# data[].attributes.body
Affective Lenses (based on the research of neuroscientist Mary Helen Immordino-Yang) focus on the theories that are centered around emotions, feelings, and how the two inherently affect learning-literacy in particular. These theories take a close look at the relationship between students' emotions and their learning.

# data[].attributes.body
Constructivism centers around the construction of a student's learning. Through this lense, "learning occurs when individuals integrate new knowledge with existing knowledge" (Tracey, 2017, p. 55). Within this theory, learning is natural and ongoing. *Constructivism and all connected theories are student-centered.

# data[].attributes.body
The Engagement Theory "seeks to articulate the differences between 'engaged' and 'disengaged' readers and to provide direction to educators on how to help students become more engaged" (Tracey, 2017, p. 146). Engaged readers tend to be more motivated to read which in turn causes them to read more frequently than disengaged readers. The goal of all educators is to have a classroom full of engaged readers.

# data[].attributes.body
The Attachment Theory refers to relationships and bonds formed between people. This is typically used to describe relationships between babies-parents. The more attention and "attachment" a child has with family, the more academic abilities the child will then have.

# data[].attributes.body
High quality teacher-student relationships are positively correlated with higher student test scores, improved student engagement and motivation, and reduced high school dropout rates.
If children are able to form a connection with their teacher at a young age, this forecasts later academic and behavioral adjustments in school.

# data[].attributes.body
Cognitive Process Lenses focus on the underlying mental processes built-in during the act of reading. These theories attempt to explain all of the inner workings that go on mentally as an individual is reading a text.

# data[].attributes.body
Inquiry learning emphasizes "the growth of the individual, the importance of the environment, and the role of the teacher in students' learning" (Tracey, 2017, p. 57). Within inquiry learning, students play a pivotal role in their learning- with education being a collaborative effort, rather than competitive.

# data[].attributes.body
Schema Theory "strives to explain how knowledge is created and used by learners" (Tracey, 2017, p. 60). Schemas are grouped categories of information stored in long-term memory that students can retrieve these schemas when trying to connect them to a new topic or piece of information. Every student has a unique schema based on their own personal lived experiences.

# data[].attributes.body
Lois Rosenblatt built off of Schema Theory and the fact that every person has a schema unique to them to create the Transactional/Reader Response Theory. This theory states that every reader has individualized reading experiences that connect directly to their personal background schemata. "Meaning is the result of the reader’s meaning construction that engages his or her unique background knowledge and cognitive processing" (Alvermann, et al., 2019, p. 13). Every student will have different interpretations of a text's meaning. The two responses students may have to a text are efferent responses, which are fact-based and aesthetic responses, which are rooted in personal and emotional connections. Teachers must ask themselves what kind of response text will elicit from children.

# data[].attributes.headline
Psycholinguistic Theory | Whole Language Theory

# data[].attributes.subject
Psycholinguistic Theory | Whole Language Theory

# data[].attributes.body
The core of Psycholinguistic Theory in regards to literacy is that "reading is primarily a language concept" (Tracey, 2017, p. 65). While reading, students will rely on language cueing systems to help them effectively and quickly read and comprehend a text. As students are reading, they are also making predictions on what will happen next within the text. By having students predicting or guessing what will come next in a text, they are bound to make mistakes sometimes. "Miscues can then be viewed not as errors but as keys to the kinds of problems children may be having in learning to read" (Alvermann, et al., 2019, p. 11). These miscues can be a guide for teachers on which aspects of reading students need more guidance and practice on.

Whole Language Theory is an extension of Psycholinguistic Theory. This theory states that reading, similar to language, is a natural process that children will acquire the more they are exposed to it within their environment. Whole Language Theory also suggests that listening, speaking, reading, and writing is all interconnected and advancement in one category will advance all the others simultaneously.

# data[].attributes.body
Metacognition is the process of thinking and being self-aware of your own thoughts. Within literacy, the Metacognitive Theory describes the act of students being aware of the reasoning behind what they are reading. The reader is consciously employing metacognitive strategies to help them understand the meaning behind a text.

# data[].attributes.body
Psychologist Jean Piaget came up with the Theory of Cognitive Development, which seeks to explain how children's quality of thinking develops over time. There are four factors that affect this cognitive development in children. Biological Maturation (Genetic Heredity), Activity (Physical Experiences), Social Experiences(Experiences and Interactions with Others), and Equilibration (Search for cognitive balance when dissonance occurs).

# data[].attributes.body
The Maturation Theory suggests that "reading instruction should not be implemented until students reached the age of 6  ½ years" (Tracey, 2017, p. 88). Researchers believed that if parents and educators had attempted to teach reading to students before the aforementioned age, they will inevitably damage the child's reading abilities. As a result, formal reading instruction for children was put off until children reached the "mature age" of 6 ½. This theory was later challenged and disproven by other theorists.

# data[].attributes.body
Don Holdaway proposed the Theory of Literacy Development, which states that the process of learning to read is a natural developmental occurrence. Holdaway stated that "learning to read begins in the home when children have stories read to them and see their parents reading" (Tracey, 2017, p. 89). By observing their parents' reading, children begin to emulate and model the actions of their parents. These first attempts are the first steps in children developing accurate reading skills.

# data[].attributes.body
Emergent Literacy Theory takes a look at children's attempts at language learning before they ever enter school. These attempts at speaking are the first steps to literacy, in learning to read and write. This theory states a direct connection between listening, speaking, reading, and writing. For example, a child who is showing proficiency in listening and speaking will become adept at reading and writing early on.

# data[].attributes.body
Family Literacy Theory refers to a series of ideas proposed by many researchers about the direct correlation between a literacy-rich home environment and student success academically. This involves the facilitation of programs that help develop literacy at home for family members and the ways in which literacy is used *naturally in the household.

# data[].attributes.body
Social Learning Lenses focus on the central role that social interaction plays within learning and the development of knowledge.

# data[].attributes.body
Sociolinguistics looks at the ways in which reading establishes and maintains social relationships between people. Linguistics believes that people learn to read in order to accomplish their own personal life goals. Reading is used to communicate the intentions that people have, between all involved in the reading process. The theory is rooted in anthropology, linguistics, and literacy analysis. There are many ways in which sociolinguistics can be translated over to a classroom. A few examples of this are English Language Learners using linguistics to communicate and bond with those around them or the clear difference between students who are exposed to literacy at home versus those that are not.

# data[].attributes.body
Socio-Cultural Theory "emphasizes the roles of social, cultural, and historical features in the human experience" (Tracey, 2017, p. 162). This theory is centered around the culture of learning, and how an individual's environment plays a strong role in their learning development.

# data[].attributes.body
According to theorist Vygotsky, children learn through the social interactions they have with those around them, as well as through oral and printed language.  Within this theory, Vygotsky developed the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which describes the precise level of difficulty of a task in which a child can be successful.

# data[].attributes.body
Also referred to as the Social Cognitive Theory, this theory by psychologist Albert Bandura states that individuals learn best from observing those around them, rather than having the experiences first-hand themselves. The four stages to picking up new information through observation are 1. Observing the model 2. Think about and process what they have just observed 3. Repeat the modeled behavior 4. Reinforcement while repeating modeled behavior.

# data[].attributes.body
The Critical Literacy Theory "seeks to explain the ways in which education and literacy shape people's lives and the ways in which people can use education and literacy to reshape society" (Tracey, 2017, p. 172). This theory focuses on raising awareness of systems of oppression- especially within social institutions. Thus, education is teaching students about these oppressed communities, and in turn, the educated students work to change and "reshape" their society.

# data[].attributes.body
Critical Race Theory is very similar to Critical Literacy Theory in that they each take a deeper look into the interconnected relationships between individuals, literacy, and society. This theory however also takes race into consideration. CRT notes that students of color (nonwhites) have a disproportionate failing rate as opposed to their counterparts, due to society and the educational system that is institutionally biased and oppressed. Teachers in low-socioeconomic school districts note that they must fight to get enough paper and pencils for all students, while suburban wealthy school districts have parents dishing out money to buy new state-of-the-art playgrounds for students. The inequality is clear as day, all due to social environments and a lot of the time race.

# data[].attributes.body
Theorists argue that what is considered literacy must now be extended to include multiple different modalities- most notably technology. Multiliteracies Theory encourages the use of many different modes and methods to teach literacy. These may include audio learning, visual learning, linguistic learning, and spatial learning as just a few. The differentiation for students can be a leading factor in academic success. Within the classroom, a few differentiated multiliteracies would be literacy centers, guided reading, morning meetings, and e-mail pals. By providing students with a multitude of different modes to learn literacy, they will feel more comfortable in the classroom and therefore feel more confident in learning.

# data[].attributes.body
The Information Processing Theory refers to the processing, storing, and retrieval of information, cognitively. Information goes through several consecutive steps, or storage systems, as students' process store, and retrieve it. The end result of these steps is learning. One way to integrate this model into the classroom is to have students repeat directions back to the teacher, to ensure they understand what is being asked of them. Another way of bringing Information-Processing into the classroom is by revisiting skills throughout the year and having students retrieve the information from the last time they learned about a topic.

# data[].attributes.headline
Gough's Model/"Bottom's Up" Reading Model

# data[].attributes.subject
Gough's Model/"Bottom's Up" Reading Model

# data[].attributes.body
Gough's Model evolved from the Information-Processing Model, in which the reading model "depicted the cognitive processing of information as proceeding from lower-order to higher-order stages" (Tracey, 2017, p. 196). The reading process as seen through this model begins with the eye captures each letter on a page, and the brain "scans" the image, looking for any recognizable patterns. Next, the letters are identified, stored, and decoded until the correct phonemes are attached to each letter. The gradual increase from lower-level to higher-level of information within this reading model is why it is referred to as a "Bottom's Up" model.

# data[].attributes.headline
Interactive Model |  Interactive-Compensatory Model

# data[].attributes.subject
Interactive Model |  Interactive-Compensatory Model

# data[].attributes.body
Psychologist David Rumelhart argued that the processing of information does not necessarily need to be linear and build from lower-level to higher-level such as other theorists previously believed. Within the Interactive Theory, Rumelhart believed that information at all levels can simultaneously work together to process information. This was the first model that proposed a non-linear and simultaneous view of information processing.
Psychologist Keith Stanovich took Rumelhart's theory and expanded onto it, adding that on top of information processors being interactive and non-linear, they are also compensatory. Essentially, if one aspect of the reading model or "processor" was not working, the others would band together and make up (compensate) for it. For example, if a student was reading a note and part of the pen mark got smudged off, the student's cognitive information processors can fill in the blanks with a word that would make sense in the sentence.

# data[].attributes.body
Tracey, D. H., & Morrow, L. M. (2017). Lenses on Reading: An Introduction to Theories and Models (Third). The Guilford Press.

# data[].attributes.body
Alvermann, D. E., Unrau, N., Sailors, M., & Ruddell, R. B. (2019). Theoretical Models and Processes of Literacy (Seventh). Routledge.

# data[].attributes.body
Behaviorism is a theory that focuses on observable changes in one's behavior. This theory "changed the depiction of reading from one of perceptual processing to one of reading as a behavior composed of isolated skills, each of which could be reinforced to increase student achievement" (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, pg. 40). Behaviorism is still predominant in education today, being associated with direct instruction from teachers.

# data[].attributes.body
Psychologist Edward Thorndike argued that "stimuli that occurred after a behavior, also had an influence on future behaviors" (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, pg. 43). There are four laws associated with Connectionism. The first is The Law of Effect, in which if an act is followed by a positive change in environment, the act is more likely to reoccur in the future. The second law is The Law of Readiness, which states that learning is achieved when easier tasks come before more difficult ones. The third law is The Law of Identical Elements, the more similar one element is to the previous, the easier it will be to grasp the concept of the second. The final law is The Law of Exercise states that the more often stimulus-response connections are put into practice, the stronger they become.

# data[].attributes.body
Put forth by physiologist Ivan Pavlov, the Classic Conditioning Theory correlates learning through association. There are four parts to this theory that come together to create a response.
n1. An unconditioned stimulus 2. An unconditioned response 3. A conditioned stimulus 4. A conditioned response. An example of these components put into theory is: A loud noise would be the unconditioned stimulus. The unconditioned response would be a person flinching due to the loud noise. They are both unconditioned because it is a natural human reaction to flinch when hearing a loud noise. However, if a photo of a flower is constantly accompanied by a loud noise, eventually the flower alone would evoke a flinch. The photo would be the conditioned stimulus, and the flinch would be the conditioned response. A process of learning and training was taken, making them both conditioned.

# data[].attributes.body
The overall idea of Operant Conditioning Theory, proposed by theorist B.F. Skinner was that if actions are followed by positive reinforcement(s), the action is more likely to reoccur. Actions that are followed by negative consequences are less likely to happen again in the future. This theory in relation to the classroom is known as "programmed learning". Instruction is organized in such a way that maximizes student success. Each time students succeed, they are conversely rewarded.

# data[].attributes.body
The physiological foundations of reading state that in order for students to have academic success, their physiological needs must first be met. Sleep, exercise, and nutrition are all contributing physiological factors that affect learning.

# data[].attributes.body
Psychologist Abraham Maslow presented a theory known as the Hierarchy of Needs, which proposed that all human beings have five levels of needs that must be met. 1. Physiological needs 2. safety needs 3. love and belonging needs 4. self-esteem needs and 5. self actualization. The lower-level needs (1-3) were considered by Maslow to be deficiency needs, while the higher level needs (4 & 5) were considered to be growth needs.

# data[].attributes.body
The Nutritional Lens takes a closer look at nutrition, or sometimes lack-thereof in the human population, especially children. According to the World Hunger Education Service, there are two types of malnutrition. Protein-energy malnutrition is caused by a lack of protein and calories. Micronutrition malnutrition is caused by a lack of essential vitamins and minerals. According to the World Food Program, children are the most noticeable victims of malnutrition. When children do not get enough nutrients, they are meeting their physiological needs and therefore cannot move further to meet their academic needs.

# data[].attributes.body
Even if children's nutritional needs are met, they cannot be successful academically if they do not receive adequate amounts of sleep. Research has shown that the amount of depth of sleep students receive directly affects their learning. The Sleep-Dependent Consolidation Theory established that "specific brain functions that take place during sleep actually consolidate memories and learning" (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, pg. 122). Regardless of the student's age, sleep is important for all age groups and essential for productivity in learning.

# data[].attributes.body
The Mental Discipline Theory was the first theory in history to ever provide a foundational base for the educational field. The origins of the theory can be connected back to philosophers Plato and Aristotle. Both theorists developed the idea, or theory that the mind is just like any other muscle in the body- it must be exercised often to stay strong. Students must keep reading and writing (exercising their minds) to stay sharp academically.

# data[].attributes.body
Associationism is a theory that is devoted to the process and study of how learning occurs. “From an associationist viewpoint, knowledge itself is believed to be acquired mainly through the establishment of associational connections" (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, pg. 20). This theory examines how one event and/or idea can be linked and connected to another, to form new knowledge.

# data[].attributes.body
The Unfoldment Theory presented a shift in how philosophers were thinking about education and knowledge. In the 18th century, several theorists suggested that contrary to Associationism and Mental Discipline Theory, the brain does not need to be actively strengthened and connecting previous experiences to new ones. Theorists suggested that "learning was most facilitated through a natural unfolding of the mind based in individual curiosity and interest" (Tracey & Morrow, 2017, pg. 23). This theory believes that children's learning would develop naturally as their interests expanded.