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Genetic modification of species by humans to make them more docile, more productive, and more compliant to human control.

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The world’s first known system of writing, written with reeds on wet clay in Mesopotamia

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A center of population with tens of thousands of people and its own social and trade structure.

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A way of exploiting the environment by increasing the productivity of those plant and animal species most beneficial for human beings.

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The production of more crops and other food than immediately needed; the key to a civilization’s transition from a city to a state.

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A type of wild maize that is the ancestor of corn.

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A region in Mesopotamia that was the site of one of the earliest agrarian civilization

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A regionally organized society, capable of imposing its will by force, based on cities and their environments, and containing populations of tens of thousands and up to many millions of people

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Living in one place for most of the year; rare in foraging societies but became widespread with the adoption of agriculture. Sedentism developed because agriculture made it possible to produce more resources in a given area and encouraged farmers to stay in one place to protect their crops.

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A way of life similar to agricultural, but based primarily on the exploitation of domesticated animals rather than plants. To allow their domesticated animals to graze over large areas, pastoralists are generally nomadic.

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The first of several cities that emerged in Sumer about 5,500 years ago

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A culture of successful foragers.

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Large structures, such as pyramids, temples, public spaces, and large statues, that generally appear wherever powerful leaders emerge; a feature of all agrarian civilizations

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Large communities of hundreds of thousands or even millions of people, organized into cities and states, combined with their surrounding farmed countryside.

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An ancient region in present-day Iraq between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers

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a small community of people

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The control of the flow of water to support agriculture.

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A cold period on Earth when much of the globe is covered by glaciers.

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A person or group of people who maintain leadership and control over a city, state, or civilization.

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The study of the Earth's physical features.

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An area of fertile river valleys in Mesopotamia that contain the earliest evidence of agriculture.