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Hypoxia:

AMS:

Pulmonary Edema:

High Altitude Cough:

Choking:

Gamouff Bag:

Brain impacts:

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Tonsillitis is inflammation of the tonsils, two oval-shaped pads of lymphoid tissue at the back of the throat — one tonsil on each side. They produce white blood cells and combat bacteria that enters through the mouth. Signs and symptoms of tonsillitis include swollen tonsils, sore throat, difficulty swallowing and tender lymph nodes on the sides of the neck.

Most cases of tonsillitis are caused by infection with a common virus, but bacterial infections also may cause tonsillitis.

Because appropriate treatment for tonsillitis depends on the cause, it's important to get a prompt and accurate diagnosis. Surgery to remove tonsils, once a common procedure to treat tonsillitis, is usually performed only when bacterial tonsillitis occurs frequently, doesn't respond to other treatments or causes serious complications. This surgical procedure is known as a tonsillectomy.

Symptoms

Red, swollen tonsils

Yellow or white coating or patches on the tonsils

Difficult or painful swallowing

Sore throat

Fever

Enlarged, tender glands (lymph nodes) in the neck

A scratchy, muffled or throaty voice

Bad breath

Stomachache, particularly in younger children

Stiff neck

Headache

Causes

Tonsillitis is most often caused by common viruses, but bacterial infections can also be the cause.

The most common bacterium causing tonsillitis is Streptococcus pyogenes (group A streptococcus), the bacterium that causes strep throat. Other strains of strep and other bacteria also may cause tonsillitis.

Why do tonsils get infected?

The tonsils are the immune system's first line of defense against bacteria and viruses that enter your mouth. This function may make the tonsils particularly vulnerable to infection and inflammation. However, the tonsil's immune system function declines after puberty — a factor that may account for the rare cases of tonsillitis in adults.

If left untreated, it can cause:

Difficulty breathing

Disrupted breathing during sleep (obstructive sleep apnea)

Infection that spreads deep into surrounding tissue (tonsillar cellulitis)

Infection that results in a collection of pus behind a tonsil (peritonsillar abscess)

Strep infection

If tonsillitis caused by group A streptococcus or another strain of streptococcal bacteria isn't treated, or if antibiotic treatment is incomplete, There is an increased risk of rare disorders such as:

Rheumatic fever, an inflammatory disorder that affects the heart, joints and other tissues

Poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis, an inflammatory disorder of the kidneys that results in inadequate removal of waste and excess fluids from blood

CAT/spiral CT

What does CAT/CT stand for?

CAT stands for Computerized Axial Tomography and CT just stands for Computerized Tomography

What is the purpose of the CAT/CT scan?

There are many uses for the CAT scan, but for the most part the CAT scan is to diagnose and monitor diseases and check for internal bleeding.

How does a CAT scan work?

The CAT scan emits radio waves that pass through the skin, rotating at thousands of revolutions per minute, before the procedure, radiologists use a special dye that absorbs the radio waves that are emitted by the machine. All of this creates multiple images of bone and soft tissue in the body that the doctor can easily use to help diagnose the patient and what might be going wrong in their body, which a computer creates a 3D render of the selected area.

What are some benefits of using a CAT scan over an X-Ray?

The main reason why the CAT scan is better than the X-Ray is mostly due to the fact that the CAT scanner uses less intense radio waves, which as we all know can damage the genes in the body, making the patient have a higher risk in developing cancer. Another reason why a CAT scan is much better is because CAT scans take multiple images of the area, making doctors have a better understanding of what is causing the issue.

The downsides of a CAT scan

CAT scans still emit radiation that can harm the body if used multiple times

You may have and an allergic reaction to the dye that is used to see soft tissues

The dye may also affect function of the organs in the body and may cause organ failure

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-Vaping is less harmful than traditional smoking.
-Vapes contain nicotine, which is proven to be very harmful to the human body. It is also very addictive. (as addictive as heroine or cocaine).
-Nicotine raises your blood pressure, and spikes adrenaline. This increases heart rate and the risk of a heart attack.
-among youth, vapes are the most popular than other tobacco products.
-Vapes are not the best tool to quit smoking, they have not received approval as a cessation tool by Food and Drug Administration.
-Recent study -> intention to quit smoking via e-cigarette lead to the continuation of smoking both e-cigarettes and traditional cigarettes.
-many unknowns; what chemicals make up the vapor, and what the long-term affects are.

PROS

-eliminates typical odors that come from tradional cigarettes

-saves money

-eliminates bothersome physical symptoms

-access to more variety (flavors, types, brands)

-more control over nicotine level

-option to stop; with a traditional cigarette you either have to finish it, or put it out. With a vape, you can simply turn it off without being wasteful.

CONS

-creates feelings of dizziness ('headies')

-still stuck with dreaded dry mouth

-may still create negative public reaction

-comes with own dangers

-possibility of second-hand exposure

-possibiliy of injury regarding battery over heating

-not completely odor free

-higher initial cost

SIDE EFFECTS

-dehydration, dry mouth, headaches, nausea, coughing, sore throat

WHY WERE THEY INVENTED?
Vapes were invented with hopes to help smokers quit smoking. The first 'vape' was developed in America, in 1963, by Herbert A. Gilbert, where he also applied for a patent. In 1965, he was granted the patent. However, there was no commercial interest up until doctors began to warn people about the health concerns that came along with smoking. However, there were technical problems with Gilbert's design, leading to his concept to sink in obscurity for 40 years. Popped up again in 2001, by Hon Lik. Who himself was a heavy smoker, inspired by the death of his father who had lung cancer. Hon started experimenting with a vaporisation system, testing various liquids to find one that could replicate the inhaling of tobacco smoke. Hon Lik and Herbert A. Gilbert share the credit for the basic design of the modern vape device. However, a lot of other inventions have gone into the products that are available to consumers today.

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•vaping is “better” than traditional smoking, but is still harmful to your health
•regular tobacco cigarettes contain near 7000 chemical while vape juice has less, although the number varies on different flavors and levels of nicotine
•vaping is a method to make quitting smoking easier and more gradual
•in recent years capes have done the opposite of the initial job, teens have become highly addicted
•nicotine is highly addictive, it; raises your blood pressure, spikes adrenaline, increasing your heart rate and likeliness of being victim to a heart attack
•vapes are equally as addictive as traditional cigarettes
•many different conclusions and predictions of the effects of vaping have been made, there is little data to create accurate and reliable statistics to inform people on the long-term effects
•other ingredients other than nicotine in vape juice have potential of being harmful, flavored juice does not have to pass food and safety regulations, this means consumers are not aware of what chemicals are used to produce the juice
•the comparison shown in the photo is a result of little data of vaping effects.
•a 2015 study shows that vaping is 95% less harmful than cigarettes
•e-cigarette companies claim that ingredients are safe, this qualifies as edible but does not consider the inhalation of the ingredients as they are different
•in 2015 there were 47 serious cases regarding the effects of vaping, 2 of which teens had come down with lipoid pneumonia as a result of vaping

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(by your friends, Kate and Sophie)

Emphysema is a disorder that causes difficulty with efficient respiration.

With this progressive obstructive lung disease, the lung tissue surrounding smaller airways in the bronchioles collapses.  This results in a loss of elasticity in the lungs and subsequently causing air to become trapped in the alveoli.  This causes inflamed alveoli, shortness of breath, frequent coughing, overproduction of mucus, and wheezing.  People with Emphysema struggle to exhale because of the fact that air is trapped within the alveoli.

The main cause of this disease is smoking, as it contributes towards its development in two ways. Cigarette smoke deteriorates lung tissue which obstructs air flow. It also causes inflammation within these airways which also contributes to the inhibition of air flow.

The progression of Emphysema can be outlined by four distinct stages.

Note: FEV is a person's forced expiatory volume. It is basically used to measure and describe a person's lung capacity. FEV and FEV1 are used in a ratio to describe abnormalities in the lungs.
FEV1 is the maximum amount of air that a person can inhale in one second. This is used in multiple tests for respiratory diseases (including asthma).

Stage 1 is considered mild.  A person's FEV1 is greater than or equal to 80% of the person's lung capacity.

Stage 2 is moderate Emphysema.  A person's FEV1 must be greater than 50% but less than 80%.

Stage 3 is severe.  Lung capacity is less than 50% but more than or equal to 30%.

Stage 4 is considered extremely severe Emphysema.  A person can have less than 30% lung capacity or 50% lung capacity in combination with low blood oxygen level.

Treatment options for this disease are fairly available due to recent education on the topic of smoking as well as its risks.

Many people with Emphysema use bronchodilators. These drugs can help relieve coughing, shortness of breath and breathing problems by relaxing constricted airways. This can be useful due to the inflammation and deterioration experienced by people with this disease. Bronchodialators do not help repair the damage done, although it helps relieve symptoms as the lung tissue repairs itself (which it can do, as discussed in class)

Emphysema can also be treated with corticosteroids. This type of drug belongs to a group of inhalable steroids. Similarly to the drugs that treat Asthma, corticosteroids help relieve shortness of breath.

Although there are available treatments, Emphysema is most often incurable. In most cases, this progressive disease becomes more severe and can eventually become fatal.  For most cases, while progress can be halted, it can never be reversed.

Due to its incurability, it is most vital to prevent the disease before it ever begins.  A person's "best bet" would to avoid smoking and second hand smoke, especially when that person has a pre-existing COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) such as refractory asthma and chronic bronchitis.

Blood Gas

Red blood cells transport oxygen and carbon dioxide throughout the body. These are known as blood gases. Imbalances in the oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH levels of your blood can indicate the presence of certain medical conditions and determine how well your lungs are able to move oxygen into the blood and remove carbon dioxide. Levels must be monitored to insure healthy respiration and organs. As discussed in the awesome Everest video, oxygen saturation is just one example of this. Before their trek, the climbers were told and warned about the oxygen levels in their blood, and this became one of their main research points. Normal blood oxygen levels are considered 95-100 percent, but as we see the climber’s drop down to even 20 percent in one instance it’s clear that blood gases can lead to danger if not maintained at the needed level. Low oxygen levels in the blood can also effect the brain a great deal. Blood gases would be tested if there was a concern with lungs, heart or kidneys, asthma, chemical poisoning, and even drug overdose. It is said that analysis of blood gases is the most accurate representation of a patients clinical status. It is imperative that they stay at constant levels. According to the National Institute of Health, typical normal values are:
pH: 7.35-7.45
Partial pressure of oxygen (PaO2): 75 to 100 mmHg
Partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO2): 35-45 mmHg
Bicarbonate (HCO3): 22-26 mEq/L
Oxygen saturation (O2 Sat): 94-100%

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BRONCHITIS
- respiratory disease; causes inflammation of mucous membranes of the bronchi
-inflammation of lining of the bronchial tubes (transport air to and away from lungs)
-can develop from a cold or respiratory infection and is very common
-inflammation produces large amounts of mucus
- bronchi become red, inflamed and filled with mucus, which causes coughing
-coughing is the attempt to clear out secretions
-can be acute or chronic
- acute bronchitis: treated with antibiotics (bacterial infection)
-it is a minor viral illness, like a chest cold
-takes 2-3 weeks to improve, may have a lingering cough
-chronic bronchitis: cilia lining and bronchi are gradually destroyed.
-chronic bronchitis is more serious
-chronic is also referred to as: COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder). = cannot be cured.
- caused by: regular exposure to dust/chemical compounds (workplace)
OR
most likely: cigarette smoke
-symptoms: cough, production of mucus, fatigue, shortness of breath, minor fever/chills and chest pain
BRONCHOSCOPY
-test allowing for examination of the airways
- technology for viewing, diagnosing and treating the tissues and organs of the RS
-used to diagnose infections such as bronchitis or as a treatment tool to deliver medication to the lungs
-examines trachea & lungs
-bronchoscope is inserted through mouth or nose and down into the lungs
-a camera on the end of the bronchoscope is used for examination
-pt. under general anesthesia and a sedative, therefore awake but drowsy
-avoid eating/drinking for 6-12 hours before the procedure
- special attachements allow: samples of mucus and tissues for biopsy, remove tumors and repair damaged blood vessels.

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EMPHYSEMA:
- Long-term progressive disease of the lungs, which affects the ability of the lungs to expel air.

- The walls of the alveoli lose their elasticity reducing the surface for gas exchange = oxygen shortage in tissues

- Emphysema is included in a group of diseases called COPD because exhalation is difficult as the small airways collapse, which traps air in the lungs and blocks airflow.

- Caused primarily by smoking.

-Incurable respiratory disease but symptoms can be relieved by using an inhaler (open up bronchioles) and oxygen tank (increase supply of oxygen to the body).

- To slow the progression or to avoid getting emphysema, don't smoke and avoid airborne irritants (dust, second-hand smoke).

COPD:
- Stands for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

- Term used to describe progressive lung diseases such as emphysema, chronic bronchitis, and refractory asthma.

- Symptoms include, increased shortness of breath, frequent coughing, wheezing, tightness of chest.

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Pneumonia
- Is an infection in the lungs that is caused do to bacteria, viruses, or fungi. (Most commonly due to bacteria in adults)

- The symptoms of Pneumonia can range from mild annoyance to life threatening, this includes, Coughing (that may produce phlegm), fever, sweating, chills, shortness of breath, and chest pains

- Their are two different types of pneumonia. The Viral pneumonia which includes symptoms similar to that of a flu, or Bacterial Pneumonia which can cause fever like symptoms and leads to states of disorder being confused, high temperature (105F), bluish lips and nails, and profuse sweating.

- Both types of pneumonia are a cause of infection in the lungs with them targeting the Aveoli or "air sacs" and having them fill with fluid or pus. Making it harder for the lungs to diffuse oxygen in the blood stream.

- As pneumonia is infection it can be spread to others regardless of the type.

- The 2 main types of Pneumonia (which can be diversified) are Bronchial and Lobular. Lobular is directed toward a lobe of the lung, while bronchial affects patches throughout both lungs.

- The type of bacteria that causes Bacterial Pneumonia is Streptococcus and Mycoplasma Pneumoniae and possibly other types. Most serious of them.
Viral pneumonia is often cause of other pneumonia, often less serious and lasts shortly.
Mycoplasma Pneumonia with it not being a bacteria or virus can often be treated quickly and less serious
Fungal Pneumonia comes from fungi in soil or bird droppings can be cause by people who inhale large amounts of the organisms. Can cause serious pneumonia in people with chronic diseases or weakened immune system.

- Treatments are often quite simple and are usually treated with antibiotics if serious enough, many simple treatments are drinking lots of water to deal with phlegm. Asprine to deal with headaches is also quite common. And good long rests.

Two- Photon Microscopy (TPM)

What is Two-Photon Microscopy and How is it used?
-TPM is a fluorescence imaging technology that uses special microscopes that emit photons (particle of light) to penetrate samples of biological tissue, up to 1millimeter in depth.

-TPM uses fluorescent lights.

-TPM produces a three-dimensional image of cells in the body without having to physically extract a sample.

-This technology gives information about cell structure and reveals how biochemical processes take place in living cells.

-For example; TPM has been used to observe how different drugs applied to the skin absorbed and used by the tissues.

-TPM is also used to explore, locate, and analyze rare types of cancerous cells.

Advantages

-Two- Photon excitation microscopy usually uses near-infrared excitation light which can excite fluorescent dyes. Using the infrared light minimizes scattering in the tissue. This technology can be a superior alternative to confocal microscopy due to the deeper tissue penetration, efficient light detection, and reduced photobleaching; loss of colour by a pigment such as chlorophyll or rhodopsin when illuminated.

-TPM reduces phototoxicity due to the beam exciting a single focal point at a time.

-TPM has been utilized to image the murine lung. As immune responses in the lung differ from those in other non-lymphoid tissues, TPM holds promise to advance our knowledge in biology that underlies wide spectrums of diseases.

-TPM is mainly used for pulmonary diseases but can be used to study the immune responses when facing a disease such as pneumonia.

-The lungs constitute one of the first lines of defense against antigens, TPM can greatly increase our knowledge and understanding about the lungs and more preventions against pneumonia.

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Cystic Fibrosis
- Cystic Fibrosis (CF) is the most common fatal genetic disease

- CF causes a variety of effects on the body, but it mainly affects the digestive system and the lungs

- is a hereditary disorder affecting the exocrine glands. It causes the production of abnormally thick mucus, leading to the blockage, of the bronchi, pancreatic ducts and intestines. this causes infectionand sufferers experience a loss of lung function

-  People with CF can experience progressive lung damage from chronic infections

- The Severness of CF differs from person to person, however, the persistence and ongoing infection in the lungs, with destruction of lungs and loss of lung function, will eventually lead to death in the majority of people with CF

- It is caused when a child inherits two defected copies of the gene responsible for cystic fibrosis (one from each parent). 1 in 25 Canadians carry one defective copy of the CF gene.

-If a doctor suspects a patient has CF, a ‘sweat test’ may be administered. This test measures the amount of salt content present in the sweat.

- Symptoms include: persistent cough with thick mucous, wheezing and shortness of breath, frequent chest infections, which may include pneumonia, decline in lung health

-Typical complications caused by cystic fibrosis are: Difficulty digesting fats and proteins, Malnutrition and vitamin deficiencies because of inability to absorb nutrients, Progressive lung damage from chronic infections and aberrant inflammation, CF related diabetes, Sinus infections

Spirometry
- It is a common and relatively easy, test used to measure pulmonary function - how well the lungs are working

- It is used to help diagnose and monitor patients with CF

- The test involved a person breathing into a small device, called a spirometer

- Airways that are obstructed by the thick mucous produced in CF patients, means the speed at which air can be exhaled is reduced

- In CF patients, the restrictive results can be caused due to scarring (fibrosis) in the lungs

- Many CF patients can show combined obstructive/restrictive patterns. These results demonstrate a poorer lung capacity combined with a reduction in exhale speed.

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LARYNGITIS:
- Defined as inflamation of the larynx, typically resulting in hoarseness or loss of the voice, harsh breathing, and a painful cough.

- Vocal cords become inflamed or irritated and begin to swell, thereby distorting the sounds produced by air passing over them.

- Characterized by a sore throat, hoarseness of the voice, trouble speaking, a dry cough, and swollen glands.

- Usually not serious and short-lived (acute), however it can potentially be long lasting (chronic).  Acute cases are usually the result of viral or bacterial infections or by overuse of the voice.  Chronic cases are usually the result of inhaled irritants, acid reflux, habitual overuse of the voice, or by excessive use of tobacco.

- Can also manifest as a by-product of colds, the flu, or cancer.

- Severe symptoms include: losing your voice, chronic throat pain, constant fever, coughing up blood, and trouble swallowing.

- A laryngoscopy will be performed by a doctor to diagnose laryngitis. This process is done by putting a thin tube with a small camera through the mouth or nose to get a visual of the larynx. The doctor will know the larynx is inflamed if they see signs of redness or swelling in the general area.

-Common ways to avoid laryngitis are to avoid smoking, limiting alcohol consumption, avoiding toxic chemicals in the workplace, and avoiding foods that cause heartburn.

SPUTUM:
- Defined as matter expectorated from the respiratory system, especially the lungs, that is comprised of mucus but may contain pus, blood, fibrin, or microorganisms in diseased states.

- May contain dead cells, foreign debris that is inhaled into the lungs, bacteria, and white blood cells and other immune cells that protect the airway from infections.

- Typically characterstic of irritation or an infection in your lungs or airways.

- Can be the result of smoke inhilation or air pollution.

- May be transparent, white, yellow, green, pink, brown, or red and blood tinged.  Color varies depending on the level of irritation or type of infection.

- Often examined to aid in the diagnosis of infection or illness.

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ASTHMA
"chronic inflammatory disease of airway"
-Characterized by recurring symptoms, airflow obstruction and bronchospasm.
-Symptoms: wheezing episodes, coughing, chest tightness + shortness of breath.
-Lining of airways become inflamed (irritated, red, swollen) and may produce more mucous.
-More inflammation=more symptoms
-Muscles that surround airways can twitch and tighten, causing narrowing.
-Asthma triggers are different from person to person and can include: Airborne substances, such as pollen, dust mites, mold spores, pet dander or particles of cockroach waste

CHEST X-RAY
X-Ray: screening that takes image of structures inside body
-Can be ordered when asthma patient is hospitalized
-Most specialists do not find x-ray helpful in diagnosing asthma
-Normal asthma: radio-graphic findings are normal
-Advanced asthma: varying stages of hyperinflation are reflected by a flattening of diaphragm, increased retro-sternal airspace and minor differences in diaphragmatic positions.