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Type 2 diabetes accounts for 90–95% of all diabetes cases worldwide.

According to the CDC (2025), about 38 million Americans have diabetes, and roughly 1 in 5 don’t know they have it.

The global prevalence has increased dramatically over the last few decades, largely due to rising obesity rates and unhealthy lifestyles.

Most common in adults over 45, but increasingly diagnosed in children and adolescents due to obesity.

Slightly more common in men than women in many populations.

Higher prevalence among:

African American

Hispanic/Latino

Native American

Pacific Islander

Asian American populations

Rates are highest in high-income countries with urban lifestyles, but increasing rapidly in developing nations.

Major contributor to cardiovascular disease, stroke, kidney failure, and blindness.

Increases risk of premature death by 2–3 times.

World Health Organization (WHO)
Diabetes: Key Facts. World Health Organization website.
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diabetes. Accessed October 20, 2025.

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1. Cannot be changed. These are the traits a person cannot control but do increase their risk of type 2 diabetes:

Age: Risk increases after age 45.

Family history: Having a parent, brother, or sister with Type 2 diabetes increases risk.

Ethnicity: Higher risk among African American, Hispanic/Latino, Native American, Pacific Islander, and Asian American populations.

History of gestational diabetes: Women who had diabetes during pregnancy are more likely to develop Type 2 diabetes later.

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS): Associated with insulin resistance and higher diabetes risk.

2. Can be changed or managed. These are the lifestyle or health related facts that can be improved:

Overweight and obesity: Especially abdominal or central obesity (fat around the waist) increases insulin resistance.

Physical inactivity: Lack of regular exercise reduces insulin sensitivity.

Unhealthy diet: Diets high in refined carbohydrates, sugar-sweetened beverages, and saturated fats raise risk.

High blood pressure (hypertension): Often part of the metabolic syndrome that contributes to diabetes.

Abnormal cholesterol levels: Low HDL (“good”) cholesterol or high triglycerides.

Smoking: Increases insulin resistance and risk for cardiovascular complications.

Excess alcohol intake: Can lead to weight gain and pancreatic stress.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).
Type 2 Diabetes Risk Factors. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website.
https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/basics/risk-factors.html. Accessed October 20, 2025.

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Primary anatomical structures of Type 2 Diabetes involve: The liver, pancreas, fat tissue and skeletal muscle.

The pancreas releases the hormone insulin into the blood stream.

Beta cells in the pancreas create and release insulin into the bloodstream, regulating blood glucose levels.

Blood glucose levels increase after eating, which bring more glucose into the blood stream. This triggers the beta cells to release an appropriate amount of insulin to regulate levels.

This promotes transportation of glucose into the cells

Skeletal muscles and fat tissue need insulin to unlock their cells to allow glucose in

When the pancreas releases insulin, the liver needs to be signaled in order to store an appropriate amount of blood glucose in case the pancreas is unable to keep up and needs stored energy released.

Vargas, E. (2022, September 26). Biochemistry, insulin metabolic effects. StatPearls [Internet]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK525983/

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Insulin Resistance, this is when your body does not produce insulin correctly

Beta cells work overtime to make extra insulin; which leads to the pancreas being unable to keep up to have blood glucose at normal levels.

Middle-aged to older adults are more likely to develop type 2 diabetes coming from the body growing older and a decreased level of physical activity also increasing obesity levels.

Some symptoms involve - cuts/bruises are slow healing, extreme fatigue, blurry vision

Type 2 diabetes is the most common form; in the United States alone, up to 34 million people have type 2 diabetes

Diet, medication and exercise are some ways to manage/control blood glucose levels

American Diabetes Association

Understanding type 2 diabetes. Understanding Type 2 Diabetes | ADA. (n.d.). https://diabetes.org/about-diabetes/type-2

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Increased Cases in Youth Type 2 Diabetes

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Increased Cases in Youth Type 2 Diabetes

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In 2021, there was roughly 41,000 cases of type 2 diabetes in youth, with a projection of 220,000 in 2060.

It is more common for children around 16 year old to develop type 2 diabetes, although there are rare cases in children under 10 years old.

Young girls are more likely to develop type 2 diabetes where insulin resistance can be increased by hormonal changes.

Development of type 2 diabetes in youth are more prevalent in Hispanic, African American and Asian/Pacific Islander ethnicities and areas such as Asia, North Africa and the Middle East.

Lack of sleep, poor diet and decreased levels of physical activity are a few modifiable risk factors and ways to protect increased risk; as genetics and ethnicity are some non-modifiable factors.

Some common complications are nerve damage, kidney disease and cardiovascular disease; as youth ages are 2-4 times more likely to result fatally.

Medical resources are likely to be utilized more frequently with hospital visits and medication, increasing overall medical costs.

Cardiovascular complications are the most common effects of type 2 diabetes in youth as it can also lead to retinopathy and peripheral neuropathy.

In research specifically in youth type 2 diabetes, there lacks more recent evidence of quantitative data and cases widespread.

Long term treatment options and understanding long term disease effects in youth is a start on some kinds of research that needs to be implemented

Pappachan, J. M., Fernandez, C. J., & Ashraf, A. P. (2024, May 15). Rising tide: The global surge of type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents demands action now. World journal of diabetes. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11099374/

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🧬 Morbidity (disability, complications, hospitalizations):
Type 2 diabetes is a leading cause of kidney failure, lower-limb amputations, and adult blindness in the United States. In 2025, an estimated 38.4 million Americans have diabetes, with approximately 95% being type 2. Hospitalizations due to diabetes-related complications (such as cardiovascular events and infections) continue to rise among adults over 55.

⚰️ Mortality (death rates compared to general population):
Diabetes remains the 8th leading cause of death in the U.S. In 2025, approximately 105,000 deaths were attributed directly to diabetes, with many more involving diabetes as a contributing factor.

💵 Economic burden (costs to healthcare system, productivity loss):
The annual cost of diagnosed diabetes in 2025 is estimated at $413 billion, including $320 billion in direct medical costs and $93 billion in reduced productivity. This represents an increase from $327 billion in 2017, reflecting both inflation and the growing prevalence.

💔 Impact on quality of life (physical, emotional, social):
Type 2 diabetes significantly affects quality of life due to the burden of daily glucose monitoring, dietary restrictions, and chronic fatigue. Many patients also experience depression, anxiety, and social limitations linked to long-term complications and stigma.

https://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2025/24_0273.htm. Accessed October 22, 2025.

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1. 🔧 Modifiable Risk Factors:

🚶‍♂️ Getting little or no exercise
🚬 Smoking
😩 High stress levels
💤 Sleeping too little or too much.

🧬 Non-modifiable factors (you can’t change):
👵 Age: 45 or older
👨‍👩‍👧‍👦 Family: A parent, sister, or brother with diabetes
🌎 Ethnicity: African American, Alaska Native, Native American, Asian American, Hispanic or Latino, or Pacific Islander American.

2.💉 Medical & Health-related risk factors:
💊 Insulin resistance
🩸 Prediabetes
❤️ Heart and blood vessel disease
⚡ High blood pressure (even if treated)
⬇️ Low HDL (“good”) cholesterol
⬆️ High triglycerides
⚖️ Being overweight or having obesity
👶 Having a baby who weighed more than 9 pounds
🤰 Gestational diabetes during pregnancy
🧠 Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)
😔 Depression.

3.🏃‍♀️ Lifestyle & Behavioral risk factors (you can change):
🚶‍♂️ Getting little or no exercise
🚬 Smoking
😩 High stress levels
💤 Sleeping too little or too much.

https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/basics/risk-factors.html. Accessed October 22, 2025.

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Type 2 diabetes have physiological processes such as: insulin resistance, altered glucose metabolism and dysfunctional beta cells.

Target cells (skeletal muscle and fat tissue) resist influence of insulin and/or insulin levels does not match body demands.

Defect in insulin receptors disrupts the process of insulin on target cells, creating insufficient glucose transport into cells.

Increasing levels of glucose in the blood results in hyperglycemia, which activates beta cells from the pancreas to produce more insulin to lower blood glucose level.

Beta cells work overtime, gradually losing effective production of insulin.

Type 2 diabetes can create process issues in the cardiovascular system

Cardiovascular disease includes conditions such as stroke or heart disease; Type 2 Diabetes relate risk factors that can influence heart disease.

Some risk factors include high blood pressure/cholesterol and obesity which increase the chance of obtaining heart disease symptoms.

Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. (2025, February 27). Type 2 diabetes. Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/type-2-diabetes/symptoms-causes/syc-20351193

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Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) anatomical structure include the following:

Pancreas: – specifically the Islets of Langerhans. These are in charge of making insulin. In Type 2 diabetes, these cells initially produce insulin but become dysfunctional over time due to chronic stress from insulin resistance and high blood glucose.

Liver: The liver plays a major role in glucose metabolism by storing glucose as glycogen and releasing it when blood sugar levels drop. the liver becomes insulin resistant and continues to produce glucose (through gluconeogenesis), even when insulin is present, contributing to hyperglycemia.

Skeletal Muscle Tissue: Skeletal muscles are a primary site for insulin-mediated glucose uptake. In type 2 diabetes, insulin resistance in muscle cells prevents effective glucose uptake, resulting in elevated blood glucose levels.

Adipose Tissue: Fat cells also respond to insulin by storing energy. Insulin resistance in fatty tissue leads to increased lipolysis, releasing free fatty acids that worsen insulin resistance in the liver and muscles.

Vascular Endothelium: Chronic hyperglycemia damages the endothelial lining of blood vessels, leading to inflammation, decreased elasticity, and increased risk for atherosclerosis and microvascular complications.

American Diabetes Association. Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes—2024. Diabetes Care. 2024;47(Suppl 1):S1–S168. doi:10.2337/dc24-Sintroduction

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1. Insulin Resistance: The primary process leading to type 2 diabetes is insulin resistance, where body cells- especially in the liver, skeletal muscles, and adipose tissue no longer respond properly to insulin.

2. B Cell Dysfunction: Over time, the pancreatic B-cells in the islets of Langerhans become overworked from trying to produce excess insulin. This leads to B-cell exhaustion and reduced insulin secretion, worsening hyperglycemia.

3. Increased Hepatic Glucose Production: The liver continues to release glucose into the bloodstream through gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis, even when insulin levels are high.

4. Altered Lipid Metabolism: Insulin normally inhibits lipolysis in adipose tissue. In insulin resistance, increased lipolysis releases free fatty acids into the blood, which impair insulin signaling in the liver and muscles.

5. Chronic Hyperglycemia and Cellular Damage: Persistent high glucose levels lead to glycation, forming advanced glycation end-products.

This damages the vascular endothelium, promoting inflammation, oxidative stress, and atherosclerosis.

6. Microvascular and Macrovascular Complications: Microvascular complications: affect small blood vessels in the eyes, kidneys, and nerves. Macrovascular complications affect large arteries, leading to coronary artery disease, stroke, and peripheral arterial disease.

7. Inflammation and Oxidative Stress:

Chronic low-grade inflammation is both a cause and effect of insulin resistance.

American Diabetes Association. 2024. Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes—2024. Diabetes Care 47 (Suppl 1): S1–S168. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc24-Sintroduction.

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🧬 Pathophysiology – Anatomical Structures in Type 2 Diabetes 

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🧬 Pathophysiology – Anatomical Structures in Type 2 Diabetes 

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🔹 Main Organs and Cells Involved
Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) primarily affects several key organs and cells that regulate blood glucose:

🍬 Pancreas: Contains β-cells, which produce insulin, and α-cells, which produce glucagon. In T2DM, β-cells gradually lose their ability to secrete insulin effectively. They also produce amylin, a hormone that regulates the speed of glucose entering the bloodstream after meals.

🫀 Liver: Produces and stores glucose. In T2DM, the liver may overproduce glucose (gluconeogenesis), contributing to high blood sugar levels.

💪 Skeletal Muscles: Normally take up glucose using insulin. In T2DM, muscle cells become resistant to insulin, reducing glucose absorption and energy use.

🧈 Adipose Tissue (Fat Cells): Fat cells become insulin resistant, release free fatty acids, and contribute to systemic inflammation. The distribution of fat, especially visceral fat, is important in increasing T2DM risk.

🦠 Intestines: Produce incretin hormones like GLP-1 and GIP, which signal the pancreas to release insulin after meals. In T2DM, incretin production and response are reduced.

💧 Kidneys: Normally filter glucose from the blood. In T2DM, kidneys reabsorb too much glucose, which worsens hyperglycemia and increases risk of kidney damage over time.

🧠 Brain: Insulin normally helps regulate appetite and energy use. In T2DM, insulin resistance in the brain can increase hunger, promote weight gain, and worsen glucose control.

These organs and cells form a complex network that maintains glucose balance. Dysfunction in any of them contributes to chronic hyperglycemia and metabolic disturbances characteristic of T2DM.

Carrera Boada, C. A., & Martínez-Moreno, J. M. (2013). Pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus: Beyond the “insulin resistance–insulin secretion deficit” duo. Nutrición Hospitalaria, 28(Suppl. 2), 78–87. Retrieved from https://scielo.isciii.es/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0212-16112013000800012

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🧪 Processes Causing or Affected by Type 2 Diabetes

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🧪 Processes Causing or Affected by Type 2 Diabetes

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🩺 Key Processes in Type 2 Diabetes

💉 Insulin Resistance:

Muscle, fat, and liver cells respond less to insulin.

Glucose uptake decreases, while liver glucose production increases, raising blood sugar.

🍬 β-cell Dysfunction:

Pancreatic β-cells initially overproduce insulin to compensate for resistance.

Over time, β-cell function declines, leading to insufficient insulin secretion.

Cellular stress and amyloid accumulation can damage β-cells.

🧈 Lipotoxicity and Glucotoxicity:

Excess fat worsens insulin resistance.

Chronic high blood sugar further damages β-cells and other tissues.

🌿 Incretin Dysfunction:

Reduced GLP-1 and GIP impairs insulin release after meals, worsening glucose control.

💧 Kidney Glucose Reabsorption:

Kidneys reabsorb more glucose than normal, sustaining hyperglycemia.

🧠 Brain Insulin Resistance:

Impairs appetite regulation and energy balance, promoting weight gain and worsening insulin resistance.

🏃‍♂️ Lifestyle & Environmental Factors:

Obesity, inactivity, unhealthy diet, and chronic stress increase insulin resistance.

Genetic predisposition also contributes to disease development.

These processes form a vicious cycle, where insulin resistance and β-cell dysfunction reinforce each other, leading to chronic hyperglycemia and long-term complications.

American Diabetes Association. (2024). Standards of care in diabetes—2024. Diabetes Care, 47(Suppl. 1), S1–S321. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc24-S001

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The primary anatomical structures that is involved with Type 2 Diabetes would be: Pancreas, Liver, Skeletal Muscles, and Adipose Tissue

Pancreas - The β-cells (islets) manage and are in charge of the production and send out the insulin.

β-cells then overtime don't work as properly and doesn't acknowledge to the glucose.

The body then becomes deficient into the production of insulin and diabetes.

Hepatocytes (Liver) - The production of glucose doesn't take into affect when insulin levels rise.

There are 2 major pathologically branches of the T2DM Development, Hepatic Insulin Sensitivity and Glucose Homeostasis.

Skeletal Muscles - Induces the blood flow to increase to the muscles. This then results into the glucose to uptake from plasma.

This is the main source of the glucose uptake to occur.

This will become insulin resistant in T2DM which results in the body likely not responding/taking glucose properly.

The glucose uptake and insulin sensitivity makes improvement when participating in physical activity. This would allow the body to have improvement within itself or reduce the risk of inflammation or oxidative stress.

Adipose Tissue - This tissue promotes insulin resistance (IR) creates inflammatory mechanisms.

This increases the releasing of Free Fatty Acids (FFA) and adipokine deregulation.

Galicia-Garcia, U., Benito-Vicente, A., Jebari, S., Larrea-Sebal, A., Siddiqi, H., Uribe, K. B., Ostolaza, H., & Martín, C. (2020, August 30). Pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus. International journal of molecular sciences. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7503727/

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Processes That Cause/Are Affected by Type 2 Diabetes

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Processes That Cause/Are Affected by Type 2 Diabetes

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Processes that CAUSE Type 2 Diabetes (T2DM) would be: Defective Insulin Secretion, Insulin Resistance, Glucotoxity and Lipotoxicity, Impaired Insulin, and Mitochondrial Genetics

Defective Insulin Secretion - This takes into affect when the pancreatic β-cells and the insulin-sensitive tissues don't properly respond to the insulin.

Insulin Resistance (IR) - This doesn't respond to the bodies damage overtime to its heart, vasculature, eyes, kidneys, and nerves.

Type 2 Diabetes causes the insulin secretion to maintain the glucose homeostasis and production of hyperglycameia.

The Adipose Tissue allows IR to occur through inflammation which increases the Free Fatty Acid (FFA) to be output, along with the adipokine deregulation.

Glucotoxicity and Glucolipotoxicity - This occurs dur to obesity, induced metabolic and oxidative stress.

This then damages the β-cells.

FFA's become activated due to stress.

Impaired Insulin - C2C12 murine cell line and cybrids get signaled when ATP production and decreased insulin-dependent glucose uptake occurs.

This also signals the hepatic gluconeogenesis and impairment of the glucose-insulated response which becomes one of the add on to Type 2 Diabetes.

Mitochondrial Genetics - This is one of the major risk factors of Type 2 Diabetes.

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Processes that are AFFECTED by Type 2 Diabetes (T2DM): Impaired Glucose Uptake, Adipose Tissue, Livers, and Oxidative Stress.

Impaired Glucose Uptake - This occurs when the insulin development is made from the adipose tissue which creates an impaired reaction to the insulin.

Adipose Tissue - Insulin reacts to the adipose tissue in 2 separate ways-- the glucose uptake and the suppressing of triglyceride hydrolysis.

Livers - Insulin in the liver regulates the glucose production and its use.

This affects the lipid metabolism as well.

The levels of glucose rise and insulin then becomes secreted by β-cells.

The synthesis of glycogen doesn't suppress the glucose production and promotes lipogenesis when IR impairs glycogen synthesis.

Oxidative Stress - This is apart of the mitochondrial dysfunction and contribution of Type 2 Diabetes.

When participating in physical activities, one of the things that do improve is the oxidative stress.

Oxidative Stress is promoted from hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia.

Galicia-Garcia, U., Benito-Vicente, A., Jebari, S., Larrea-Sebal, A., Siddiqi, H., Uribe, K. B., Ostolaza, H., & Martín, C. (2020, August 30). Pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus. International journal of molecular sciences. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7503727/

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The primary structures that are involved in Type 2 Diabetes are: the pancreas, the liver, and adipose tissues.

The Pancreas: The pancreas has tight functional links between the exocrine and endocrine pancreas. This often leads to diabetes affecting beta-cell functions.

The Liver: Increased levels of FFAs in the liver lead to damage fatty acid oxidation and insulin resistance. The consequence of insulin resistance is decreased glucose uptake in the muscles and an increase of liver glycogen production. Consequently, contributing to the development of Type 2 Diabetes

Adipose Tissues: In similarity to the Liver, high levels of FFAs can promote an increase of fat into the tissue and cause tissue hypoxia or inflammation. TND-a can also reduce insulin sensitivity from fat accumulation in the tissue too.

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Physiological processes involved in Type 2-Diabetes

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Physiological processes involved in Type 2-Diabetes

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The process of insulin in the liver and insulin resistance is a leading factor to disrupted blood glucose levels and lipid metabolism. A lack of beta-cell compensatory mechanisms can affect the insulin. Which can also factor into the inflammation in the liver and other tissues.

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Although living a life with Type 2 Diabetes comes with many challenges, one of the hardest to tackle is...yourself!

Lack of motivation, cognitive interference and limited health education make Type 2 Diabetes rehabilitation processes harder to manage.

Lack of motivation leads to inadequate self care. This involves poor blood sugar management, reduced amount of physical activity and undisciplined use of medication which can also affect mental health conditions such as depression and anxiety.

Cognitive impairment can create symptoms such as foggy memory, which could lead to forgetting to take medications when necessary, sticking to a physical activity routine and being unable to recognize the signs of blood sugar levels started to drop.

Health Education can play an important roll in being aware of the appropriate self care etiquette's, lowering risk of health issues such as cardiovascular disease and implementing a disciplined diet and exercise schedule to reduce blood sugar levels and help regulate insulin sensitivity.

Challenges such as those can make every day affairs difficult to complete. With the growing knowledge of Type 2 Diabetes rehabilitation practices, personalized measures are accessible to find the best treatment for you.

Nikpour, S., Mehrdad, N., Sanjari, M., Aalaa, M., Heshmat, R., Khabaz Mafinejad, M., Larijani, B., Nomali, M., & Najafi Ghezeljeh, T. (2022, October 27). Challenges of type 2 diabetes mellitus management from the perspective of patients: Conventional content analysis. Interactive journal of medical research. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9650573/

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🌡️ How Type 2 Diabetes Shows Up — Symptoms & Diagnosis

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🌡️ How Type 2 Diabetes Shows Up — Symptoms & Diagnosis

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Type 2 Diabetes is the most common type of diabetes. It happens when your body doesn’t use insulin properly, causing glucose to build up in the blood instead of being used for energy.

Your chances of developing it increase if you’re overweight, obese, or have a family history of diabetes.

⚠️ Main Symptoms

🍽️ Increased Hunger – Your cells don’t get enough energy from glucose, so your body craves more food.

💧 Excessive Thirst – High blood sugar causes your body to pull water from tissues, leaving you constantly thirsty.

🚽 Frequent Urination – When glucose builds up in your blood, your kidneys work harder to remove it, which makes you pee more often.

😴 Fatigue and Weakness – Without enough insulin, your body can’t use sugar for fuel, so you feel tired all the time.

👁️ Blurred Vision – Shifts in fluid levels can make the lenses in your eyes swell, causing temporary vision changes.

⚖️ Unintentional Weight Loss – If your cells can’t use glucose, your body starts burning fat and muscle for energy instead.

🩹 Slow-Healing Wounds or Frequent Infections – High blood sugar can slow your body’s ability to heal and fight germs.

🌑 Dark Skin Patches (Acanthosis Nigricans) – Dark, velvety skin around the neck or armpits may signal insulin resistance.

🧪 Diagnosis

Doctors use blood tests to confirm Type 2 Diabetes 🩸

A1C Test: Shows your average blood sugar level for the past 2–3 months.

Fasting Glucose Test: Measures blood sugar after fasting for at least 8 hours.

Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT): Measures sugar before and after drinking a glucose solution.

🔄 Stages of Type 2 Diabetes

1. Insulin Resistance 🧠 – Cells don’t respond properly to insulin.

2. Prediabetes ⚠️ – Blood sugar is higher than normal but not yet diabetes.

3. Type 2 Diabetes 💉 – Blood sugar remains high; lifestyle changes and medication are needed.

4. Complications Stage ❤️ – Long-term uncontrolled diabetes can affect the heart, kidneys, eyes, and nerves.

📋 Getting tested early helps control the disease and reduces the risk of long-term complications. 💪

Mayo Clinic. Type 2 diabetes – Diagnosis & treatment. Mayo Clinic; updated Feb 27 2025. Accessed Nov 1 2025. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases‑conditions/type-2-diabetes/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20351199

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Managing Type 2 Diabetes involves lifestyle changes, medications, monitoring, and sometimes surgery. The goal is to keep blood sugar in a healthy range and prevent complications.

🏃 Lifestyle Changes

⚖️ Weight Loss: Losing 5–7% of body weight helps blood sugar & cholesterol.
🥗 Healthy Eating: Small meals, high-fiber foods, fewer refined carbs & sweets, lean proteins.
🏋️ Exercise: 30–60 min/day, aerobic + strength training; break up long sitting periods.

💊 Medications

Metformin: First-line lowers glucose production & improves insulin use.
Other Oral Medications: Sulfonylureas, Glinides, Thiazolidinediones, DPP-4 inhibitors, SGLT2 inhibitors.
Injectables: GLP-1 receptor agonists & Insulin therapy.

⚠️ Side effects may include low blood sugar, nausea, weight changes, urinary infections.

🧠 Monitoring & Education

Check blood sugar regularly 📊

Diabetes education programs 🎓

Routine healthcare visits 🩺

💡 Monitoring prevents hypo- & hyperglycemia.

⚠️ Special Considerations

Pregnancy: Adjust treatment; monitor eyes

Weight-loss surgery: For BMI ≥35; lifelong lifestyle changes

Emergency signs: Hyperglycemia, hypoglycemia, ketoacidosis

💫 With proper care, people with Type 2 Diabetes can live healthy lives! 🌟

Mayo Clinic. Type 2 diabetes – Diagnosis & treatment. Mayo Clinic; updated Feb 27 2025. Accessed Nov 1 2025. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases‑conditions/type-2-diabetes/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20351199

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Hyperglycemia Symptoms

Polyuria: Frequent urination due to excess glucose in the urine.

Polydipsia: Excessive thirst caused by dehydration from fluid loss.

Polyphagia: Increased hunger because glucose cannot effectively enter cells for energy.

Diagnosis of Type 2 Diabetes

Fasting Plasma Glucose Test

Normal: < 100 mg/dL

Prediabetes : 100–125 mg/dL

Diabetes: ≥ 126 mg/dL

Oral Glucose Tolerance Test

Procedure: Blood glucose measured 2 hours after a 75-gram glucose load.

Normal: < 140 mg/dL

Prediabetes : 140–199 mg/dL

Diabetes: ≥ 200 mg/dL after 2 hours.

Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) Test

Reflects average blood glucose over ~3 months.

Normal: < 5.7%

Prediabetes: 5.7–6.4%

Diabetes: ≥ 6.5%

El Sayed NA, Aleppo G, Aroda VR, et al.; American Diabetes Association. Standards of Care in Diabetes —2023. Diabetes Care. 2023;46(Suppl 1):S19-S40.

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1. Lifestyle Modifications

Lifestyle changes are the foundation of diabetes management, even when medications are prescribed.

Medical Nutrition Therapy - Emphasize whole grains, vegetables, fruits, legumes, lean proteins, and healthy fats

Limit refined carbohydrates, sugary drinks, and trans fats.

Carbohydrate counting or consistent carbohydrate intake helps manage glucose.

Weight management: A 5–10% reduction in body weight significantly improves insulin sensitivity and glycemic control.

Pharmacologic (Medication) Therapy

A. First-Line Medication

1. Metformin

Purpose: Decreases hepatic glucose production and increases insulin sensitivity.

Benefits: No weight gain, low risk of hypoglycemia, possible cardiovascular benefit.

Typical dose: 500–2000 mg/day.

Common side effects: Gastrointestinal upset (nausea, diarrhea); rare lactic acidosis.

Contraindications: Severe renal impairment.

Second-Line or Add-On Agents

1. GLP-1 Receptor Agonists

Purpose: Increase insulin secretion, suppress glucagon, slow gastric emptying, promote satiety.

Benefits: Weight loss, low risk of hypoglycemia, strong cardiovascular benefit in some agents.

Administration: Injectable.

Side effects: Nausea, vomiting, possible pancreatitis risk.

2. SGLT2 Inhibitors

Purpose: Increase urinary glucose excretion by inhibiting renal glucose reabsorption.

Benefits: Modest weight loss, blood pressure reduction, and renal/cardiac protection.

Side effects: Genital yeast infections, urinary tract infections, volume depletion.

Contraindications: Severe renal impairment.

3. DPP-4 Inhibitors

Purpose: Increase incretin levels, leading to increased insulin and decreased glucagon.

Benefits: Weight-neutral, low hypoglycemia risk.

Side effects: Headache, nasopharyngitis, rare pancreatitis.

4. Sulfonylureas

Purpose: Stimulate pancreatic insulin secretion.

Benefits: Effective and inexpensive.

Drawbacks: Weight gain, risk of hypoglycemia, may lose efficacy over time.

5. Thiazolidinediones

Purpose: Increase insulin sensitivity in muscle and adipose tissue.

Benefits: Durable effect, may improve lipid profile.

Side effects: Weight gain, edema, increased heart failure risk, bone fractures.

6. Insulin Therapy

Basal insulin is typically initiated first.

May progress to basal-bolus regimen for tighter control.

Monitoring: Frequent glucose checks to prevent hypoglycemia.

7. Blood Pressure Control

Target: <130/80 mmHg.

Preferred agents: ACE inhibitors or ARBs for kidney protection.

B. Lipid Management

Statin therapy recommended for adults ≥40 years or with cardiovascular risk factors.

C. Antiplatelet Therapy

Low-dose aspirin may be used for secondary prevention in those with cardiovascular disease.

D. Kidney and Eye Care

Annual urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio and retinal exam to detect early complications.

Monitoring and Follow-Up

A1c testing: Every 3 months if not at goal; every 6 months if stable.

Self-Monitoring of Blood Glucose: Frequency depends on medication type.

Continuous Glucose Monitoring: Increasingly used for improved accuracy.

American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee. 9. Pharmacologic Approaches to Glycemic Treatment: Standards of Care in Diabetes —2025. Diabetes Care. 2025;48(Suppl 1):S181-S206.

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Symptoms include:

Being thirsty more often

Feeling more weak or tired

Blurred vision

Numbness/ tingling in the hands and feet

Frequent infections and slow-healing wounds

Experience more hunger and weight loss

Diagnosis: Blood test such as

The glycated hemoglobin test (A1C) is one of the most common ways to get a diagnosis (below 5.7% is healthy, 5.7%-6.4% is pre-diabetic and 6.5% on two+ test is diabetes)

Random (200mg/dL+ is diabetic) and fasting blood sugar test (below 100mg/dL is healthy, 100-125mg/dL is pre-diabetic and more than 126mg/dL on two+ test is diabetic)

Oral glucose tolerance test (less than 140mg/dL is healthy, 140-199mg/dL is pre-diabetic and more than 200mg/dL after two hours is diabetic)

*Other diagnosis types include:

Age, experiencing symptoms or family history

Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. (2025a, February 27). Type 2 diabetes. Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/type-2-diabetes/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20351199

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Treatments often include:

Necessary weight loss

Lifestyle changes such as healthier eating habits and more routine exercise

Keeping track of your blood sugar levels

Medications or insulin therapy

How it is treated:

Necessary weight loss - Following guidelines to a healthier weight can help lower/manage levels of cholesterol, blood pressure, blood sugar and triglycerides. Changes can start to be seen in as little of losing 5% of your body weight

Lifestyle changes - Lowering calorie intake, a regular schedule for meals/snacks, healthy cooking oils, modest serving sizes, more high fiber foods (fruit, whole grain, non starchy vegetables) and less refined grains, starchy vegetables and sweets. Also, keeping a more routine schedule of physical activities such as strength conditioning, aerobic exercise and breaking up long periods of inactivity.

Keeping track - Check blood sugar levels the given instructed amount of times per day to make sure the levels are within target range. ways to keep track of the levels is with a traditional blood glucose meter or a continuous glucose monitor.

Medication/insulin therapy - Common medications used to treat Type 2 Diabetes include: Metformin, Sulfonylureas, Glinides, Thiazolidinediones, DPP-4 inhibitors, GLP-1 receptor agonist, SGLT2 inhibitors.

Insulin therapy is most likely the last option used as other treatments failed. Long-acting insulin is used through the day or overnight to maintain levels and short-acting insulin is used during mealtimes.

Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. (2025a, February 27). Type 2 diabetes. Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/type-2-diabetes/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20351199

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Symptoms and Diagnosis of Type 2 Diabetes

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Symptoms and Diagnosis of Type 2 Diabetes

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SYMPTOMS OF TYPE 2 DIABETES

Increased thirst, peeing more frequently, increased hunger, fatigue, slow healing periods of cuts/sores, tingling/numbness in hands or feet, burred vision, dry skin, and/or unexplained weight loss.

Increased Thirst (Polydipsia) - Excessive thirst, a need to drink an increased amount of fluids due to the fluid being loss from the body.

Peeing More Frequently - Occurs more throughout your day than usual

Can become inconvenient and interrupt your everyday life due to the amount of times you'd need to be in the restroom.

Fatigue - Having the need to sleep.

Can have an affect to get up due to the severe need of being overly tired.

Tingling/Numbness in Your Hands/Feet (Paresthesia) - This is an irregular sensation that can occur.

This is felt as if "pins and needles" were that ongoing sensation going into your hands/feet.

Blurred Vision - When your vision becomes difficult to see things clearly.

Squinting sometimes help see more clearer.

Dry Skin (xeroderma) - Not enough moisture onto the skin.

Another extreme version of this is called, Xerosis.

Unexplained Weight Loss - When you have dropped weight loss when it isn't intentional.

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DIAGNOSIS OF TYPE 2 DIABETES

Fasting Plasma Glucose Test, Random Plasma Glucose Test, and an A1C Test.

Fasting Plasma Glucose Test - Participating in this test allows to check your own blood sugar level.

This would require yourself to have this test taken place in the morning but you'd have to do an 8 hour fasting period first.

If your test shows as a result of 126 mg/dL, or higher then that would indicate you may likely have diabetes.

Random Plasma Glucose Test - Just like the test I explained above, this will also check on your blood sugar levels.

This wouldn't require fasting and can be done any time of the day.

If the test shows a result of 200 mg/dL, or higher then this would indicate you may likely have diabetes.

A1C Test - This test would measure your own average blood sugar levels from the previous two to three months.

A result of 6.5%, or higher would indicate you may likely have diabetes.

Type 2 Diabetes. Cleveland Clinic. (2025, September 11). https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21501-type-2-diabetes

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TREATMENT OPTIONS OF TYPE 2 DIABETES

Primary Care Physician (PCP), Endocrinologist, Registered Dietitian, Certified Diabetes Care and Education Specialist (CDCES), Ophthalmologist (Eye Doctor), and/or Dentist. You can also do blood sugar monitoring.

Primary Care Physician (PCP) - A healthcare provider who is assigned to you and works on ways you both can manage your personal health.

This would be the first person you'd communicate with and reach out to as they would be your primary physician.\

They do your annual yearly check ups and would work with you for a course of years.

Endocrinologist - A health care worker who specializes in hormones.

They are able to diagnose different endocrine conditions, develop various treatment plans, and prescribe your medication based off of your body and needs.

Registered Dietitian - A food and nutrition specialist who is able to provide different nutrition therapies for different types of conditions.

Certified Diabetes Care and Education Specialist (CDCES) - A health care provider who has a mass knowledge of diabetes management, and prediabetes and diabetes prevention.

Ophthalmologist (Eye Doctor) - An eye care specialist who are doctors of medicine (MD), or doctors of Osteopathy (DO).

They are able to diagnose of treating different eyes and conditions.

Dentist - Health care providers who are able to treat oral conditions and able to diagnose things.

They help your teeth and gums to ensure they are healthy.

Blood Sugar Monitoring - Checking your blood sugar to see if there are any changes within it, and to see if there is any possible progress/de-progress.

Lifestyle - They way you choose to participate and do things positively can be a treatment for Type 2 Diabetes.

Working out/Physical Activity.

Healthy diet/Nutrition.

Type 2 Diabetes. Cleveland Clinic. (2025, September 11). https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21501-type-2-diabetes

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Type 2 Diabetes - Symptoms and Diagnosis

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Type 2 Diabetes - Symptoms and Diagnosis

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Type 2 Diabetes is a condition that disrupts the individual's ability to produce sufficient insulin or causes the body to become resistant to insulin.

A group of signs or symptoms are associated with Type 2 Diabetes and are used to diagnose it.

These can include:

Excessive thirst/Dry mouth conditions

Lack of energy/Tiredness

Frequent urination

Blurred Vision

Tingling/Partial numbness in hands/feet

However Type 2 Diabetes is actually diagnosed through various blood tests.

For example, Glycated hemoglobin and fasting plasma glucose levels of equal to/greater than 126mg/dl are commonly used to diagnose patients. Another test that can be used, but not as commonly, is an oral glucose tolerance test. This test aims to test a patient's ability to quickly return glucose levels to their initial levels after taking a specified volume of a liquid glucose. This is less used because it is time consuming and involves multiple steps such as, blood sampling and mixing the correct volume of liquid glucose.

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Type 2 Diabetes can be treated through lifestyle changes, medications, and early detection.

Life style:

Weight management, including a change in diet, is an important component to diabetes treatment.

However, no specific diet has been proven most effective for the general population and depends more on the individual.

For people with diabetes and overweight or obesity, it is recommended to restrict energy intake and increase energy outtake to promote weight loss. This can include a low-calorie formula diet and a food reintroduction. Also, a goal of at least 175 minutes per week of moderate intensity physical activity.

Medications:

The number of different glucose-lowering medications has increased over the years.

Patients that show severe hyperglycemia symptoms are usually treated with insulin.

Basal Insulin: most common prescribed insulin with the addition of insulin during meals.

Insulin pumps: deliver rapid-acting insulin throughout the day.

Patients that are asymptomatic are recommended metformin as the first medication.

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⚠️ Challenges in Diabetes Rehabilitation

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⚠️ Challenges in Diabetes Rehabilitation

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📉 Low participation: Many people with T2D do not attend the first meeting (18%) or drop out before completing the program (20%).

😕 Lack of motivation: Some patients have low interest or face health problems that make participation difficult.

🥗 Hard to maintain healthy habits: Following a balanced diet and exercising regularly can be challenging.

💬 Need for education and follow-up: Continuous guidance from healthcare professionals helps patients understand their condition and maintain positive changes.

❤️ Social support is important: Family, friends, and the community play a key role in motivating and sustaining healthy habits over time.

American Diabetes Association. (2024). Standards of care in diabetes—2024. Diabetes Care, 47(Suppl. 1), S1–S194. https://diabetesjournals.org

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👩‍⚕️ Role of Health Professionals in Diabetes Rehabilitation

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👩‍⚕️ Role of Health Professionals in Diabetes Rehabilitation

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🏃 Physiotherapist / Exercise Specialist: Designs personalized exercise plans (aerobic + resistance training) to improve blood sugar control, mobility, and overall health. Helps patients avoid injuries and exercise safely.

🥗 Dietitian / Nutritionist: Creates meal plans, teaches portion control, carbohydrate counting, and healthy food choices to support glycemic control.

💬 Education & Follow-up: Healthcare professionals provide guidance on self-care, medication management, and long-term lifestyle changes.

🌐 Tele-rehabilitation: Virtual exercise sessions and check-ins can increase access and support patients at home.

❤️ Multidisciplinary approach: Collaboration among doctors, nurses, dietitians, and physiotherapists ensures coordinated care and better results.

American Diabetes Association. (2024). Standards of care in diabetes—2024. Diabetes Care, 47(Suppl. 1), S1–S194. https://diabetesjournals.org

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A common issue resulting from Type 2 Diabetes is cognitive impairment

Cognitive impairment is a decline in brain function in area's such as memory, processing speeds and function

Cognitive impairment can be impacted by Type 2 Diabetes from high blood sugar, to insulin resistance.

A combo factor from Type 2 Diabetes affecting cognitive function is high blood pressure and unhealthy weight/lifestyle

That "combo" has a negative impact because the high blood pressure and unhealthy living can cause inflammation and damage blood vessels

The listed symptoms common in cognitive impairment from Type 2 Diabetes can also lead to a higher risk in types of dementia, such as Alzheimer's Disease

Neurologist and Endocrinologist would be the most beneficial professionals to visit regarding treatment to cognitive impairment from Type 2 Diabetes

After assessing the overall cognitive function, a neurologist can create a personalized plan for treatment such as cognitive training by doing activities involving puzzles, physical activity and reading

An endocrinologist, who also suggest cognitive maintenance, has expertise in dietary education and appropriate self care regimes

An endocrinologist will help in ways of adjusting medications and working to maintain blood sugar levels through medical treatments and creating a personalized regime involving a healthier amount of physical activity and intake of the appropriate foods

Malik, A., Ahmed, M., Mansoor, S., Ambreen, S., Usman, B., & Shehryar, M. (2022, February 14). Cognitive impairment in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Cureus. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8925983/

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1. Impaired glucose control due to poor exercise adherence - Developing a structured, individualized exercise plan that gradually builds endurance and strength while monitoring blood glucose responses. Incorporating supervised sessions and education about safe activity levels can improve adherence and outcomes.

2. Peripheral neuropathy and risk of foot injury - Regular foot assessments, patient education on daily foot inspection, and exercises that improve balance and circulation. Using proper footwear and modifying activities to reduce pressure on the feet are also crucial.

Colberg, S. R., Sigal, R. J., Yardley, J. E., Riddell, M. C., Dunstan, D. W., Dempsey, P. C., ... & Tate, D. F. (2016). Physical activity/exercise and diabetes: A position statement of the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care, 39(11), 2065–2079.

Boulton, A. J. M., Armstrong, D. G., Kirsner, R. S., Attinger, C. E., Lavery, L. A., Lipsky, B. A., ... & Malone, M. (2018). Diagnosis and management of diabetic foot complications. Diabetes Care, 41(12), 2864–2873.

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Peripheral Neuropathy and Risk of Foot Injury

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Peripheral Neuropathy and Risk of Foot Injury

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Specialist: A podiatrist (foot care specialist) would be essential for managing this issue. A physical therapist may also be involved to improve balance, mobility, and circulation.

Treatment:

1. Assessment and Monitoring

The podiatrist conducts a comprehensive foot exam, checking for decreased sensation, poor circulation, or skin breakdown.

They use tools such as a monofilament test and Doppler ultrasound.

Regular checkups help detect early signs of ulcers or infection.

2. Preventive Foot Care

Education on daily self-inspection of feet for cuts, blisters, or redness.

Guidance on proper foot hygiene, including washing, drying thoroughly, and moisturizing to prevent cracking.

Recommendations for protective footwear to reduce pressure points and friction.

3. Physical Therapy Component

The physical therapist may provide balance and proprioception exercises to reduce fall risk.

Circulatory exercises can improve blood flow to lower limbs.

If neuropathic pain is present, neuromuscular re-education and gentle strengthening exercises may be introduced.

4. Medical Management

If neuropathic pain is significant, the podiatrist or primary care provider may prescribe medications such as duloxetine or pregabalin for symptom relief.

Coordination with a diabetes educator ensures blood glucose levels are well-managed, as better glucose control helps slow nerve damage progression.

Pop-Busui R, Boulton AJM, Feldman EL, et al. Diabetic neuropathy: a position statement by the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care. 2017;40(1):136-154. doi:10.2337/dc16-2042

American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes—2023. Diabetes Care. 2023;46(Suppl 1):S1-S290. doi:10.2337/dc23-SINT

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Patients with Type 2 Diabetes face different challenges in the treatment process, which often can have a negative impact on managing the disease.

Some of these issues and challenges can include:

Communication Challenges ~ Poor communication from staff and patients can cause an insufficient understanding from both ends and cause noncompliance in a patient.

Challenges in Treatment Participation ~ In similarity to communication challenges, a patient is more likely to refuse treatment when they are not educated about what they are receiving and why. The idea of being in control and having a say in what they need is an important aspect.

Health Care System Challenges ~ A patient can often feel a lack of care for them. For instance, short visits with the doctor, lack of access to relevant specialists, or a lack of organization can cause a patient to be dissatisfied and turn away treatment.

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- Patients with Diabetes have a higher risk of developing heart failure. Various factors including glycemia contribute to the cause of heart failure.

- Cardiologists are the healthcare professions who would be most helpful in treating these patients.

Different treatments within their help can include:

- Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists. These medications can decrease the risk of morbidity.

- Treatment devices such as an implantable cardiac defibrillator and/or cardiac resynchronization therapy. Which are mostly considered for patients with residual symptoms of heart failure and is based on life expectancy.

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Rehabilitation Complications within Type 2 Diabetes

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Rehabilitation Complications within Type 2 Diabetes

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The 2 major rehabilitation complications/issues within Type 2 Diabetes would be: Impaired Glucose Tolerance and Physical Activities.

Impaired Glucose Tolerance - This is a risk factor within the rehabilitation process of Type 2 Diabetes.

This is caused by the resistance of insulin that is being outputted.

Physical Activities - This is recommended and advised by many Physical Therapists when treating diabetes.

Fun Fact: This is recommended by many Physical Therapists to treat not only Type 2 Diabetes, but also other ongoing diseases which is a major factor.

Even though this is advised by many PT's, this though can be a risk factors to those that are/have suffered with Type 2 Diabetes.

If one isn't active, then this can put risk of the insulin levels which puts the blood sugar at a difficult position to control.

Harris-Hayes, M., Schootman, M., Schootman, J. C., & Hastings, M. K. (2019, November 28). The Role of Physical Therapists in Fighting the Type 2 Diabetes Epidemic. The Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7069691/

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Health Professional and Treatment Plan of Type 2 Diabetes

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Health Professional and Treatment Plan of Type 2 Diabetes

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The most helpful health care worker would be from a "Fitness Professional"/Physical Therapist.

There are many health care providers that take care of individuals that do suffer from Type 2 Diabetes and all are just as effective from one another. They all specialize to treat this but in their own ways.

Fitness Professional/Physical Therapist - Physical Therapist is the best health care professional to go to because they are professionals who are able to understand what your body needs, especially within Type 2 Diabetes.

Though they are focused on giving programs to keep your body active, they also have their own knowledge on how to prevent Type 2 Diabetes through exercise, the medications, and insulin that do affect blood glucose.

Their treatment plans are very straightforward and easy to understand, as it is revolved around being physically active.

Treatment Plans - Creating exercise plans/programs.

They create exercises that fit your own body's needs.

They consist of exercises that are safe for yourself and allowing you to prevent of being more at risk of Type 2 Diabetes.

Health & Wellness | Your Health Care Team. American Diabetes Association. (n.d.). https://diabetes.org/health-wellness/diabetes-and-your-health/your-healthcare-team

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🩺Helpful Lifestyle Changes for Type 2 Diabetes

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🩺Helpful Lifestyle Changes for Type 2 Diabetes

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🍏 1. Healthy Eating

Following a balanced and structured eating plan is essential for controlling blood sugar and maintaining a healthy weight.

✔️ Reduce refined carbohydrates: Helps prevent blood sugar spikes.

✔️ Increase fiber intake (vegetables, fruits, whole grains): Improves digestion and stabilizes glucose.

✔️ Choose lean proteins and healthy fats: Supports satiety and better weight management.
Benefit: Improves long-term glucose control and reduces diabetes-related complications.

🏃‍♂️ 2. Regular Physical Activity

Engaging in at least 150 minutes of moderate activity per week helps the body use insulin more effectively.

✔️ Walk 30 minutes daily

✔️ Include strength training twice a week

✔️ Activities like swimming, dancing, or cycling
Benefit: Supports weight loss, lowers blood sugar levels, and reduces risk for heart disease.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Diabetes Prevention Program: Lifestyle Change Program. CDC. Published 2025. Accessed November 10, 2025. https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes-prevention

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🏃‍♂️Lifestyle Change Support for Type 2 Diabetes 🍎

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🏃‍♂️Lifestyle Change Support for Type 2 Diabetes 🍎

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🍏 Lifestyle Change: Healthy Eating

Following a balanced diet is essential to control blood sugar and prevent diabetes complications.

How a Professional Can Help:
👩‍⚕️ Registered Dietitian / Diabetes Educator

1. 📝 Designs personalized meal plans based on your health needs and glucose levels.

2. 🍽️ Teaches carbohydrate counting, portion control, and nutrient timing.

3. 🤝 Provides support and motivation to maintain long-term healthy eating habits.

Benefit:
✅ Stabilizes blood sugar levels
❤️ Reduces risk of heart disease
⚖️ Supports sustainable weight management.

Mayo Clinic Staff. Diabetes management: How lifestyle, daily routine affect blood sugar. Mayo Clinic. Available at: https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/type-2-diabetes/in-depth/diabetes-management/art-20047963. Accessed November 15, 2025.

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A Health Professional's help in Lifestyle Change

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A Health Professional's help in Lifestyle Change

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Dietitians/Lifestyle Coaches:

Finds and uses specific strategies/methods to address an individual's barrier(s) to reaching a weight loss or physical activity goal.

For example, they help in Changing eating habits and exercise behaviors through:

Individual counseling

Group programs

Campaigns

Additionally:

They focus on skill building and keeping patients committed and motivated.

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A big lifestyle change that can potentially prevent or minimize Type 2 Diabetes is an improvement in a person's physical activity or diet.

Physical activity:

- Releases energy

- Has been connected to the:

~ Enhancement of β-cell function

~ Enhancement of glucose regulation

! It is recommended that adults incorporate at least 150 minutes of moderately intense aerobic physical activity per week

! Alternatively, 75 minutes of vigorous-intense aerobic physical activity per week is also recommended

Diet quality and calorie intake:

- High Carbohydrate and glycemic index are seen to improve β-cell function

- Low to moderate fat, high protein, low carbohydrate, and low glycemic index diets are connected to effectively reducing weight and improving risk factors

! An increase in fiber intake and whole grain foods are encouraged

! A decrease in sugar-sweetened food and drinks are also encouraged

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Lifestyle Changes on Type 2 Diabetes can consist of: Physical Fitness/Exercising and a Healthy Balanced Diet

Physical Fitness/Exercise - Exercise at least 150 minutes for at least 2-3 days of the week.

Improves the level of glucose and insulin along with glycemia.

This can go from low to high intensity fitness that involve many physical activities.

Walking, running, cycling, weight lifting, and other cardios.

Healthy Balanced Diet - Incorporating a low calorie diet.

When following a diet, this will allow the body to decrease the fat content within the pancreas and livers.

This can also incorporate fasting glucose.

The diet should consist of lean proteins, non-starchy vegetables, consuming healthy fats, and whole foods.

This gives the body the opportunity to prevent glucose levels from rising.

When diagnosed with Type 2 Diabetes, it is important to begin an active physical fitness/exercise and a healthy balanced diet because it will help your body regulate and decrease the amount of insulin and glucose level. Doing either one of these options, or both are a great way to manage your weight and prevent Type 2 Diabetes of potentially getting worse.

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Chacko, E., & Signore, C. (2020, July). Five Evidence-Based Lifestyle Habits People with Diabetes Can Use. American Diabetes Association: Clinical Diabetes. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7364446/

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1. Improving Diet

Focus on a balanced diet with high-fiber foods (vegetables, whole grains, legumes) and lean proteins.

Limit added sugars and refined carbohydrates (like soda, sweets, white bread).

Eating smaller meals more consistently throughout the day can help control blood glucose levels.

2. Regular Physical Activity

Aim for at least 150 minutes of moderate exercise per week like walking, swimming, cycling.

Exercise helps your body use insulin more effectively and can improve blood sugar levels.

Even simple habits—like walking after meals—may help regulate blood glucose.

Mayo Clinic Staff. Diabetes prevention: 5 tips for taking control. Mayo Clinic. Published online. Accessed Nov. 17, 2025.

American Diabetes Association. Get Active! | Exercise & Diabetes. Diabetes.org. Accessed Nov. 17, 2025.

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💡 Helpful Health Professional: Registered Dietitian (RD) or Registered Dietitian Nutritionist (RDN)

1. A dietitian might help a patient replace sugary drinks with water or unsweetened tea, swap white rice for brown rice, add vegetables to each meal, and space meals 3–4 hours apart to reduce blood sugar spikes. They may also use SMART goals to track progress.

2. Create a personalized meal plan based on blood sugar levels, cultural foods, budget, and preferences

3. Teach carbohydrate counting and how to read nutrition labels.

4. Explain the Glycemic Index (GI) and recommend high-fiber, low-GI foods.

5. Provide strategies for meal timing and balancing meals/snacks throughout the day

6. Monitor progress and adjust the plan during follow-up visits

Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: The Role of Medical Nutrition Therapy and Registered Dietitian Nutritionists in the Prevention and Treatment of Prediabetes and Type 2 Diabetes. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2018;118(5):833-849.

Franz MJ, Evert AB. Nutrition Therapy for Adults With Diabetes or Prediabetes: A Consensus Report. Diabetes Care. 2019;42(5):731-754.

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Benefits of a Well-Balanced Diet and appointing to a  Registered Dietitian

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Benefits of a Well-Balanced Diet and appointing to a  Registered Dietitian

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A potential lifestyle change for Type 2 Diabetes can consist of having a Well-Balanced Diet and appointing to a health professional, Registered Dietitian.

Well-Balanced Diet - It is important to begin having a well-balanced diet.

As it is difficult to have a well-balanced diet, it is important.

This consists of being able to consume lean protein, non-starchy vegetables, healthy fats, and whole foods.

You can also monitor your calories as well.

By incorporating this diet, this may decrease the chances of increased glucose and insulin levels which is what we want to prevent with Type 2 Diabetes.

Registered Dietitian - A healthcare professional who specializes in nutrition.

These doctors are able to assist and guide those struggling with Type 2 Diabetes on having goals and how to meet them while maintaining your diet.

They help maintain body weight goals, assist in having leveled blood sugar/pressure, and cholesterol goals.

They also are able to delay and/or prevent any possible complications in regards of Type 2 Diabetes.

By seeing Registered Dietitians, they not only assist in preventing Type 2 Diabetes but also improving your overall health which is important on staying healthy.

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Chacko, E., & Signore, C. (2020, July). Five Evidence-Based Lifestyle Habits People with Diabetes Can Use. American Diabetes Association: Clinical Diabetes. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7364446/

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.). Your Diabetes Care Team. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/treatment/diabetes-doctors.html

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Although there are other helpful tools, having a healthy diet accompanied by routine exercise are common treatment plans to improve your overall function of life with Type 2 Diabetes

Keeping a routine exercise plan in your every day can have benefits such as improving strength/mobility, regulating blood levels and maintain a healthy weight

An important factor of exercise is that it is able to boost insulin sensitivity, allowing the glucose to stay sufficient, especially for fueling the muscles for this exercise

Resistance training is a type of exercise that focuses on building muscle mass, which in turn, helps the body regulate blood sugar levels

Keeping a healthy weight comes with help from having a healthy diet, with those, maintaining the healthy lifestyle can lower risk of disease and lower the need for medications

A combination often recommended is resistance training and aerobic exercise for an average of 2-3 hours per week

Kirwan JP, Sacks J, Nieuwoudt S. The essential role of exercise in the management of type 2 diabetes. Cleveland Clinic journal of medicine. July 2017. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5846677/.

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Having an Exercise Physiologist on your side of can be a positive tool to help a life with Type 2 Diabetes

Similar to the scientific method, exercise physiologist will analyze, test, measure, develop and implement

They will analyze the individuals medical history to create a regimen appropriate to fit their body's specific needs

Next, they'll run test related to endurance or stress to produce data

This data gives a measurement to one's oxygen levels, blood pressure and heart rhythm

Now that the evidence supports the performance tests, they can now start to develop the right program to give the specific special care that is needed

It is now time for the individual to use all the health education given to them from the exercise physiologist and to implement the plan created for them

This carefully curated plan can involve personalized goals relating to exercise schedule, lifestyle integration and management.

Exercise physiologists. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. August 28, 2025. https://www.bls.gov/ooh/healthcare/exercise-physiologists.htm#tab-2.

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The technology used for Type 2 Diabetes is at a great point but they are still improving current models and creating more efficient ways to help your lifestyle.

A common tool used is a glucose monitoring system which measures real time levels of your glucose which then displays the data on its screen

This in turn helps you to make a more sound decision on factors such as what or when you should eat or when you should partake in your daily physical activity.

Another system used to improve a lifestyle with Type 2 Diabetes is an insulin pump.

An insulin pump is worn on the outside of your body, often times on a belt and you load a vial on the device with insulin which then injects the correct dosage to be able to maintain your insulin levels

Professionals are working on improving Type 2 Diabetes technologies by expanding access to individuals outside the disease so they're able to take more precautionary measures to lower their risk of diabetes development.

They are also working to create more personalized care and improved automated glucose systems and insulin devices.

Devices & Technology. Diabetes Devices & Technology | ADA. Accessed November 22, 2025. https://diabetes.org/about-diabetes/devices-technology.

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1. Older Adults

May have multiple chronic conditions

Risk of hypoglycemia and medication interactions is higher.

Management focus: balanced nutrition, safe physical activity, medication monitoring, cognitive support for self-care.

2. Children & Adolescents

Increasing rates due to obesity and sedentary lifestyle.

May struggle with body image, adherence, or lack of nutritional knowledge.

School-based education and family involvement are essential.

3. Low-Income or Rural Communities

Limited access to fresh food, health services, or diabetes education.

Higher reliance on processed foods and fewer safe places to exercise.

Telehealth, mobile clinics, and sliding-scale programs can help.

4. Racial & Ethnic Minority Groups

(Hispanic/Latino, African American, Native American, Pacific Islander, Asian American)

Higher genetic risk and social determinants of health affect outcomes.

Cultural beliefs may influence diet or willingness to seek care.

Culturally sensitive education and bilingual resources are crucial.

5. Pregnant Women (Gestational Diabetes)

Increases risk of developing type 2 diabetes later in life.

Requires close monitoring of blood glucose and prenatal nutrition.

Education after pregnancy helps prevent progression to type 2.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Advancing Health Equity: Diabetes. CDC Division of Diabetes Translation. May 15, 2024.

Golden SH, Brown A, Cauley JA, et al. Disparities in diabetes prevalence and management by race and ethnicity in the USA: defining a path forward. Diabetes Care. 2023;46(5):1032–1044.

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Special populations related to Type 2 Diabetes are age, race and ethnicity.

Understanding your race/ethnic background can help by being aware of the appropriate preventative measures that can be taken.

Race/ethnicity can affect a life with Type 2 Diabetes with factors of specific diets to a culture or genetics.

South Asian populations are more likely to have the symptom of insulin resistance because their genetics often store fat around organs and have a high carbohydrate/fat diet.

American Indians are one of the common groups to develop Type 2 Diabetes due to inactive lifestyles and high fiber diets; this group also often times have limited access to healthcare.

Certain socioeconomic factors such as having limited access to healthcare can cause risk/issues regarding complications in glycemic control or increased risk in heart and kidney diseases.

Increased risk of Type 2 Diabetes also comes at an age of 45 and up; this is due to a slow decline in physical activity, insulin sensitivity and organ function.

Hill-Briggs F, Adler NE, Berkowitz SA, et al. Social Determinants of Health and diabetes: A scientific review. Diabetes care. November 2, 2020. Accessed November 22, 2025. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7783927/.

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1. Community & School Programs

Healthy eating campaigns

Free exercise or walking groups

School lessons on nutrition and health

2. Screening & Early Detection

Blood glucose testing at health fairs, pharmacies, community centers.

Education about warning signs and risk factors.

3. Government & Policy Efforts

Nutrition labeling laws.

SNAP/EBT incentives for purchasing fruits and vegetables.

Funding for diabetes prevention programs.

Kramer MK, McWilliams JR, Chen HY, et al. The Diabetes Prevention Program for underserved populations: a brief review of strategies in the real world. Prev Chronic Dis. 2019;16:180602.

Isom S, Williams A,Change your Lifestyle, Change your Life (CYL²): a culturally adapted National DPP intervention for Black women.

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Special Populations Regarding Type 2 Diabetes

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Special Populations Regarding Type 2 Diabetes

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The populations that are more affected with Type 2 Diabetes are those that are low-income adults, older adults, and those of different racial/ethnic backgrounds.

Low-Income Adults - Adults that are more low-income are one of the main populations that are affected with Type 2 Diabetes.

The prevalence from those that are in poverty is doubled in cases of Type 2 Diabetes.

Older Adults - Older adults are more likely to be affected by Type 2 Diabetes.

Statistics show that in 2008, Type 2 Diabetes has decreased among those that have Type 2 Diabetes which is fantastic! But rates have shown that older adults rate of Type 2 Diabetes increased.

Diabetes and those that are of older age are more affected due to complications.

Racial/Ethnic Backgrounds - Those of different racial/ethnic backgrounds are more inclined to be affected through Type 2 Diabetes.

Those that have different racial/ethnic backgrounds are more affected by Type 2 Diabetes with three-times the likelihood of limitations of physical tasks.

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Pilla, S. J., Rooney, M. R., & McCoy, R. G. (2024, December 5). Disability and Diabetes in Adults. Diabetes in America [Internet]. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK609951/

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Technology Devices utilized for Type 2 Diabetes

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Technology Devices utilized for Type 2 Diabetes

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The technology devices that are often utilized when treated Type 2 Diabetes are Continuous Glucose Monitors (CGMs), Insulin Pumps, Connected CGM and Insulin Pumps, Blood Glucose Meters, and Smart Insulin Pens.

Continuous Glucose Monitors (CGMs) - CGMs are what continuously monitor your glucose levels/blood sugar.

This monitors those throughout the day no matter what time it may be which also updates you if the levels happen to become too high and/or low.

You are able to monitor the CGM updates through your personal devices-- they not only measure your present levels, they also save the what was previously recorded too.

Insulin Pumps - An external device that gets attached to your body.

This device is able to release insulin through your body depending on when your body signals when it may be needed.

This is given throughout the day, or produced through surges.

The pump may take time for yourself to get comfortable with but is a very effective devices especially for individuals that may need to inject insulin to themselves daily every single day.

Connected CGMs and Insulin Pumps - This utilizes CGMs and Insulin Pumps combined in one.

When the insulin is being produced this then will decrease the amount of Hypo and Hyperglycemia so this gives the range to increase overtime.

Blood Glucose Meters - This is treated for those that prefer devices that are more subtle.

This works through poking your own finger to produce blood > place it onto a testing strip to measure your blood glucose/sugar > the results are displayed on that device that the strip is connected to.

There are alternative brands that allow yourself to download on your personal device to measure your blood glucose/sugar.

Smart Insulin Pens - This is more on the "techier" end of things when comparing it to other devices that are listed above.

These pens allow yourself to ensure that you are giving yourself the correct amount of insulin which is being based off of your personal blood glucose level along with the amount of carbohydrates you intake.

This can be downloaded on your personal device(s) and tracks all of your data when utilizing this device.

This will notify when more insulin should be taken.

These devices listed above are extremely effective during the treatment of Type 2 Diabetes in their own specific ways for how they're utilize during treatments.

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Diabetes Technology Guide. Diabetes Technology Guide | ADA. (n.d.). https://diabetes.org/living-with-diabetes/treatment-care/diabetes-technology-guide

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🌟 Public Health Initiatives for Type 2 Diabetes

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🌟 Public Health Initiatives for Type 2 Diabetes

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🩺 Understanding Type 2 Diabetes.

Good news: lifestyle changes can help prevent complications!!!

💪 National Diabetes Prevention Program:
This program helps prevent diabetes before it starts.

🥗Eat healthy

🏃‍♂️Be active

⚖️Manage weight
Result: Can reduce your risk by more than 50%!

🥑 Dietary Interventions
Certain diets, help lower blood sugar naturally.
Focus on:

Fruits 🍎 & vegetables 🥦

Healthy fats 🥜🥑

Fewer carbs 🍞
These small changes can keep your blood sugar steady.

📢 Awareness Campaigns:
Public health campaigns educate people about diabetes risk.
Includes:

Risk assessments ✅

Easy-to-follow guides 📚

Daily tips to prevent diabetes 🏃‍♀️

🏛️ Role of Policy
Government programs also help fight diabetes by:

💊Making insulin and medications more affordable.

🥗Promoting access to healthy foods.

🏥Ensuring preventive care is available for everyone .

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). National Diabetes Prevention Program. 2025. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/prevention/index.html. Accessed November 25, 2025. Highlights public health initiatives focused on lifestyle changes and diabetes prevention.

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🧒 Children and Adolescents:

🍎 Type 2 diabetes in youth is often linked to obesity, sedentary lifestyle, and sugary diets.

🩺 Screening: Regular blood sugar tests for at-risk children (family history, obesity).

🏃 Management: Healthy eating habits, daily physical activity, and family-based lifestyle interventions can prevent complications like early heart disease.

👵 Older Adults:

⚠️ Age-related insulin resistance and other chronic conditions increase risk.

🩺 Screening: Annual glucose checks and monitoring for kidney or heart issues.

🏋️ Management: Adjusted diet (low sugar, high fiber), safe exercise routines, and medication management to prevent hypoglycemia.

🌎 Culturally Diverse Communities:

🥘 Diet, traditional foods, and health beliefs can influence diabetes risk and management.

🩺 Screening: Community health programs can offer culturally sensitive screenings.

📚 Management: Diabetes education programs tailored to cultural foods and practices improve adherence and outcomes.

💰 Low-Income Populations:

💵 Limited access to healthy foods and healthcare increases diabetes complications.

🩺 Screening: Free or low-cost clinics and mobile testing units are essential.

🥗 Management: Affordable meal plans, community support, and medication assistance programs help maintain blood sugar control.

🧑‍🤝‍🧑 People with Disabilities:

♿ Physical or cognitive challenges can make diabetes management difficult.

🩺 Screening: Regular check-ups with accessible facilities.

🛠️ Management: Adaptive tools (glucose monitors with voice or large displays), caregiver support, and simplified medication routines improve self-care.

🏥 Rural Populations:

🚜 Geographic isolation limits access to specialists and diabetes care resources.

🩺 Screening: Telemedicine and local health fairs can increase detection.

🌐 Management: Remote monitoring, mobile clinics, and online education programs ensure continued care.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diabetes Education Linked to Better Care. 2024. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/data-research/research/diabetes-education.html. Accessed November 25, 2025. cdc.gov

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Technology in relation to Type 2 Diabetes has been evolving continuously.

Some examples of this include:

Continuous Glucose Monitors (CGMs):

Smart devices that can be worn on the skin and is implanted subcutaneously. The transmitter relays readings from the sensor to a receiver that is most convenient to the user. The detector is used to measure interstitial glucose every couple minutes.

- CGMs are also categorized in two different ways

Real-time CGMs: Measures and transmits glucose continuously to the receiver and displays current measurements.

Intermittently Scanned CGMs: Measures glucose continuously but does not continuously display current measurements.

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Different kinds of promotion in Type 2 Diabetes have various responses to the public.

Video Promotion:

Specifically, videos with a narration allows a person to sympathize with the characters in the video. Therefore, connecting more with the storyline and relating it to their own lives.

Videos also are more direct and complete and allow for more engagement and focus on the content.

Text filled Promotion:

Text narrations allows an audience and person to interpret the story in their own way and different to a video.

The person is able to combine the story with memories of their own and allow it to resonate more with them.

Some examples of these are: testimonials, sponsored stories, healthcare products, etc.