in English today.

Morphology
A reduction in the use of the article 'the'
A move from the use of 'whom' to 'who'
Simplified inflection, e.g., adding 's' or 'es' for plural nouns, adding 'ed' for past tense verbs, and 'ing' for progressive verbs
The introduction of more compound nouns, e.g., sunflower, landmark, aircraft
An increase in phrasal verbs, e.g., pick up, put down, turn off.

Syntax
Using auxiliary (helping) verbs in interrogatives (questions) becomes compulsory, e.g., Are you happy?

An increase in using 's to show a possession, e.g., Hannah's laptop

Increased standardization in using the 'subject-verb-object' structure

Increased use of modal verbs to show modality, e.g., could, can, might, may, etc.

Sentences classified into simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex

Adjectives always precede a noun, e.g., A black cat

Vocabulary
Modern English contains vocabulary from three main backgrounds, about a quarter Germanic (e.g., Old English, Dutch, and German), and two-thirds Romance (e.g., Latin, French, and Italian) and Greek. It also contains a significant and increasing number of loanwords from languages worldwide. Let's look at a few examples from each category;

Germanic words - Abseil, Bagel, Angst, Waltz, Noodle

Romance words - Ambiguous, Plausible, Flux, Sport

Greek words - Galaxy, Democracy, Acrobat, Dinosaur

Loanwords - Karaoke (Japanese), Ketchup (Malay), Caravan (Arabic), Bungalow (Hindi)

Orthography
Orthography refers to the alphabet and spelling system of a language. Modern English is based on the Latin alphabet, which originally had 20 letters (the present English alphabet minus J, K, V, W, Y, and Z). The Romans then added K, Y and Z to help them transcribe Greek words, and the English later added W, J, V, resulting in the 26-letter alphabet we use today.

The spelling of Modern English words have largely remained the same since the late 15 the century; however, the pronunciation differs greatly.

So the changes are not many or they are not so different, if not they are the same adapted from previous times (Old English, Middle English and Early Modern English) the changes can be said to be in the great impact that I take or the great relevance that is in the world.

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ᴇɴɢʟɪsʜ ɪɴ ɴᴏᴡᴀᴅᴀʏs 

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ᴇɴɢʟɪsʜ ɪɴ ɴᴏᴡᴀᴅᴀʏs 

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English in Nowadays marks an importance in the life of the people since every day we are approaching a globalized world. A world that has adopted English as its first language. It is a language of vital importance and it is already mandatory for any type of social interaction with people abroad, to improve your resume and to be able to opt for new higher education and even to perform operations at the labor level.

English is nothing more and nothing less than one of the most important universal languages in the world. Currently, it is in the number one position in the ranking of the most spoken languages. The gold medal, surpassing Mandarin, which is in second place. A first place that makes it a fundamental language for creating social relations with people abroad.

The following are 5 important events that mark the English language in our times.

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𝟏 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑬𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 

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𝟏 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑬𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 

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𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎-𝟐𝟎𝟐𝟐
𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐟𝐥𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐡 𝐢𝐧 𝐍𝐨𝐰𝐚𝐝𝐚𝐲𝐬 𝐨𝐧 𝐩𝐞𝐨𝐩𝐥𝐞

It is paramount to speak English in nowadays since it gives all kinds of opportunities in communication, life quality, and education. First of all, English breaks down communication barriers because it is a lingua franca. In other words, English is the most commonly used language among foreign language speakers. Throughout the world, when people with different languages come together they commonly use English to communicate. That also means that a vast majority of people around the world can speak use this language for different purposes; for example, a multicultural meeting and a chat with a foreigner unable to speak the local language  are some of the situations where English is used as lingua franca. Second, English speakers are very likely to have good job opportunities. For instance, most of the English-speaking countries, such as England and the United States are countries with a high gross domestic product and where speaking English is the best way to get job opportunities. Therefore, the standard of living of these people can improve considerably. Finally, English- speaking countries have the best education offer in the world. In order to enter prestigious universities, such as Harvard University, Stanford University, and Oxford University, it is necessary for candidates who want to study there to speak English. Also, these countries offer lots of scholarships for foreigners that want to study in some of their universities; the only requirement besides being a good student is to have a good level of proficiency in English. In conclusion, speaking English is very important for tourists, professionals, and students who want to be successful.

There are three main reasons why English in Nowadays is important in our everyday life. First of all, English speakers have better education chances to study abroad and can get high quality education from universities such as Harvard. In addition, English speakers can broaden their world knowledge. Second, people who are proficient in that language have better job opportunities since English is the dominant business language and it has become almost a necessity for people to speak it if they are to enter a global workforce. Its importance in the global market place therefore should not be undervalued or underestimate. Indeed, learning English can really change one`s life in terms of access to jobs. For instance, employees could opt for higher job positions in different some companies such as call centers. , they could also work either as translators or English instructors. Finally, bilingual people have a better standard of living. As they have well-paid jobs, their purchasing power is higher than that of other professionals. In brief, everyone should make an effort to learn English because they may have more chances to succeed in many fields.

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𝟐 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑬𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 

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𝟐 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑬𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 

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𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎-𝟐𝟎𝟐𝟐
𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐡 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐍𝐨𝐰𝐚𝐝𝐚𝐲𝐬 𝐢𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐋𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐮𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐈𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐦𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧.

Although English is not the most spoken language in the world, it is the official language in 53 countries and is spoken as a first language by around 400 million people worldwide. But that’s not all, it is also the most common second language in the world. According to the British Council, by 2020 about two billion people in the world will be studying English.

Therefore, it is highly likely that if you meet someone from another country, you will both be able to speak English. It gives you an open door to the world and helps you communicate with global citizens.

Today English is a universal language that is present in commerce, finance, international communication and therefore is the most learned language. Speaking it gives us access to a quality education allowing our job opportunities to be better

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𝟑 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑬𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 

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𝟑 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑬𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 

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𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎-𝟐𝟎𝟐𝟐
𝐃𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐝𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐮𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐡 𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐮𝐚𝐠𝐞

And as with any living language, the history of the English language continued to evolve. British colonialism took the language to every corner of the globe, and so the various varieties of English emerged to keep things changing. You only have to walk around South London to hear how Jamaican, Indian English and West African English mix with the BBC accent of the inhabitants of the English capital. Don't be surprised if you go to a market and a West African trader asks Wetin Dey 'appen? (What's happening?).

Nowadays speaking English is a key factor to become a successful person. This means that English plays an important role in preparing people to become more versatile professionals. Additionally, it allows them to communicate with people from around the world. For example, in soccer games, the referee has to speak English in order to communicate with players from around the world. Another example is that many of the world’s top films, books and music are published and produced in English. Therefore by learning English one can have access to a great wealth of entertainment and will be able to have a greater cultural understanding. Even though it is difficult to achieve a prefect pronunciation, it is important to understand the grammar structure of English. This allow us to speak more clearly and to make ourselves understand. Although learning English can be challenging and sometimes be very expensive, money is not wasted because one pays to learn something that will be a crucial part of one’s success. Whether one lives in Latin America or in China, we should all learn English to have the opportunity of sharing experiences and even work with people from around the world. To conclude, English allows us to enrich our knowledge of other cultures and to become successful people.

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𝟒 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑬𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 

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𝟒 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑬𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 

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𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎-𝟐𝟎𝟐𝟐
𝑺𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒉𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒏𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒅𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅. (𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝑵𝒐𝒘𝒂𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔)

As the English language has changed, it’s been easy to pick out words that pass into common usage. Here at Pearson English, we have explored some of these recent changes to the English language. The rise in popularity of internet slang has seen phrases such as “LOL” (Laugh Out Loud), “YOLO” (You Only Live Once) and “bae” (an abbreviated form of babe or baby) become firmly embedded in the English language over the past ten years.

Every decade sees new slang terms like these appearing in the English language. And while some words or abbreviations do come from internet or text conversations, others may appear as entirely new words, a new meaning for an existing word, or a word that becomes more generalised than its former meaning, brought about by any one of the reasons above. Decades ago, “blimey” was a new expression of surprise, but more recently “woah” is the word in everyday usage.

Sentence structure is of course another change to English language. Decades ago, it would have been normal to ask “Have you a moment?” Now, you might say “D’you have a sec?” Similarly, “How do you do?” has become “How’s it going?” Not only have the sentences been abbreviated, but new words have been introduced to everyday questions.

Connected to this is the replacement of certain words with other, more-modern versions. It’s pretty noticeable that words like “shall” and “ought” are on the way out, but “will”, “should” and “can” are doing just fine.

Other changes can be more subtle. A number of verbs can take a complement with another verb in either the “-ing” form or the “to” form, for example “they liked painting/to paint”, “we tried leaving/to leave”, “he didn’t bother calling/to call”. Both of these constructions are still used and have been for a long time but there has been a steady shift over time from the “to” to the “-ing” complement.

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𝟓 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑬𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 

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𝟓 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑬𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 

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𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎-𝟐𝟎𝟐𝟐
𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒏𝒍𝒚 𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒍𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅𝒔.

The twenty-first century has brought about tremendous changes in the lives of people. Changes are inevitable and these changes help people progress well in their respective fields. There is a need for everyone to acquire the latest trends and innovations taking place in this progressive and highly advancing world. In this modern era, people get their success in their specialized areas because they make use of the available resources of modern as well as innovative technologies. To make use of these technologies and apply their thoughts in a right way, there is a need for a common language to communicate with the people of other regions and countries in the world. To bridge this gap, English seems to be a good tool used for communication as it enjoys the status of an international language. English is the only language that is used in almost all the fields, such as science and technology, engineering, medicine, pharmacy, education, tourism, entertainment, information and technology, business, trade and commerce, the internet, employment, to name a few. As a language, English attains the global status and is used to serve various purposes. This paper discusses the importance of the English language and its application to various fields and finally, the benefits that people get from it in this modern era. This paper brings to light the importance of English and how English plays a significant role in the modern era. Moreover, the need to learn English language, due to its usage and importance, is comprehensively expounded. Finally, some important suggestions are given to the learners as well as the professionals to make use of the English language effectively in achieving extraordinary and amazing results in their attempts in all the fields.

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𝟔 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 

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𝟔 𝐈𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 

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𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎-𝟐𝟎𝟐𝟐
𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐡 𝐢𝐧 𝐍𝐨𝐰𝐚𝐝𝐚𝐲𝐬 𝐠𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐬 𝐚𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐨 𝐦𝐨𝐫𝐞 𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐦𝐨𝐫𝐞 𝐚𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐈𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐧𝐞𝐭.

Nowadays, many films, TV shows, books and music are published and produced in English. By understanding English, you won’t need to rely on translations and subtitles anymore. By accessing these media, you will also continuously improve your English listening and reading skills.

English is currently the language of the internet. An estimated of 565 million people use the internet every day and about 52% of the world’s most visited websites are displayed in English. Therefore, learning this language gives access to over half the content of the internet, which might not be available otherwise. Whether it is for fun or for work, if you understand English, you will be able to exchange information with more people online and use many more materials.

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𝟕 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑬𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 

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𝟕 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑬𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 

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𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎-𝟐𝟎𝟐𝟐
𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐡 𝐜𝐚𝐧 𝐦𝐚𝐤𝐞 𝐲𝐨𝐮 "𝐬𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐞𝐫"

Learning a foreign language enhances your cognitive and analytical abilities. Learning a new language can be difficult and it involves a lot of mental exercises. Research from a 2012 Swiss Study shows that learning a new language changes the brain structures, impacting the parts of the brain responsible for memory, conscious thought and it can make you more creative. In the long term, bilingualism can keep the brain strong and healthy into old age and supports concentration and memory skills. On an individual level, it improves personality and increases sense of self-worth. In simple words, learning a foreign language makes the brain stronger and more versatile.

Learning English is not only useful, but it also gives a lot of satisfaction and making progress will make you feel great.

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𝑾𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈, 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒂𝒓, 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒔𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒂𝒈𝒆, 𝒆𝒕𝒄. 𝒐𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝑵𝒐𝒘𝒂𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔?

I think it is important to emphasize that what stands out most about English today is the status it has today, the changes in grammar, vocabulary, spelling have been adapting, modifying and using with the passing of the ages, the English language today is always changing, evolving and adapting to the needs of its users and for several reasons. First, it changes because the needs of its speakers change. New technologies, new products and new experiences require new words to refer to them clearly and effectively.

In the English in Nowadays there are or are created slightly different sets of words and constructions, depending on our age, job, educational level, region of the country, etc. From everyone we talk to we learn new words and phrases that combine to create something new and different from anyone else's way of speaking. At the same time, different groups in society use language as a way of marking their group identity, showing who is and who is not a member of the group. So that's one of the changes embodied or reflected in English in Nowadays.

Many of the changes occurring in language begin with adolescents and young adults. As young people interact with others their age, their language grows to include different words, phrases, and constructions than those of the previous generation. Some are short-lived (have you heard of "groovy" lately?), but others remain to affect language as a whole.

Word order also changes, although this process is much slower. The word order in modern English is much "free" than in Old English.

The sounds of the language have also changed, nowadays the famous Spanglish is used, which are incorporations of Spanish and English words and some of them are not well adapted among the speakers.

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𝑺𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒈 𝒗𝒔 𝑱𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒐𝒏

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𝑺𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒈 𝒗𝒔 𝑱𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒐𝒏

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Both jargon and slang are two special types of language varieties. The main difference between Jargon and Slang is, Jargon is terminology that is used in relation to a specific activity, profession, group, or event whereas slang is the use of informal words and expressions that are not considered standard in the speaker’s dialect or language.

𝐁𝐮𝐭, 𝐖𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐢𝐬 𝐉𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐨𝐧?

Jargon is a special type of language used in a particular context and may not be understood outside of that context. They are special words or expressions that belong to a specific profession or activity. It is the terminology of science, technology, trade, art, etc. The people outside that particular field will not understand the meanings of these words.

Over time, some jargons can become accepted words and understood by a larger group of people. For example, words like RAM, byte, hexadecimal, which were jargons in the computing science, are known by everyone.

𝐖𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐢𝐬 𝐒𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐠

Slang is a colloquial variety of language that is used in highly informal situations. It is always used with people who share similar social backgrounds and age groups. This is not used in the written language.

A special feature of slang is that slang words do not stay in the language for a long time. Many slang words disappear, and new words come into the language. However, there are some words that were introduced to the language as slang but have evolved into standard words. For example, taxi, bogus, hoax, skyscraper, etc.

A new slang word can come into being in two ways. A new word can be coined or invented, or an old word can be given a new word. For example, the word wicked originally means cruel or evil, but in slang wicked means wonderful or excellent.

Gutted – feeling devasted

Blimey – exclamation used to remark that something is remarkable.

Kick the bucket – to die

Adam and Eva – to believe

Beemer – B.M.W car

Blow – to leave a place

Chick – a young and pretty girl

Jargon is a particular type of language that is used by those engaged in a specific profession or activity.

Slang is a type of language consisting of words and phrases that are regarded as very informal.

Written Context
Jargon can be used in both written and spoken context.

Slang is only used in spoken language.

Formality level
Jargon is not informal and can be used in a professional context.

Slang is informal and can not be used in a professional context.

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Slang vs Jargon - Informal vs technical English - Differences

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In conclusion, given the influence of all the previous eras, and the media, over the ages it has influenced a uniformity of pronunciation, writing, and even attempted to make adjustments in writing to phonetics. As with any living language, the history of the English language continued to evolve. British colonialism took the language to all corners of the globe, and so the various varieties of English emerged, to keep things changing. It only remains to say that the English language has a tendency to grow and change, and it has become the most important international language.

The English language is the result of a series of historical and linguistic events that have evolved over time and is still evolving thanks to today's global technological and scientific immersion. Likewise, it is important to embark on a journey through this rich and beautiful language that opens doors to global cultures and knowledge.

But besides all this, how does language change according to the social strata of a country? It is more than clear that every language is going to change due to different social strata of each country, more so English which is a world language, the relationship between language, society and culture is relevant to the social changes of the language and also the social status of the speakers is not left behind, the English vocabulary has disappeared and new words have appeared due to this, as well as adaptations and modifications to those that already exist and that we checked in all the eras of the beginning of English.

But what is clear is that whether you say I don't know or I no no no, it's all part of the continuing evolution of the history of the English language!

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𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒓 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒔 

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𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒓 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒔 

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Old English story [blog Post] retrived by https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English

Old English lessons
http://www.jebbo.co.uk/learn-oe/contents.htm
http://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL9664A1E483AFCD12
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCLnwScGuOxVlaN5aV9in9ag

Old English/ Anglo-Saxon
http://www.jebbo.co.uk/learn-oe/contents.htm

Middle English Article written by:
David Crystal
https://www.bl.uk/medieval-literature/articles/middle-english#:~:text='Middle English' – a period,Old English and Modern English.

Early Modern English Story [blog Post] retrieved by https://www.myenglishlanguage.com/history-of-english/early-modern-english/