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Slums and suburbs: water and sanitation in the first industrial city

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Slums and suburbs: water and sanitation in the first industrial city

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Manchester's population experienced extreme exponential growth growing from a small town of 60,000 in 1800 to 142,000 in 1842. The extreme population boom caused the environmental conditions to rapidly decline.

Manchester became known as the most disgusting, unsanitary, and overcrowded place in Britain. Population declined massively as death rates rose. In 1837 the life average for the regular working person was just 17.

Diseases like typhoid and dysentery spread around the city from the horrible hygiene and unsanitary living. The town was baldy struck by many outbreaks of cholera in 1832 and 1849.

The main causing issue in Manchester's environmental issues is the horrible water and sanitation infrastructure.

By 1847, from the 47,00 houses, only 11,000 had piped water. 12,000 other homes relied on a shared water supply, like tap or a common well.

Public bathrooms called privy middens were shred by over 30 family causing an overflow of waste as it was Daley cleaned, as well as. Working plumbing led to the rivers

The build up of waste in rivers heavily increased the chances of flooding, averaging a raise of 3 in yearly for the river bead

Second source

https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z99m2v4/revision/4

All water is unsanitary and unable to be drinked, water companies aquifer water from rivers polluted with air pollution and human waste as well as rain even as it passes through the smoke of some factories

In working classes, they shared a water pump, but landlords payed the minimal fee only allowing the water pump to be accessible at certain hours.

People had not yet linked germs from dirty water to disease like typhoid or cholera, thus causing unsanitary water to be on of the main reason for massive disease spread

by zoya chawdry

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The one titled “Air pollution in Manchester” with the black and white sketch as the picture should be named Ribhav Dixit, I forgot to write my name.

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During the 19th century coal was the main source of energy but the burning of coal causes the formation of soot. This is why Manchester was so polluted.

Manchester had several hundred chimneys which all burned coal causes a lot of soot and smoke and the amount of chimneys just kept on continuing to grow causing an exponential growth in air pollution.

All the smoke cause a lot of harm to the people. The smoke caused many types of lung disease which caused trouble breathing. This is all caused an increase in death in Manchester.

Soon enough the people of Manchester started to protest in order to stop the Air pollution caused by the burning of coal.

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This was one of the biggest industries that drove the Industrial Revolution

Many textile manufacturers made a bunch of money from cotton spinning such as McConnell and Kennedy

Most raw cotton was produced by enslaved people who were forced to work in southern plantation and was then processed in the mills

The US cotton system which was based on enslaved labour and the Manchester textiles industry were interconnected

Many women were hired to work in the textile factories as they provided cheap labor

Prior to the Industrial Revolution all textile work was done by hand so it took a long time, but once the machines were introduced it was much more efficient

The increase in population throughout Europe increased the demand for cotton based products, forcing Britain to become more efficient

https://globaledge.msu.edu/blog/post/54483/the-textile-industry-during-the-industri

By Anish Senthilkumar

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Richard Arkwright: Father of the Factory System

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Richard Arkwright: Father of the Factory System

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—Richard Arkwright lived from 1732-1792

—In 1767, Arkwright invented the water frame, a machine used in spinning cotton that made the process much quicker

—Before the invention of the water frame, the cotton was spun into yarn by hand

—Though there had been a few attempts at similar inventions prior to the water frame, none were as reliable, efficient, or able to produce yarn of the desired quality

—Arkwright studied these inferior spinning machines to learn from their faults

—He had the revolutionary idea of using water to power his machine, which is where the name “water frame” comes from

—Together with John Kay, who had helped Arkwright design prototypes for the water frame, Arkwright opened a factory to capitalize off of his invention in 1769, along the River Derwent in Cromford, Derbyshire

—Since it was so simple to use, Arkwright could employ unskilled workers to maintain water frames, as all they really needed to do was feed the machine cotton and switch out bobbins (the part of the machine that spun the cotton) every now and again.

—He continued to build more factories and industrialize further; for example, his Manchester mill on Miller Street was the first spinning mill to use steam power

— However, after suing nine spinning firms in Manchester for using water frames without a license, the court cancelled his patents as many people believed that his inventions weren’t original enough to be patented. This meant that the water frame was free to use for any factory owner

Outside source information:

—Arkwright was born on December 23rd, 1732, in Preston, Lancashire, England, and died on August 3rd in Cromford Derbyshire

—Arkwright became interested in spinning machinery in 1764

—Still held a dominant position in the textile industry after his patents were revoked

—Arkwright had a capital of £200,000 by 1782 and employed over 5,000 workers

—He was knighted in 1786

Link: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Richard-Arkwright

By Alex Bartolome

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Clogs and the Cotton Industry during the Industrial Revolution

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Clogs and the Cotton Industry during the Industrial Revolution

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Many women, children, and men often wore such clogs during their workdays, however they never owned these shoes themselves

These shows were lent to them by Charter Street Ragged School in Angel Meadow to children whose families could not afford to buy shoes

The clogs were often stamped with a CSRS loaned, not to be pawned” in order to label their clogs to be their own

Although the workers in these textile mills earned good wages, they never had any guaranteed work meaning that they often had cotton shortages or low demandes for cloth

These reasons caused the workers to have to go without wages often meaning that they were not making enough money to support their family

Some places called ‘ragged’ schools such as the Charter Street in Angel Meadow provided food, clothing, and basic education to some of Manchester’s poorest residents

Such cotton industries transformed Manchester into a very innovative city since it had started to be populated by ingenious makers and determined profit seekers

The cotton industry reshaped the lives of people in Manchester since they increased the visitor enjoyment and caused the population to skyrocket

By the 16th century Manchester was a flourishing market borough important in the wool trade, exporting cloth to Europe via London

From the 1760s onward, growth quickened with the onset of the Industrial Revolution. The first canal, bringing cheap coal from Worsley, reached the town in 1762; later extended, it linked Manchester with the Mersey and Liverpool by 1776 and so served the import-export needs of the cotton industry

Manchester’s first cotton mill was built in the early 1780s. By 1800 Manchester was said to be “steam mill mad,” and by 1830 there were 99 cotton-spinning mills. The world’s first modern railway, the Liverpool and Manchester, was opened in 1830, and by the 1850s the greater part of the present railway system of the city was complete

Manchester’s economic history during the second half of the 19th century was one of growth and diversification. The city became less important as a cotton-manufacturing centre than as the commercial and financial nucleus of the trade; on the floor of Royal Exchange, the yarn and cloth of the entire industry was bought and sold

External source: https://www.britannica.com/place/Manchester-England/Evolution-of-the-modern-city

Shika Surapaneni

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Established in 19 century Manchester, coal became the main source of energy

Although people weren’t aware before, it quickly became clear that coal was the main source of pollution as well

The urban air pollution in Manchester had led to an increased death rate, respitory disease, dirty chimes and clothing along with the difficult living conditions in the cities

This became known as “The smoke nuisance”

However, many technological advances were made due to coal, including more factories and mills, leading to an increase in profit

In 1842, Manchester Association for the Prevention of Smoke was founded, combatting against the usage of coal for machines

Although their mission was not fully successful, in 1956, the Clear Air Act was passed, which helped clear the air for the citizens

The long term affect of this was the greenhouse affect, which increased temperatures, causing global warming and climate change

Ext source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0921800902000290

The rapid population growth in Manchester during the early 19 century contributed to the increased waste release into the environment

This not only worsened the living conditions of many living in the city but also increased pollution in both land, air and the water

However, the many environmental policies that have been passed helped improve it

- Jagruthi Rusum

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The Effect of Air Pollution on Manchester during the Industrial Revolution 

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The Effect of Air Pollution on Manchester during the Industrial Revolution 

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My original post that I published is attached (I couldn’t edit it) — I just forgot to cite my sources and write my name.

Click on the image to view the original post with all of the information.

Krish Mathur

Sources: https://www.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/air-pollution#:~:text=As%20engines%20got%20bigger%20and,air%20of%20Manchester%20and%20Salford

https://www.history.com/news/industrial-revolution-negative-effects

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The World’s First Synthetic Dye In The Industrial Revolution

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The World’s First Synthetic Dye In The Industrial Revolution

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William Henry Perkin, on the 26 of August 1856 patented the world’s first synthetic dye. To start out, he was a research chemist and a curious experimenter or from an early age.

His collection changed the industry from doing things traditionally to it leading to an entirely new industry being developed.

When he was 18 years old he was working for August Wilhelm von Hoffman as a research assistant, and Hoffman was working on trying to making a synthetic form of a treatment of malaria(quinine). He thought it was a good challenge to create a chemical synthesis of natural compounds. Given, it was difficult to extract (in its natural form).

Perkin’s job was to do experiments using aniline(a colourless aromatic oil derived from coal tar). He worked on these experiments at his house in a very basic lab. These experiments were him oxidizing aniline using potassium dichromate. When it was oxidized it created a black precipitate, that when the color was removed, dyed silk purple. This color was named mauve by Perkin and he also named the synthetic dye: mauveine.

The discovery changed the dying industry but also, it made him a fortune. Also it helped for establishing the modern chemical industry. Because he was using coal tar for the synthetic dye, it stopped being a waste product only good for water proofing fabric.

Other derivatives of coal tar were used in saccharine production, the pharmaceutical industry, and the development of perfumes. Perkin retired at 36 and he spent the rest of his life carrying out research in other areas of chemistry.

He took out a patent on his discovery on August 26 of 1856. This patent holds his method for making aniline purple dye.

Other Source: https://library.si.edu/exhibition/color-in-a-new-light/making

Coal tar was used for this dye because in the Industrial Revolution people burnt a lot of coal. And a byproduct of this was coal tar. So naturally it probably  was a widespread choice for synthetic dye.

Perkin’s dye took over the fashion world by storm. It spread from Paris and London all the way to America and was featured in woman’s magazines of the day. Germany took the lead in the synthetic dye business.

He paved the way for modern chemistry to move into industrial applications, and indirectly led to advances in modern medicine, explosives, photography, and plastics.

-Dev Amin

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Prior to 1800s, laborers had the manually raise and lower the threads on the loom so different patterns could be made. It was a tedious and difficult.

1804-> Joseph-Marie Jacquard made this loom which allowed for complex patterns to be woven easily. It made textiles go from an industry ran by families of skilled workers to industrial and produced in masses.

Weaving a fabric on loom requires pieces of thread being placed over and under a set of threads to form a pattern. This loom was revolutionary because it took a card with hole punches that gave instructions for placing the threads over/under

The designer would draw the pattern onto grid paper and then based on what squares were not filled, a hole would be punched. This would make the hooks go pick up the thread, so that the pattern-making thread could pass underneath therefore not showing up in the pattern.

1820s-> These looms spread to Manchester and to all the regional textile mills. It allowed for even the middle class to get clothes in whichever pattern they liked, because it now only cost a fraction of the price to produce the same cloth.

Workers skilled in crafting and machinery replaced the weavers. Their lives improved majorly which had further affects on the Industrial Revolution.

But many skilled weavers lost their jobs. They felt threatened by the machines which was taking their means to live. This anger sparked the Luddite movement in which they'd destroy mills and looms.

The punching of holes to carry out one task or the other is very similar to binary, the basis of all computing.

Charles Babbage's idea for the Analytical Engine was to use hole punched cards to give the machine numbers and what operations to carry out with those numbers

Ada Lovelace noticed how this system could be used for all types of data and gave the idea for computer programming. 100 years later, it finally came true.

Outside source:

https://ageofrevolution.org/200-object/jacquard-loom/

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In Manchester mills, many people worked long, and dangerous days, keeping the machines churning out cloth.

These Manchester mills were also very reliant on the transatlantic slave trade.

From the 15th century, about 12 million African people were transported by force from Africa to the Americas. under very cruel conditions

Millions of them were forced to work on plantations and European countries made great profits on them.

Cotton goods were in high demand during the 18th century and they and the slave trade were crucial to the early growth of Manchester's economy.

When Britain abolished the slave trade in 1807, merchants and manufacturers from Manchester still supplied goods to other slave traders until the mid-19th century.

Slaves were treated horribly, they had no freedom, weren't paid and if they didn't reach a certain quota, they would get punished. The first resistance that was observed was seen in 1770, and slavery was abolished in 1807.

During the 17th century, Manchester was a small town. However, this would soon change, as colored fabrics would skyrocket in demand.

During the 18th century, Manchester established a body of weavers and drapers to be ready to capitalize on the increasing demand for cotton. Later in the century, the fist slave trades for manchester occurred.

Manchester grew from a population of 9,000 in 1717 to a population of 25,000 in 1773.

2nd source: https://www.theguardian.com/news/ng-interactive/2023/apr/03/cotton-capital-how-slavery-made-manchester-the-worlds-first-industrial-city

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Present-day Manchester is home to 552,000 residents, at the centre of a wider region of 2.87 million, the product of three centuries of migration and economic change.

It is a city with a global reputation for its cultural and sporting influence, a long list of world firsts in science and technology, and as a centre of political reform movements.

Cheek-by-jowl with the rising Manc-hattan skyscrapers stand many of the old warehouses and mills, repurposed into modern apartment and office blocks along the outward-creeping fringe of gentrification. A few remnants of the pre-industrial market town remain around the Cathedral Quarter while the grand late-Victorian warehouses and civic architecture recall a time when cotton was king and Manchester was its capital.

Still poorly acknowledged and understood is how essential the system of slavery was to the emergence of Cottonopolis, the world's first industrial city, and how it can still be witnessed in today's built environment.

Here is a brief history of the growth of Manchester from a Lancashire manorial town of about 9,000 residents in 1700 to the "shock city" of industrial capitalism by the mid-19th century.

We start with a visual exploration of the city's development.

From small-time township to sprawling metropolis: a visual tour

A closer look

The story of Manchester's rise is also the story of global industrialised capitalism, and it reveals the essential underpinning role of colonisation and slavery to the processes that completely transformed societies, cultures, and the environment.

As technology advanced, manufacturing moved from the home to mass production, bringing increased transport capacity and connectivity across the globe. Higher levels of productivity required markets and investment, land and labour.

The produce of enslaved labour and profits from slave trading and plantation agriculture drove the Industrial Revolution, created this city, and left local and global legacies we are still only beginning to understand and repair.

Traditional industries go global

The importation of south Asian chintzes and decorated textiles in the 1600s drove demand in Great Britain and particularly in west Africa for cotton manufacturers. With an established skills base and trade links in textile manufacture, Manchester was ideally positioned to meet this demand and the town started to expand.

Technological improvements in spinning and weaving increased productivity and, in 1734, the River Irwell Navigation provided direct shipping to Liverpool, which was fast becoming Europe's leading slave-trading port.

Raw cotton was imported from the eastern Mediterranean and, increasingly, from the Caribbean, where it was grown by enslaved labourers. It would arrive at the foot of Quay Street on boats laden with goods from across the world, particularly slave-grown sugar.

Until the 1780s, production had taken place in homes or in units with just a few machines. Increased employment opportunities led to the population almost doubling between 1717 and 1758.

How important was slavery to Manchester's growth?

Seminal historian Eric Williams, who later became the first prime minister of Trinidad and Tobago, outlined in 1944 how it was a "tremendous dependence on the triangular trade that made Manchester". Up to 1770, one-third of Lancashire's exports were used in the slave trade to west Africa and half were sold to the plantation colonies in the Caribbean and North America.

In 1788 the privy council estimated that Manchester exported £200,000 worth of goods a year to west Africa, representing an investment of £300,000 and supporting 180,000 jobs for men, women and children across the wider region. Converted to today's prices that is £26.9m of exports and £40.3m of investment a year.

Merchants and manufacturers such as Robinson & Heywood, William Hanson and John Parke advertised themselves as specialist "Africa goods" or "Africa checks" suppliers, while Manchester's key financial institution in the 1790s, Heywood's bank, was funded by the profits of the Heywoods' slave-trading activities.

The mill and the gin

The development of steam power heralded the age of the cotton mill. Manchester's first was established at Shudehill in 1782, followed by the Salvin's and Piccadilly mills in the late 1780s.

The construction of the Bridgewater canal provided regular, cheaper coal supplies to power the new machinery and improved transport links to Liverpool.

The invention of the cotton gin in 1793 proved crucial in shaping Manchester's future. From that moment, the spread of the plantation slavery complex across North America and the booming Lancashire textile industry became symbiotically linked.

The annual US cotton crop grew from 9,000 bales to 210,000 between 1790 and 1800. During the same period, the number of cotton mills in Manchester had grown from three to 19 and the population had increased to more than 70,000. Even though Britain ended involvement in the slave trade in 1807, the reliance of the town's development and prosperity on enslavement actually deepened year-by-year.

From virtually zero in 1790, raw cotton from the US made up 40% of British imports in the 1800s, 50% during the 1810s, and 71% in the 1820s.

Production, poverty, protest

McConnel & Kennedy's and Murray's mills on the banks of the newly built Rochdale canal were some of the first in Ancoats, the world's first industrial suburb, which emerged in the early 19th century.

Child and adult workers moved between deafening, dangerous factories and cramped slums with poor sanitation and little open space. In 1819, 41% of children born to men working at McConnel & Kennedy had not survived to adulthood. From 1832, regular deadly cholera outbreaks hit Manchester's working-class communities.

Irish migrants, often pushed into the lowest-paid, most insecure work, had a major impact on the town's growth and culture. Important centres of Irish residence included Angel Meadow and Little Ireland, near the Chorlton Mills complex.

The Peterloo massacre of 1819 sent shockwaves through Britain, as peaceful working-class protesters demanding universal manhood suffrage were attacked by the authorities. The Manchester Guardian was founded by a group of cotton merchants and manufacturers in reaction to the massacre.

Intensifying growth in the age of reform

Manchester's middle classes moved to the suburbs, while the industrial centre became increasingly overcrowded, the population growing by 50,000 over 10 years to reach 163,700 in 1831 - a 132% increase since 1800. British cotton exports had increased almost eightfold in the same period.

The 1830 opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway - the world's first intercity line - further expanded import and export capacity. Manchester gained parliamentary representation two years later, electing Mark Philips, cousin to the Guardian founder and enslaver George Philips, although only one-fifth of adult men were eligible to vote.

The Abolition Act of 1833 replaced slavery in the British empire with a system of apprenticeship, with full emancipation following in 1838. Former enslavers received a total of £20m of government compensation for their former human property which was reinvested into railways, industry, and key local institutions. The formerly enslaved received no compensation.

Cottonopolis

The success of the Anti-Corn Law League and establishment of the Free Trade Hall in the 1840s burnished the reputation of Manchester's middle classes as leading proponents of Victorian political and economic liberalism. The working classes formed trade unions and Chartist organisations to advance their rights.

Writers such as Tocqueville and Engels established Manchester's reputation as the "shock city" of industrial capitalism, detailing the emergence of an entirely new mode of social and economic life and the unprecedented pollution created by mass fossil-fuelled production.

The number of cotton mills peaked at 108 in 1853, the year Manchester was granted city status. The name "Cottonopolis" - literally, the city of cotton - came into use around this time.

The US cotton crop grew by a factor of seven from 1830 to 1860 while UK cotton exports grew five times larger. Meeting labour demands, Manchester's population reached more than 344,000 in 1861.

Cotton famine to warehouse city

As the United States descended into civil war in 1861 over the issue of slavery, 440,000 cotton workers across the north-west of England, and their wider families and communities, experienced unemployment, poverty, and hunger as the Union blockade of Confederate exports created the "cotton famine".

Public opinion remained generally favourable to abolition thanks to 15 years of organising and campaigning. Abraham Lincoln's public declaration of thanks "to the working-men of Manchester" for their solidarity is commemorated by the statue in today's Lincoln Square.

The Union victory in the US civil war led to emancipation in 1865, but slave-grown cotton from Brazil continued to make up a minority of imports until 1888.

Much of the Victorian architectural and transportational fabric of central Manchester today derives from its role in the late 19th century as the commercial and warehouse hub of the wider Lancashire manufacturing region.

Source notes
Historical maps
All the historical maps in the visual tour have been provided by Manchester Libraries, Information & Archives, with special thanks to Dr Martin Dodge, department of geography, University of Manchester. The publication date of each historical map shown should be treated with a degree of caution as the street geography and surveying may be older and inconsistent. The publication dates and full map titles are as follows:
Casson and Berry, 1750.
Green's map, 1794.
Aston's map, 1816.
Slater's map, 1848.
Bradshaw's map, 1879. The data for the locations highlighted on the maps has been provided by Dr Matthew Stallard. The visualisation of the locations of the known Manchester business suppliers includes 31 addresses; there are a further US raw cotton export data
Source: James L GB/UK manufactured cotton exports
Source: Edward Baines, History Of The Cotton Manufacture In Great Britain (London, 1937).

Satellite imagery
Via Google maps: ©2023 TerraMetrics, CNES/Airbus, Getmapping Plc, Infoterra Ltd & Bluesky, Landsat/Copernicus, Maxar Technologies, The GeoInformation Group Watkins, King Cotton: A Historical and Statistical Review 1790 to 1908 (New York, 1908) five known suppliers for which the addresses are not documented in sufficient detail to include on the map. The addresses are compiled from Manchester directories between 1781 and 1800 and include all Manchester suppliers to 50 voyages owned by the Liverpool trafficker William Davenport, all businesses in the directories specifically listed as focusing on the African market, and the well-documented slave trade suppliers the Hibberts, Touchets, and Rawlinsons.

This article was amended on 26 June to correct an error relating to the year in which the Liverpool and Manchester Railway was opened; the correct date is 1830.

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Cotton Capital: how slavery made Manchester the world's first industrial city

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A visual exploration of historical Manchester's rapid growth into a 'shock city' - and how slavery was key to the emergence of Cottonopolis

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programming patterns in the industrial revolution  - By Akshaye Pentela 

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programming patterns in the industrial revolution  - By Akshaye Pentela 

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This image shows the various patterns that the jacquard loom machine could make

Joseph-Marrie Jacquard - a French weaver and merchant, who in 1804, created the jacquard loom machine

His Jacquard machine, which built of of prior developments by inventor Jacques de vaucanson

his invention caused the prices of expensive clothing to decrease, because now much more complex patterns where easier to make.

How it works

first a designer paints their design on a square paper (cards)

The cards, each with their own combination of punched holes corresponding to the part of the pattern they represent, are then laced together

Then these cards with holes move trough a matrix of pins and attach too hooks which activate their wharp threads

A shuttle then travels across the loom, carrying the weft thread under the warp threads that have been raised and over those that have not.

Their are between 7000 and 8000 looms in England

These machines started being produced in 1834 and they stopped the production in 1980

The Jacquard loom is often considered a predecessor to modern computing because its interchangeable punch cards inspired the design of early computers.

External source information

The first prototype of the jacquard loom was made in Calabria by a Italian weaver in the 15 century

Currently jacquard looms are ran, maintained by computers

The threading of a Jacquard machine is so labor-intensive that many looms are threaded only once

External resources

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacquard_machine

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Manchester’s Smoke Nuisance: Air Pollution In The Industrial City

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Manchester’s Smoke Nuisance: Air Pollution In The Industrial City

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The burning of fossil fuels (such as coal) during the Industrial Revolution is the main reason that Manchester suffers pollution. Coal was established as a dominant source of energy at the time, and became a key component of the revolution. It’s importance is why the air of Manchester is so polluted.

When coal is burned, smoke and soot is produced. Smoke, dirt, smells, dirty homes, and small particles in the air were a result of this.

Not only was coal being burned, there was a LOT of coal being burned! By the mid-1840’s, Manchester was home to approximately 500 chimneys that burned coal and released harmful smoke constantly. By the end of the 19th century this number became 2000

Impacts on health: the small particles inhaled by people and other factors caused coughing, stinging eyes, respiratory diseases (problems with breathing/lungs), overall increase in deaths

1842 - Manchester Association for the Prevention of Smoke was founded by activists who were against the idea of air pollution (by coal) and attempted to find ways to end this “smoke nuisance”

Ted Wadsworth - an anti-air pollution man that used the boiler stoker in 1922. It kept the amount of smoke produced during coal burning to a minimum by keeping the fire burning briskly. This couldn’t get rid of the conflict but certainly curbed the amount of smoke in Manchester.

20th century - Manchester’s air pollution steadily improved, thanks to the Manchester Association for the Prevention of Smoke. Manchester‘s condition was still the worst of the worst until the 1956 Clean Air Act, in which “smokeless zones” were established.

Website: https://dobraszczyk.wordpress.com/2017/12/07/back-to-black-manchester-smoke/

1902 - 300 tons of soot fell back into Manchester. This is because the city has a damp climate, hills on 3 sides (so it’s difficult for particles to get out), and heavy reliance on coal.

The effects of air pollution were unimaginable: buildings would get destroyed and go black in 3 years tops, water gathered a layer of soot if left out, plants could not survive, and black snow fell in the winter.

Smoke was known as a sign of wealth, which drowned out the cries of activists from the Manchester Association for the Prevention of Smoke and Noxious Vapors Abatement Association who said that smoke was a health hazard and waste of energy.

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A street sign advertising Boddington's Breweries

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Boddington's Breweries in Manchester operated from around 1778 to 2005, making the company 227 years old

It was created by Thomas Caister and Thomas Fray on the outskirts of Manchester to avoid paying extra taxes

A reason that greatly contributed to their massive success is that because of the large populations entering the city during the start of the revolution, the company had a greater audience

An employee named Henry Boddington eventually became the owner at 34 years old in 1832, when he started as a family business

During the 1870's and 1880's, the brewery became the largest and widely known across Manchester

The business was reported to be the first to install telephones between the locations

Even though they experienced some hardships towards the end of the Industrial Revolution and during WW1 and the Great Depression, they managed until their shop was air raided in 1940

https://beerandbrewing.com/dictionary/o8Co3FDnTi/

It was reported that since their opening in 1788 to 1985, they produced 560,000 barrels of beer

The company reached to this point using only three small brewers

Although they closed officially in 2005, they are considered as the world's largest brewer

Zainab Alam

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Progarmming Patterns: The Story Of The Jacquard Loom

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Progarmming Patterns: The Story Of The Jacquard Loom

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Ties two industries together textile and computing

It was invented by Joeseph-Marie Jacquard, who was a French weaver and merchant

Revlotionized how pattern cloth could be woven

Improved on the design of Jacques de Vaucanson

made it possible for detailed and complex to be manufactured by workers with no skill set

The workers could make the cloth in a shorter amount of time than a master weaver

caused fashionable cloth prices to plummet, because it could be mass-produced

works in many different parts

a weft is passed over and under a set of threads at right angles

To save time on this the machine used interchangeable cards punched with small holes

Meaning that designs could be replicated over and over again

It caused a revolution in machines by using a very basic version of a binary code

Inspired by the design of early computers

By Javin Antony

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Atomic Theory & Works

1801 - The Law of Partial Pressure: states the pressure of a mixed gas is the sum of the pressures that each of its components would exert if occupying the same space.

Henry Roscoe - Chemist - The constituents of a gaseous mixture remain homogeneously mixed instead of separating into layers according to their density

1803 - Dalton created the first table of atomic weights and wrote a well-received paper.

Dalton's theory was based on the concept that each element consists of its own unique brand of indivisible atom

Atoms of one element are the same but differ from the atoms of other elements.

Dalton was able to calculate atomic weights from percentage compositions of compounds, using an arbitrary system to determine the likely atomic structure of each compound.

Dalton assigned atomic weights to the atoms of the 20 elements known at the time

This later contributed to the creation of the periodic table, which unified and enabled the chemical revolution.

James Dalton Background

Dalton -1766–1844- was born into a modest Quaker family in Cumberland, England

He joined the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, where he was provided with an environment in which he could work and laboratory facilities.

The First Book 'Meteorological Observations (1793)' was mostly written on meteorological topics.

His Experiments

Investigated pressure and other properties of gases, from which he inferred that gases must consist of tiny, individual particles that are in constant, random motion.

Researched the properties of compounds, which are substances that consist of more than one element. He showed that a given compound is always comprised of the same elements in the same whole-number ratio and that different compounds consist of different elements or ratios.

External Srcs:

¹https://www.sciencehistory.org/education/scientific-biographies/john-dalton/

²https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-physical-science-flexbook-2.0/section/3.12/primary/lesson/daltons-atomic-theory-ms-ps/

-Ishaan Shah

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James Joule, From Establishment Irritant to Honored Scientist

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James Joule, From Establishment Irritant to Honored Scientist

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Science + Industry Museum:

James Joule was born in Salford during the year of 1818. He was the son of a brewer and was closely mentored by leading chemist John Dalton. He always had a passion for science leading to his discovery.

James Joule would inherit his father’s business. During his time as a brewer he experimented with more efficient ways to power his brewer.

In 1837, Joule defined the relationship between heat produced and the current flowing through a conductor.

After Joule’s acceptance into the Electrical Society his law of conductivity was also accepted. But he wanted to explore more.

The question he posed was how much work can be extracted from a given source. The scientific establishments of this time were strongly opposed to this.

In 1843, when Joule presented his experiments that showed heat could be generated by an electric current he was met with silence and rejection. This was due to it opposing the caloric theory; which prevailed at the time.

In 1844, after more experimentation he submitted his work to the Royal Society, who rejected him.

Joule’s theory at the time was not accepted due to the fact that it opposed the caloric theory. Joule suggested heat to be a form of molecular motion and that it would never die out. The caloric theory stated heat to be a material. At this time the existence of atoms and molecules were not widely accepted so the theory was slow to be accepted.

Due to Joule’s skill to measure up to 1/200 of a Fahrenheit many of his contemporaries were quick to believe that his theory wasn’t feasible. This number was almost impossible for the time as technology lacked the ability to do so. Many people believed that Joule was lying about his data in his experiments. However, Joule’s skill as a brewer and John Benjamin Dancer helped to create instruments that could actually achieve this.

After publishing his paper in 1845 in the Philosophical Magazine he also presented his paper on the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat to the British Association of Cambridge. He was introduced to Micheal Farady, William Thompson, and in the future Lord Kelvin.

Finally Joule had his success, in 1847 he presented his ideas to the British Association at Oxford. The event was attended by Faraday and Kelvin, eventually his ideas became the cornerstone for the First Law of Thermodynamics.

In 1850 he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1852 he was awarded the Royal Medal, and finally in 1872 he was placed as the president for the British Association for the Advancement of Science; the same group who rejected his theories in 1843.

Outside Source:

James Joule was born with a spinal disorder that caused him to prefer studies over physical activity.

James Joule experimented very patiently. He rarely made mistakes and was careful in his research and papers.

Joule’s was not the first person to suggest it but Joule’s work highly effected the new study of heat called thermodynamics.

Source:

https://answersingenesis.org/creation-scientists/profiles/james-joule-1818-1889/?srsltid=AfmBOor-SSlY0i5iPXPPNenQqwebQ1mWNQ3tKF-9O4U_6_zrHoq020to

Hari Gudugunti

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Poor Conditions in Industrialized Manchester

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Poor Conditions in Industrialized Manchester

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In the world today, many people are still struggling with access to clean drinking water and unsafe sanitation. These issues are very high on the global agenda for sustainable development which is continuously being worked on.

By 1842, Manchester’s population exploded from 60,000 to 142,000. The population increase caused environmental conditions to go unchecked.

Along with this, Manchester began to be known as one of the filthiest, overcrowded, and unhealthy places in Britain. In 1837, the death rate even plummeted all the way down to 17 years old for the labouring population. Diseases like typhoid, dysentery, and even cholera began to hit the towns.

The heart of the problem was unsafe water supply. To start, of only 47,000 houses in the town, only 11,000 had a piped water supply. 12,000 got water from a shared tap or standpipe in the street, and everybody else got water from polluted wells and streams.

For human waste, up to 30 families shared a privy midden which was a wooden seat built over a pit, there version of a bathroom. The waste was rarely emptied and eventually seeped into water sources and flowed into the streets. Some plumbed toilets did exist but they connected to drains which flowed directly into the towns rivers.

Eventually, privy maddens were upgraded a bit by turning them into pail closets so a removable bucket could be emptied every night by a cart that would take it and turn it into manure.

The early sewer system was dangerous and inadequate because even though the clay pipes did allow the waste to flow better, it still emptied out directly into Manchester’s rivers. Keep in mind that these rivers are were many people are actually getting water from.

Outside Source- https://www.thoughtco.com/public-health-in-the-industrial-revolution-1221641

Towns were usually segregated by class and the working class tended to suffer the worst conditions. Many of the governing bodies never saw these condition so protests were often ignored

The housing patter was also very bad. It consisted of many high density, back-to back structures that were poor, damp, badly ventilated, with very little kitchens and many families sharing a single tap and privy

All these conditions caused many deaths and diseases to occur. The death rate rose very high and infant mortality was also very high. Diseases like tuberculosis, typhus, and after 1831, cholera began to rapidly spread through towns and unsafe drinking water.

By Sahan Phadnis

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12 million Africans were involved in the transatlantic slave trade and were forced to work on plantations to produce sugar, tobacco, and cotton.

European nations gained a lot of money from the slave trade and the products being produced but the Africans who were involved faced atrocities with no wages.

Slave traders were given cotton textiles for human labor and they were transported back to Europe.

The huge demand for cotton and the cotton gin boosted the textile industry and the slave trade became larger as more labor was needed.

Slaves who bought their freedom became abolitionists to eradicate the practice of slavery.

Many revolutions on transport ships and slow damage to plantations by the slaves occurred.

About 2,000 Manchester people were in support and signed and petition for a bill that would end the slave trade in Britain, known as the Foreign Slave Trade Abolition Bill.

https://www.theguardian.com/news/ng-interactive/2023/apr/03/cotton-capital-how-slavery-made-manchester-the-worlds-first-industrial-city

Coal and steam power were crucial in powering the cotton industry after the invention of the cotton gin.

The Liverpool and Manchester railway opened in 1830 and exponentially propelled the cotton industry in Manchester as import and export capacity grew with transportation.

Not just slaves, but immigrants were also pivotal in the boom of the industry as more and more were moving into the city rapidly

Yuvraj Dharmapuri

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In Manchester, for 227 years, beer was brewed by a famous brewery called Boddington’s beer

The brewery was believed to be founded in 1778

It was built just outside the boundaries of Manchester

The brewery was created on the eve of the Industrial Revolution, when growth in population surged, creating one of the most famous local brewed beer

Henry Boddington arrived in 1832, he was only 34 years old when he became the sole proprietor of the company

The brewery was a site for all sorts of inventions like the telephone link

Innovation and progress from the Industrial Revolution fueled the company’s popularity and taste, as it grew tremendously, giving one more reason to remember Manchester

It was typically brewed within households, and it came to be known as ‘Table Beer’

By this point their output had grown from 10,000 to 100,000 barrels a year – making it the biggest brewery in the city

Through hard work and new fermentation methods, Boddington’s beer came to be known as “The cream of Manchester”

Outside Source

https://www.manchestersfinest.com/long-reads/the-rise-fall-of-boddingtons-the-cream-of-manchester/

Pranav Natarajan

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John Dalton: Atoms, Eyesight, and Auroras 

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John Dalton: Atoms, Eyesight, and Auroras 

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John Dalton was born in 1766 in Cumberland and later moved to Manchester, where he worked as a tutor in natural philosophy and science at the Manchester Academy. He eventually became a private tutor, including to future scientist James Prescott Joule.

Dalton joined the Literary & Philosophical Society in Manchester, where he gained access to research facilities and became an influential member, eventually serving as its President.

Dalton's atomic theory proposed that each element consists of unique indivisible atoms, and he developed the Law of Partial Pressures to explain the behavior of gases in mixtures, laying the foundation for modern chemistry.

He created a table of atomic weights for the known elements in 1803, pioneering the concept of atomic weights and later using ball-and-stick models to illustrate molecular structure.

Dalton, who suffered from colour blindness, developed a theory about the cause of the condition. Although his hypothesis was proven incorrect, his work led to the condition being referred to as "Daltonism."

He kept a detailed weather diary for 57 years and became fascinated by phenomena like the aurora borealis, documenting these occurrences and contributing to the study of meteorology.

John Dalton was highly respected in his lifetime, receiving numerous honors, including honorary degrees and a life-size statue in Manchester. His contributions to science, particularly atomic theory, remain foundational to modern chemistry.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Dalton

John Dalton is best known for developing the atomic theory of matter in the early 19th century. He proposed that each element is composed of atoms of a single, unique type, and that chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of these atoms.

He created Dalton's Law, which states that in a mixture of non-reacting gases, the total pressure exerted is the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases.

Dalton also made significant contributions to the study of color blindness, which he himself had. He was the first to scientifically describe the condition, which is sometimes referred to "Daltonism" in his honor.

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Slums and Suburbs-Water, Pollution and Sanitation within Industrialized Manchester

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Slums and Suburbs-Water, Pollution and Sanitation within Industrialized Manchester

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Today, 1 in 3 people have a scarce amount of drinking water, similar to what 19th century Manchester was like

From 1800 to 1842, Manchester's population increased by roughly 80,000 people, leading to overcrowding and more competition for water

As a result, death rates skyrocketed, due to the overcrowded and unsanitary living conditions

In 1837, the life expectancy in Manchester has plummeted to only 17 years

Diseases such as typhoid, cholera, and dysentery spread like wildfire throughout the newly urbanized city

The root of these problems was the poor water supply, as only 23% of houses had a piped water supply, and 24% needed to rely on a shared pipe, which often carried diseases

The manufacturing industries within Manchester dumped gallons upon gallons of dirty water and waste into the water, especially the textile industry, which was a repeat offender of ruining river conditions

Manufacturers believed that there was no other way to get rid of this waste, and refused to control river pollution in any way shape or form

Second Source

The expansion of Manchester led to water supply,sewage, and housing issues across the urban area

Smok poured out of the chimneys of factories every day, making breathing difficult and visibility limited

Groups such as the “Manchester of a Noxious Vapours Abatement Society” raised awareness for the pollution that was occurring on the daily

https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/may/29/manchester-report-climate-change

Sahil Mathur

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The city of Manchester in England was built on cotton as it was once the international center of the world’s cotton industry

The city was given the name “Cottonopolis” in 1854 as that’s when the Lancashire cotton industry was at its peak (referred to Manchester and its satellite towns, each of which specialized in an aspect of the cotton industry)

In 1860, 80% of the cotton that was processed in the mills around and within Manchester were grown by enslaved Africans on plantations in the Southern US states

Cotton was bought and used as they desired because of the system of human exploitation explained above

The Richard Arkwright Water Frame made the mass production of cotton yarn possible for the first time

The cotton gin helped speed up the process of cleaning the seeds from raw cotton fiber and reducing the cost of it as well

Some natural factors also played a role in the cotton industry such as Manchester’s damp climate which suited the raw cotton fiber, helping keep it smooth throughout spinning and weaving also the rivers (ex River Irk) helped power water mills that provided all the water needed for bleaching and dying

Sources:

Info: MANCHESTER COTTONOPOLIS – Selvedge Magazine

Picture: Journey of Cotton from Plant to Fabric Understanding Its Impact on Fashion and Sustainability - The Environmental Blog

By: Jeslyn Rhenius

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Richard Arkwright: “Father of the Factory System”

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Richard Arkwright: “Father of the Factory System”

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• Richard Arkwright influenced a major transformation in the textiles industry & created a vision of machine powered manufacturing factories

• Arkwright was born in 1732 and developed a successful hair cutting and wig making business in Bolton

• In 1767, Arkwright met John Kay and he helped developed his first prototype spinning machine.

• In 1769 Arkwright opened his first multi stores factory in Derbyshire with his business partners

• He quickly realized that water power was more efficient for his machines than horsepower. He installed huge waterwheels in his mills driven by the river situated next to his factory. These spinning machines became known as water frames. The water frame was developed fully in 1175. It became installed in most water powered factories to spin large quantities of cotton yarn.

• Even though his invention of the water frame was replaced later by the mule, his contribution to the cotton industry was very significant and drove the idea of the factory system.

• Overall, Richard not only invented the first cotton factory but also created the water frame to assist in the speedy production of cotton.

• Arkwright also invented a carding machine that created textile threads at rate much faster than those created by to the laborious wok of a single skilled laborer sitting at a hand spun spinning machine.

• The design use water I spun a large water wheel that drew out, spun, and spooled 128 threads at a time in mass production much faster than the Spinning Jenny.

• In conclusion, Arkwright created a the factory system, the water frame, the carding machine, and revolutionized the textile industry in England.

SRAVYA RACHAKONDA

https://historyofinformation.com/detail.php?id=419

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SLUMS AND SUBURBS: WATER AND SANITATION IN THE FIRST INDUSTRIAL CITY

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SLUMS AND SUBURBS: WATER AND SANITATION IN THE FIRST INDUSTRIAL CITY

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There was a rapid increase in the population of Manchester

This caused the city to become cramped and filthy

Only 20% of households had access to tap water, the others had to use shared taps and wells which were usually extremely polluted

Chemical waste from the factories and human waste was dumped right into the rivers that people used

Most water was not safe drink and caused deaths

All these reasons caused a huge buildup of unsanitary environments which caused many people to die from diseases and illnesses

Life expectancy was very low in Manchester

Outside source

https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/may/29/manchester-report-climate-change

There was always a canopy of smoke over Manchester

One of the first places where acid rain was observed

Most people lived on the streets

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Water Pollution and Sanitation Infrastructure

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Water Pollution and Sanitation Infrastructure

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Manchester began to gain popularity due to its booming textiles but the economic expansion caused environmental deterioration

The city quickly began to gain a reputation as one of the most filthy places in Britain, further proven by soaring death rate and plummeting life expectancy.

Only about one fifth of houses in the town had piped water supply, causing others to rely on shared tap, strand pipe, wells, or streams which all tended to be polluted

Human waste was regularly emptied into rivers and even overflowed into streets only further worsened the conditions of the water most people relied on

Many manufacturing industries dumped gallons of contaminated water and waste into rivers, despite the fact that they needed pure water to run the factories

They argued that his was the most effective was to get rid of waste products and resisted attempts to control river pol lion in an effort improve peoples lives

The waste build up in the city increased Manchester’s vulnerability to flooding which effectively brought attention to the environmental impact of river pollution.

Housing in the city (different source)

https://www.campop.geog.cam.ac.uk/blog/2024/10/17/industrial-manchester/

The middle class was able to like in “more respectable” units which where typically placed in such a way where one unit was on the ground floor and there was another above it.

The working class was subjected to the “more affordable” cellars with separate access to the street which were typically in terrible conditions such as cold and sewage runoff.

These houses were usually in a back to back format, with an alleyway in between them which was used as a place to store all waste and filth that accumulated over time.

- Pia Shah

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Slums and Suburbs: Water and Sanitation in the First Industrial City

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Slums and Suburbs: Water and Sanitation in the First Industrial City

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Rapid population growth in Manchester led to the deterioration of environmental conditions.

Manchester was known as one of the most filthy, unhygienic, and overcrowded places in Britain, causing death rates to soar and life expectancies to plummet (diseases like typhoid, dysentery, and cholera spread).

The central environmental issue was its inadequate water and sanitation infrastructure, as majority of the people shared water supply or drew water from polluted wells or streams.

Human waste seeped into watercourses and overflowed into streets, and the plumbed toilets that did exist disposed in the town’s rivers.

Manchester’s manufacturing industries dumped gallons of contaminated water, tones of solid waste, and some of the worst dyes were dumped into the rivers.

Some manufacturers argued that there was no alternative to getting rid of their waste production and resisted against pollution control because they believed it would cause economic damage.

The buildup of waste in rivers increased the city’s vulnerability to flooding as pollution was at a rising rate (about three inches per year).

Outside Source: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z99m2v4/revision/4

As a result of sewers not being built for the new working-class houses, back to back houses had to share a privy (often between ten houses or more).

Cesspits typically were designed to leak as this was easier to collect however it had a deadly impact on the water supply and caused diseases.

No water was safe during the time because the water was taken from contaminated rivers (containing human waste and pollution) and even rainwater might have been unsafe as it had fallen through the smoke from factories.

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The Singer Sewing Machine was invented by Issac Singer in 1851 the revolutionized the garment factory but offering a faster and more efficient way to sew fabrics compared to hand sewing methods.

It allowed for mass production of clothing significantly reducing the time needed to make garment and improved the speed and scale of textile factory’s making it textile goods more cheaper =

One of Singers key innovations was the introduction of the foot pedal or treadle which allowed workers to operate the machine hands free increasing productivity

The singer machine became widely adopted in factories leading to standardization in sewing methods and sizes which was important for the mass production of clothing.

It was marketed internationally and by the late 19th century it was used in factories around the world helping clothes to be produced faster

The industrial sewing machine boosted worker productivity allowing factories to produce much more clothing in a shorter amount which contributed heavily to the growth of the ready made garment industry.

These machines tried making these machines affordable which brought it to a greater worker. Singer used a buy know pay later system to cause smaller manufactures to be able to afford this.

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https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-4-431-55507-0_4

Industrialization in Manchester polluted the city and caused many health problems for the people.

The main source of air pollution emissions in Industrial cities was coal. Coal was burned in huge smokestacks to power factories, releasing smoke.

The coal smoke made the air noxious and dangerous to breath in.

Residents and workers suffered dismal, dark skies, dirty homes and clothes, and respiratory disease was widespread and led to many deaths.

Manchester’s factory owners wanted more technologically advanced engines to power factories and increase profits by making it possible to for engines to produce more power per ton of coal burned.

As engines got bigger and more engines were installed in factories, by the end of the 19th century there were almost 200 industrial chimneys polluting the air.

Smoke abatement societies eventually emerged in the mid-19th century. These activists argued for technological solutions to reduce smoke.

The Smoke Nuisance Abatement Act of 1821 was passed because landowners recognized that air pollution damaged property.

Iron manufacturers were different from other manufacturers because they used the undesirable slack coal from their coal mines as fuel. Most iron manufacturers were anti-smoke bill.

In the 1840s, citizens frequently escaped to the suburbs, away from the smoke.

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https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/may/29/manchester-report-climate-change, Manchesters economy attracted immigrants, population more than 50,000 in 1851, water supply had been destroyed by pollution 

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MANCHESTER’S SMOKE NUISANCE: AIR POLLUTION IN THE INDUSTRIAL CITY

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MANCHESTER’S SMOKE NUISANCE: AIR POLLUTION IN THE INDUSTRIAL CITY

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Industrialization in Manchester had lots of effects but heavily polluted the city which led to health problems to the people living there. This was a massive problem during the time, as its estimated that even in present day 7 millionn people die because of polluted air, and everyone is impacted by it.

The main reason for this air pollution is the burning of fossil fuels to power factory’s. Coal was the main source of energy for 19th-century Manchester, and during the time, nobody understood the long term effects of burning all this coal. Soon enough, people started coughing and had stinging eyes due to the pollution, and it was just the start.

During the peak of Manchesters cotton industry and coal powered steam engines, it also became the peak for the amount of pollution during the time, darkening the skies. This had been known as “the smoke nuisance” which had terrible consequences.

By the mid-1840’s, there were 500 smoking industrial chimneys on in Manchester and this number would only go up. This smoke has been associated with thriving economy’s at the time, and for the average families it was known as their source of jobs.

The main problem that Manchester faced was the overuse of burning coal, which release carbon dioxide, ash, and water vapor. This release, even in small amounts, when inhaled poses an immediate risk to health of the people. In 1820, engine powered cotton mills were introduced to try and limit the amount of smoke released.

Dedicated campaigners fought to reduce Manchesters smoke problem from the formation of Manchesters association of the prevention of smoke n 1842. These campaigners fought to try and clean up the air, and after the 1956 Clean Air Act, it was the first time in 100 years the city’s citizens could breathe the air without worry.

The long term consequences still existed. This amount of smoke contributed to the greenhouse effect and an increase in global temperature causing climate change. Manchester was the first industrial city, and was the first to experience this air pollution as the brith place of the Industrial Revolution. With time, the negative impacts of this time period have been softened but still can be seen today.

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The Impact of Slavery and Cotton on Manchester 

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The Impact of Slavery and Cotton on Manchester 

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Manchester was called Cottonopolis and had about 99 cotton-spinning mills.

Manchester had warm precipitation = good for separating and spinning cotton.

Cotton mills and factories lead to more population.

In the 15th century, 12 million African Americans were forced out of Africa.

Slave traders sold Indian cotton textiles to West Africa for slaves.

Enslaved people grew cotton, which was supplied at Manchester’s mills.

Slavery increased business and thus was liked by manufactures, but the working class wanted slavery to end.

After the slave trade ended, Manchester manufactures sold goods to Spanish slave traders untill the 1900ths.

Raw cotton from the Americas was highly demanded.

After America became a new country, Manchester got cotton from India. India had fertile soil.

Soon by the help of Manchester, Britain was in charge of 80% of cotton production in the world.

Apoorva Vutukuru

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Atomic Theory - James Dalton - Still Editing

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Atomic Theory - James Dalton - Still Editing

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1801 - The Law of Partial Pressure: states the pressure of a mixed gas is the sum of the pressures that each of its components would exert if occupying the same space.

Henry Roscoe - Chemist - The constituents of a gaseous mixture remain homogeneously mixed instead of separating into layers according to their density

1803 - Dalton created the first table of atomic weights, and wrote a well received paper.

Dalton's theory was based on the concept that each element consists of its own unique brand of indivisible atom

Atoms of one elements are the same, but differ from the atoms of other elements.

Dalton assigned atomic weights to the atoms of the 20 elements known at the time

This later contributed to the creation of the periodic table, which unified and enabled the chemical revolution.

-Ishaan Shah

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With industrialization in Manchester came other side effects such as air pollution.

The Industrial Revolution, particularly in Britain, established fossil fuels as a main energy source to power factories, mills, mines, and other industrialized practices.

At the time, climate change was unheard of and the world did not know about the consequences of their actions.

One of these consequences was air pollution; as Manchester factories in the 1800s began to burn coal and release smoke through the large smokestacks.

By the 1840s, 500 chimneys were releasing smoke in Manchester, polluting the air and making it difficult to breathe in the city.

Higher death rates due to respiratory problems were a result of factories such as these, not only in Manchester, but all through various industrial areas.

As fossil fuel-powered machinery grew more production-efficient, they grew less and less energy-efficient, releasing pollutants at a faster pace.

Activists at the time began to realize their impact on the environment, but lack of organization and recognition of true underlying problems unfortunately led their causes going nowhere.

Many believed that the air pollution was simply a part of growing economy, a fair price to pay for the industrialization and rapid growth of Manchester.

Pollution finally died down when the 1956 Clean Air Act created smokeless zones within Manchester.

The air pollution caused by industrialization throughout parts of the world such as Manchester taught us a valuable lesson about what climate change really can do and the conditions that are fostered when such issues are repeatedly ignored.