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The ability to code a stimulus two different ways increases the chance of remembering that item compared to if the stimulus was only coded one way.

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The ability to code a stimulus two different ways increases the chance of remembering that item compared to if the stimulus was only coded one way.

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Baddeley's Model of Working Memory is a model of human memory proposed by Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch in 1974, in an attempt to present a more accurate model of primary memory (often referred to as short-term memory). Working memory splits primary memory into multiple components, rather than considering it to be a single, unified construct.

Baddeley & Hitch proposed their three-part working memory model as an alternative to the short-term store in Atkinson & Shiffrin's 'multi-store' memory model (1968). This model is later expanded upon by Baddeley and other co-workers to add a fourth component, and has become the dominant view in the field of working memory. However, alternative models are developing (see working memory), providing a different perspective on the working memory system.

The original model of Baddeley & Hitch was composed of three main components: the central executive which acts as a supervisory system and controls the flow of information from and to its slave systems: the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad. The phonological loop stores verbal content, whereas the visuo-spatial sketchpad caters to visuo-spatial data. Both the slave systems only function as short-term storage centers. In 2000, Baddeley added a third slave system to his model, the episodic buffer.

Baddeley & Hitch's argument for the distinction of two domain-specific slave systems in the older model was derived from experimental findings with dual-task paradigms. Performance of two simultaneous tasks requiring the use of two separate perceptual domains (i.e. a visual and a verbal task) is nearly as efficient as performance of the tasks individually. In contrast, when a person tries to carry out two tasks simultaneously that use the same perceptual domain, performance is less efficient than when performing the tasks individually.

A fourth component of Baddeley's model was added 25 years later to complement the central executive system. The third slave system was designated as episodic buffer. It is considered a limited-capacity system that provides temporary storage of information by conjoining information from the subsidiary systems, and long-term memory, into a single episodic representation.

The central executive is a flexible system responsible for the control and regulation of cognitive processes. It directs focus and targets information, making working memory and long-term memory work together. It can be thought of as a supervisory system that controls cognitive processes, making sure the short-term store is actively working, and intervenes when they go astray and prevents distractions.

It has the following functions:

updating and coding incoming information and replacing old information

binding information from a number of sources into coherent episodes

coordination of the slave systems

shifting between tasks or retrieval strategies

inhibition, suppressing dominant or automatic responses

selective attention

The central executive has two main systems: the visuo-spatial sketchpad, for visual information, and the phonological loop, for verbal information.

Using the dual-task paradigm, Baddeley and Erses have found, for instance, that patients with Alzheimer's dementia are impaired when performing multiple tasks simultaneously, even when the difficulty of the individual tasks is adapted to their abilities. Two tasks include a memory tasks and a tracking task. Individual actions are completed well, but as the Alzheimer's becomes more prominent in a patient, performing two or more actions becomes more and more difficult. This research has shown the deteriorating of the central executive in individuals with Alzheimer's.

Recent research on executive functions suggests that the 'central' executive is not as central as conceived in the Baddeley & Hitch model. Rather, there seem to be separate executive functions that can vary largely independently between individuals and can be selectively impaired or spared by brain damage.

The phonological loop (or "articulatory loop") as a whole deals with sound or phonological information. It consists of two parts: a short-term phonological store with auditory memory traces that are subject to rapid decay and an articulatory rehearsal component (sometimes called the articulatory loop) that can revive the memory traces.

Any auditory verbal information is assumed to enter automatically into the phonological store. Visually presented language can be transformed into phonological code by silent articulation and thereby be encoded into the phonological store. This transformation is facilitated by the articulatory control process. The phonological store acts as an "inner ear", remembering speech sounds in their temporal order, whilst the articulatory process acts as an "inner voice" and repeats the series of words (or other speech elements) on a loop to prevent them from decaying. The phonological loop may play a key role in the acquisition of vocabulary, particularly in the early childhood years. It may also be vital for learning a second language.

Five main findings provide evidence for the phonological loop:

1. The effect of phonological similarity:
Lists of words that sound similar are more difficult to remember than words that sound different. Semantic similarity (similarity of meaning) has comparatively little effect, supporting the assumption that verbal information is coded largely phonologically in working memory.

2. The effect of articulatory suppression:
Memory for verbal material is impaired when people are asked to say something irrelevant aloud. This is assumed to block the articulatory rehearsal process, leading memory traces in the phonological loop to decay.

3. Transfer of information between codes:
With visually presented items, adults usually name and sub-vocally rehearse them, so the information is transferred from a visual to an auditory encoding. Articulatory suppression prevents this transfer, and in that case the above-mentioned effect of phonological similarity is erased for visually presented items.

4. Neuropsychological evidence:
A defective phonological store explains the behavior of patients with a specific deficit in phonological short-term memory. Aphasic patients with developmental verbal dyspraxia are unable to set up the speech motor codes necessary for articulation, caused by a deficiency of the articulatory rehearsal process.

5. On the other hand, patients with dysarthria, whose speech problems are secondary, show a normal capacity for rehearsal. This suggests that it is the subvocal rehearsing that is crucial.

Evidence in support of a phonological short-term store

An accumulation of literature across decades has lent strong support to the theory of phonological STS. In a 1971 study, Stephen Madigan demonstrated that a larger recency effect is seen during forward serial recall when people are presented a list auditorally as opposed to visually. (A smaller effect is seen in backwards serial recall.) In his study, auditory presentation led to greater recall of the most recently studied items. Catherine Penney expanded on this discovery to observe that modality effects can also be found in the case of free recall tasks. In 1965, Dallett had discovered that this observed modality effect is greatly reduced by the addition of a "suffix" item to the presented list; this suffix is a distractor item that is not to be recalled. Robert Greene utilized this observation in 1987 to discover that this suffix effect has a larger impact on lists learned auditorally as opposed to visually. The culmination of all of these findings results in strong support of the theory that there is a short-term store that phonologically stores recently learned items. In addition, Bloom and Watkins found that the suffix effect is greatly diminished when the suffix is not interpreted as linguistic sound, which agrees with the phonological short term store theory as it would be largely unaffected by non-linguistic distractors.

Alan Baddeley's theory of working memory has yet another aspect to which memory can be stored short term. The visuo-spatial sketchpad is this store that holds visual information for manipulation. The visuo-spatial sketchpad is thought to be its own storage of working memory in that it does not interfere with the short term processes of the phonological loop. In research, it has been found that the visuo-spatial sketchpad can work simultaneously with the phonological loop to process both auditory and visual stimuli without either of the processes affecting the efficacy of the other. Baddeley re-defined the theory of short-term memory as a working memory to explain this phenomenon. In the original theory of short-term memory, it is understood that a person only has one store of immediate information processing which could only hold a total of 7 items plus or minus two items to be stored in a very short period of time, sometimes a matter of seconds. The digit-span test is a perfect example of a measurement for classically defined short-term memory. Essentially, if one is not able to encode the 7 plus or minus two items within a few minutes by finding an existing association for the information to be transferred into long-term memory, then the information is lost and never encoded.

However, visuo-spatial short-term memory can retain visual and/or spatial information over brief periods of time. When this memory is in use, individuals are able to momentarily create and revisit a mental image that can be manipulated in complex or difficult tasks of spatial orientation. There are some who have disparities in the areas of the brain that allow for this to happen from different types of brain damage. There can also be a misunderstanding here in the differences between transient memories such as the visual sensory memory. A transient memory is merely a fleeting type of sensory memory. Therefore, as the visual sensory memory is a type of sensory memory, there is a store for the information, but the store lasts for only a second or so. A common effect of the visual sensory memory is that individuals may remember seeing things that weren't really there or not remembering particular things that were in their line of sight. The memory is only momentary, and if it isn't attended to within a matter of seconds, it is gone.

There are two different pathways in the brain that control different functions of what is known inclusively as the visuo-spatial sketchpad. The sketchpad consists of the spatial short-term memory and the object memory. The spatial short-term memory is how one is able to learn and thus remember "where" they are in comparative representation to other objects. The object memory of the visuo-spatial sketchpad is essential in learning and remembering "what" an object is. The differences between these two differing visual abilities is due in large part because of different pathways of each of the abilities in the brain. The visual pathway in the brain that detects spatial representation of a person to and within their environment is the dorsal stream. The visual pathway that determines objects shapes, sizes, colors and other definitive characteristics is called the ventral stream. Each of these two streams runs independent of one another so that the visual system may process one without the other (like in brain damage for instance) or both simultaneously. The two streams do not depend on one another, so if one is functioning manipulatively, the other can still send its information through.

Logie's elaboration of the visuospatial sketchpad

Logie has proposed that the visuo-spatial sketchpad can be further subdivided into two components:

1. The visual cache, which stores information about form and color.

2. The inner scribe, which deals with spatial and movement information. It also rehearses information in the visual cache and transfers information to the central executive.

Three main findings provide evidence for the distinction between visual and spatial parts of the visuospatial sketchpad:

1. There is less interference between visual and spatial tasks than between two visual tasks or two spatial tasks.

2. Brain damage can influence one of the components without influencing the other.

3. Results from brain-imaging show that working memory tasks with visual objects activate mostly areas in the left hemisphere, whereas tasks with spatial information activate more areas in the right hemisphere.

In 2000 Baddeley added a fourth component to the model, the episodic buffer. This component is a limited capacity passive system, dedicated to linking information across domains to form integrated units of visual, spatial, and verbal information with time sequencing (or episodic chronological ordering), such as the memory of a story or a movie scene. The episodic buffer is also assumed to have links to long-term memory and semantic meaning.

"It acts as a buffer store, not only between the components of Working Memory, but also linking Working Memory to perception and Long-Term Memory". Baddeley assumes that "retrieval from the buffer occurred through conscious awareness". The episodic buffer allows individuals to use integrated units of information they already have to imagine new concepts. Since this is likely "an attention-demanding process...the buffer would depend heavily on the Central Executive".

The main motivation for introducing this component was the observation that some (in particular, highly intelligent) patients with amnesia, who presumably have no ability to encode new information in long-term memory, nevertheless have good short-term recall of stories, recalling much more information than could be held in the phonological loop. "The episodic buffer appears...capable of storing bound features and making them available to conscious awareness but not itself responsible for the process of binding".

It is assumed that "conscious access to the phonological loop or sketchpad may operate via the buffer". This is based on the assumption that both the visuo-spatial sketchpad and phonological loop act as minor buffers, combining information within their sensory area. The episodic buffer may also interact with smell and taste.

Biology/neuroscience

There is much evidence for a brief memory buffer, as distinct from the long term store. The phonological loop seems to be connected to activation in the left hemisphere, more specifically the temporal lobe. The visuo-spatial sketchpad activates different areas depending on task difficulty; less intense tasks seem to activate in the occipital lobe, whereas more complex tasks appear in the parietal lobe. The central executive is still a mystery, although it would seem to be more or less located in the frontal lobes of the brain. The episodic buffer seems to be in both hemispheres (bilateral) with activations in both the frontal and temporal lobes, and even the left portion of the hippocampus. In terms of genetics, the gene ROBO1 has been associated with phonological buffer integrity or length.

The strength of Baddeley's model is its ability to integrate a large number of findings from work on short-term and working memory. Additionally, the mechanisms of the slave systems, especially the phonological loop, has inspired a wealth of research in experimental psychology, neuropsychology, and cognitive neuroscience.

However, criticisms have been raised, for instance of the phonological-loop component, because some details of the findings are not easily explained by the original Baddeley & Hitch model, including the controversy regarding the 7+/-2 rule.

The episodic buffer is seen as a helpful addition to the model of working memory, but it has not been investigated extensively and its functions remain unclear.

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3. Baddeley, A.D. and Hitch, G.J. (1974) Working memory. In The Psychology of Learning and Motivation (Bower, G.A., ed.), pp. 47-89, Academic Press ^ http://www.cell.com/trends/cognitive-sciences/fulltext/S1364-6613(00)01538-2?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS1364661300015382%3Fshowall%3Dtrue

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7. ^ Baddeley, A. (1992). Working Memory. Science, 255(5044), 556.

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9. ^ Baddeley A, Gathercole S, Papagno C (January 1998). "The phonological loop as a language learning device". Psychol Rev. 105 (1): 158-73. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.464.9511. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.105.1.158. PMID 9450375.

10. a) ^ Conrad. R. & Hull, A.J. (November 1964). "Information, acoustic confusion and memory span" (PDF). British Journal of Psychology. 55 (4): 429-32. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1964.tb00928.x. PMID 14237884.
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15. Logie, R.H. (1995). ^ Visuo-spatial working memory, Hove, UK: Lawrence Eribaum Associates.

16. mentioned in: ^ http://www.psypress.com/ek5/resources/demo_ch06-sc-02.asp Archived 2007-09-28 at the Wayback Machine

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18. ^ Baddeley, Alan; Allen, Richard J; Hitch, Graham J (2010-10-01). "Investigating the episodic buffer". Psychologica Belgica. 50 (3-4): 223. doi:10.5334/pb-50-3-4-223. ISSN 2054-670X.

19. ^ Bates, Timothy C.; Luciano, Michelle; Medland, Sarah E.; Montgomery, Grant W.; Wright, Margaret J.; Martin, Nicholas G. (January 2011). "Genetic Variance in a Component of the Language Acquisition Device: ROBO1 Polymorphisms Associated with Phonological Buffer Deficits" (PDF). Behav. Genet. 41 (1): 50-7. doi:10.1007/s10519-010-9402-9. PMID 20949370.

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Baddeley, A.D.; Wilson, B. A. (2002). "Prose recall and amnesia: implications for the structure of working memory". Neuropsychologia. 40 (10): 1737-1743. doi:10.1016/S0028-3932(01)00146-4. PMID 11992661.

Baddeley, A.D. (2000). "The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory?". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 4 (11): 417-423. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2. PMID 11058819.

Baddeley, A.D. (2007). Working memory, thought and action. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Baddeley, A.D.; Della Sala, S.; Robbins, T. W.; Baddeley, A. (1996). "Working memory and executive control". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. 351 (1346): 1397-1404. doi:10.1098/rstb.1996.0123. PMID 8941951.

Baddeley, A.D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. In G.H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 8, pp. 47-89). New York: Academic Press.

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Baddeley's Model of Working Memory is a model of human memory proposed by Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch in 1974, in an attempt to present a more accurate model of primary memory (often referred to as short-term memory). Working memory splits primary memory into multiple components, rather than considering it to be a single, unified construct.

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Dual-coding theory, a theory of cognition, was hypothesized by Allan Paivio of the University of Western Ontario in 1971. In developing this theory, Paivio used the idea that the formation of mental images aids learning. According to Paivio, there are two ways a person could expand on learned material: verbal associations and visual imagery. Dual-coding theory postulates that both visual and verbal information is used to represent information. Visual and verbal information are processed differently and along distinct channels in the human mind, creating separate representations for information processed in each channel. The mental codes corresponding to these representations are used to organize incoming information that can be acted upon, stored, and retrieved for subsequent use. Both visual and verbal codes can be used when recalling information. For example, say a person has stored the stimulus concept "dog" as both the word 'dog' and as the image of a dog. When asked to recall the stimulus, the person can retrieve either the word or the image individually, or both simultaneously. If the word is recalled, the image of the dog is not lost and can still be retrieved at a later point in time. The ability to code a stimulus two different ways increases the chance of remembering that item compared to if the stimulus was only coded one way.

There has been controversy to the limitations of the dual-coding theory. Dual-coding theory does not take into account the possibility of cognition being mediated by something other than words and images. Not enough research has been done to determine if words and images are the only way we remember items, and the theory would not hold true if another form of codes were discovered. Another limitation of the dual-coding theory is that it is only valid for tests on which people are asked to focus on identifying how concepts are related. If associations between a word and an image cannot be formed, it is much harder to remember and recall the word at a later point in time. While this limits the effectiveness of the dual-coding theory, it is still valid over a wide range of circumstances and can be used to improve memory.

Analogue codes are used to mentally represent images. Analogue codes retain the main perceptual features of whatever is being represented, so the images we form in our minds are highly similar to the physical stimuli. They are a near-exact representation of the physical stimuli we observe in our environment, such as trees and rivers.

Symbolic codes are used to form mental representations of words. They represent something conceptually, and sometimes, arbitrarily, as opposed to perceptually. Similar to the way a watch may represent information in the form of numbers to display the time, symbolic codes represent information in our mind in the form of arbitrary symbols, like words and combinations of words, to represent several ideas. Each symbol (x, y, 1, 2, etc.) can arbitrarily represent something other than itself. For instance, the letter x is often used to represent more than just the concept of an x, the 24th letter of the alphabet. It can be used to represent a variable x in mathematics, or a multiplication symbol in an equation. Concepts like multiplication can be represented symbolically by an "x" because we arbitrarily assign it a deeper concept. Only when we use it to represent this deeper concept does the letter "x" carry this type of meaning.

Evidence from psychological research

Many researchers have agreed that only words and images are used in mental representation. Supporting evidence shows that memory for some verbal information is enhanced if a relevant visual is also presented or if the learner can imagine a visual image to go with the verbal information. Likewise, visual information can often be enhanced when paired with relevant verbal information, whether real-world or imagined. This theory has been applied to the use of multimedia presentations. Because multimedia presentations require both spatial and verbal working memory, individuals dual code information presented and are more likely to recall the information when tested at a later date. Moreover, studies that have been conducted on abstract and concrete words have also found that the participants remembered concrete words better than the abstract words.

Paivio found that participants when shown a rapid sequence of pictures as well as a rapid sequence of words and later asked to recall the words and pictures, in any order, were better at recalling images. Participants, however, more readily recalled the sequential order of the words, rather than the sequence of pictures. These results supported Paivio's hypothesis that verbal information is processed differently from visual information and that verbal information was superior to visual information when sequential order was also required for the memory task. Lee Brooks conducted an experiment that provided additional support for two systems for memory. He had participants perform either a visual task, where they had to view a picture and answer questions about the picture, or a verbal task, where they listened to a sentence and were then asked to answer questions pertaining to the sentence. To respond to the questions, participants were asked to either respond verbally, visually, or manually. Through this experiment, Brooks found that interference occurred when a visual perception was mixed with manipulation of the visual task, and verbal responses interfere with a task involving a verbal statement to be manually manipulated. This supported the idea of two codes used to mentally represent information.

Working memory as proposed by Alan Baddeley includes a two-part processing system with a visuospatial sketchpad and a phonological loop which essentially maps to Paivio's theory.

Dual-coding theories complement a dual-route theory of reading. When people read written information, dual-route theory contends that the readers access orthographic and phonological information to recognize words in the writing.

Paivio's work has implications for literacy, visual mnemonics, idea generation, HPT, human factors, interface design, as well as the development of educational materials among others. It also has implications for, and counterparts in, cognitive sciences and computational cognitive modeling (in the form of dual process cognitive models and so on; e.g.,). It also has had implications for cognitive robotics.

Cognitive neuroscience support

Two different methods have been used to identify the regions involved in visual perception and visual imagery. First, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is used to measure cerebral blood flow, which allows researchers to identify the amount of glucose and oxygen being consumed by a specific part of the brain, with an increase in blood flow providing a measure of brain activity. Second, an event related potential (ERP) can be used to show the amount of electrical brain activity that is occurring due to a particular stimulus. Researchers have used both methods to determine which areas of the brain are active with different stimuli, and results have supported the dual-coding theory. Other research has been done with positron emission tomography (PET) scans and fMRI to show that participants had improved memory for spoken words and sentences when paired with an image, imagined or real. Those participants also showed an increase in brain activation that processes abstract words not easily paired with an image.

Dual-coding theory is not accepted by everyone. John Anderson and Gordon Bower proposed an alternative method - the propositional theory - of how knowledge is mentally represented. The propositional theory claims that mental representations are stored as propositions rather than as images. Here, proposition is defined as the meaning that underlies the relationship between concepts. The propositional theory is able to explain the basic concept of an idea without needing images or verbal information. It is able to take the complex and break it down more into the differing components of the idea or concept. This theory states that images occur as a result of other cognitive processes because knowledge is not represented in the form of images, words, or symbols. This theory is also related to A Natural Deduction Systems model. This type of model allows for both feed forward and its reverse.

The common coding theory has also been proposed as an alternative to dual coding theory. The common coding theory looks at how things we see and hear are connected to our motor actions. It claims that there is a common code that is shared between perceiving something and the respective motor action.

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Dual-coding theory, a theory of cognition, was hypothesized by Allan Paivio of the University of Western Ontario in 1971. In developing this theory, Paivio used the idea that the formation of mental images aids learning. According to Paivio, there are two ways a person could expand on learned material: verbal associations and visual imagery.

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Doctor of Science
Chancellor

If you were to ask anyone studying for a degree in Psychology in the UK, to name a famous psychologist, then one of the first names to come up would be Alan Baddeley. This is because Alan is one of the foremost psychologists of his generation. Over the past 50 years he has revolutionised our understanding of the human mind, shaped the tools we use to measure cognitive functioning, and pioneered the application of psychology in real-world settings. His standing is shown by the range of accolades he has received. These include the British Psychological Society's Presidents' Award, a term as President of the UK's Experimental Psychology Society, and Membership of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1993 he was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1999 was awarded a CBE in recognition of his work.

Alan was born in 1934 and grew up in Hunslet, an industrial suburb of Leeds. He was one of the few children from his primary school to attend the local grammar school, where he studied English, Geography and History at A level. As he himself notes, he is therefore one of the few Fellows of the Royal Society without a post 16 qualification in maths or science. Having heard a radio interview in which his hero - Bertrand Russell - suggested that Psychology was an interesting subject, he applied to the degree course at University College London. There he found his initial interest in Freudian versions of psychology quickly replaced by a love of experimental, cognitive psychology. Having completed his undergraduate studies, he crossed the Atlantic on the Queen Mary to study for a Masters degree at Princeton. He then undertook his PhD at the Medical Research Council's Applied Psychology Unit in Cambridge. This Unit was to become central to Alan's career because he later returned to become its Director between 1974 and 1995.

Alan currently holds an Honorary Professorship at the University of York. However, he has particular connections to Bristol. In 1958 he worked at the Burden Neurological Institute, then located at Stoke Park. Between 1995 and 2003 he held a Professorship here at the University. In addition, one of his sons - Roland - is now a member of the academic staff in our School of Psychological Sciences.

Alan's work as a psychologist has focussed on memory and learning and he is most famous for pioneering the concept of working memory within cognitive psychology. Although he wasn't the very first to use this term, he saw its relevance and importance for cognitive science. In 1974 he and his colleague Graham Hitch published their seminal paper outlining a model of human working memory - detailing how we maintain information actively in mind in order to guide our behaviour. That paper has since been cited by other researchers over 10,000 times; a truly extraordinary figure in our discipline.

Alan has therefore contributed substantially to psychological theory, but a key feature of his career has been applying his insights in the service of society. Indeed, as Director of the Medical Research Council's Applied Psychology Unit his brief was to ensure that psychological knowledge had real-world influence. The ways he has done this include advising the Post Office on the UK's postcode system, responding to a request from Margaret Thatcher for information on the effectiveness of lie detectors, and measuring the effects of parasitic infection on children's cognition in developing countries. Alan is most proud his work with patients with various forms of brain damage or neurological difficulties. He has developed a number of assessment tools that are used by clinicians to diagnose and inform the treatment of individuals with traumatic brain injury, amnesia, or Alzheimer's disease.

This range of interests reflects Alan's natural curiosity and thirst for knowledge, characteristics that led him to study History and Geography at A level all those years ago. Like the historian, he is interested in what we can learn from the past about the present, and why people act in the way they do. Like the geographer he is always exploring, searching for new information and pushing the boundaries of our knowledge along the way. Indeed, Alan describes his own theories as maps; maps that aren't meant to be overly detailed, but which tell you where to go next if you want to find something new and exciting. In line with this, Alan has always had a taste for adventure. If you have the opportunity to chat to him later, ask him about his work with deep sea divers, how he and his colleagues went about measuring stress in parachutists, and the infamous experiment with the Icelandic student! This willingness to be open to new experiences, coupled with Alan's undimmed desire to find out what lies beyond the edges of his current knowledge make him a very fitting role model for all of our graduates today.

Chancellor, I present to Alan David Baddeley as eminently worthy of the degree of Doctor of Science honoris causa.

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Doctor of Science Chancellor If you were to ask anyone studying for a degree in Psychology in the UK, to name a famous psychologist, then one of the first names to come up would be Alan Baddeley. This is because Alan is one of the foremost psychologists of his generation.