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CHAPTER 10 : Designing Organizational StructuresDivision of labour and patterns of coordination, communication, workflow, and formal power that direct organizational activities.Division of Labour :	Results in specialization, separate jobs for different people.	Improve work efficiency.Coordination of work :	Value of division of labour is limited to ability to coordinate that work.	Coordinating work can be costly.Element of Organizational Structure :•	Departmentalization•	Span of control – number of people directly reporting to the next level.•	Formalization – standardizing behaviour through rules, procedures, training, etc.•	Centralization – formal decision making authority is held  by a few people, usually at top.Functional Organizational Structure – organized employees around specific knowledge or other resources.Benefits : 1.	Economies of scale2.	Supports professional identity and career paths3.	Easier supervisionLimitations :1.	Emphasizes subunit more than organizational goals.2.	Higher dysfunctional conflict3.	Poorer coordination, requires more control.Divisional Structure – best type of divisional structure depends on environmental diversity or uncertainty.Benefits : •	Building block structure – accommodates growth•	Focuses on markets, products, clients,Limitations : •	Duplication, inefficient use of resources•	Silos of knowledge – expertise isolated across divisions•	Executive power affected by shifting divisional structureTeam-based Structure – self directed work teams organized around work processes.Benefits :•	Responsive, flexible•	Lower admin costs•	Quicker, more informed decisions.Limitations :•	Interpersonal training cost•	Slower coordination during team development•	Role ambiguity increases stressMatrix structure :Benefits :•	Uses resources and expertise effectively•	Potentially better communication, flexibility, innovation•	Focuses specialists on clients and productsLimitations :•	More conflict among managers who share power•	Two bosses dilutes accountability•	More conflict, organizational politics, and stress.

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CHAPTER 10 : Designing Organizational StructuresDivision of labour and patterns of coordination, communication, workflow, and formal power that direct organizational activities.Division of Labour :	Results in specialization, separate jobs for different people.	Improve work efficiency.Coordination of work :	Value of division of labour is limited to ability to coordinate that work.	Coordinating work can be costly.Element of Organizational Structure :•	Departmentalization•	Span of control – number of people directly reporting to the next level.•	Formalization – standardizing behaviour through rules, procedures, training, etc.•	Centralization – formal decision making authority is held  by a few people, usually at top.Functional Organizational Structure – organized employees around specific knowledge or other resources.Benefits : 1.	Economies of scale2.	Supports professional identity and career paths3.	Easier supervisionLimitations :1.	Emphasizes subunit more than organizational goals.2.	Higher dysfunctional conflict3.	Poorer coordination, requires more control.Divisional Structure – best type of divisional structure depends on environmental diversity or uncertainty.Benefits : •	Building block structure – accommodates growth•	Focuses on markets, products, clients,Limitations : •	Duplication, inefficient use of resources•	Silos of knowledge – expertise isolated across divisions•	Executive power affected by shifting divisional structureTeam-based Structure – self directed work teams organized around work processes.Benefits :•	Responsive, flexible•	Lower admin costs•	Quicker, more informed decisions.Limitations :•	Interpersonal training cost•	Slower coordination during team development•	Role ambiguity increases stressMatrix structure :Benefits :•	Uses resources and expertise effectively•	Potentially better communication, flexibility, innovation•	Focuses specialists on clients and productsLimitations :•	More conflict among managers who share power•	Two bosses dilutes accountability•	More conflict, organizational politics, and stress.

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CHAPTER 9 : Conflict and Negotiation in the Workplace
Conflict Good or Bad? :
Negative outcomes – waste time, energy, resources, less information sharing, productivity, more organizational politics, more job dissatisfaction, turnover, stress.
Positive outcomes – fuller debate of decision choice, decision assumptions are questioned, potentially generates more creative ideas, improves responsiveness to external environment.
Task ( constructive ) conflict – parties focus on the issues, respect people with other points of view.
Relationship conflict – focus on personal characteristics ( not issues ) as the source of conflict.
Three conditions that minimize relationship conflict during task conflict :
• Emotional intelligence
• Cohesive team
• Supportive team norms
Structural sources of conflict :
1. Incompatible goals – one party’s goals perceived to interfere with other’s goals.
2. Differentiation – different values/beliefs, explains cross-cultural, generational, merge conflict.
3. Interdependence – conflict increases with interdependence, more likely to interfere with each other.
4. Scarce resources – motivates competition for the resource.
5. Ambiguous rules – creates uncertainty, threatens goals.
6. Communication problems – rely on stereotypes, less motivation to communicate.
Conflict handling contingencies :
• Problem-solving best when – interest are not perfectly opposing, parties have trust/openness, issues are complex.
• Forcing best when – you have a deep conviction about your position, quick resolution required.
• Avoiding best when – conflict is emotionally charged ( relationship conflict )
• Yielding best when – other party has much more power, issue is much less important to you than  other party.
• Compromising best when – parties have equal power, quick solution is required, parties lack trust/openness.
Structural approaches to Conflict Management :
 Emphasize superordinate goals.
 Reduce differentiation.
 Improve.
 Reduce interdependence.
 Increase resources.
 Clarify rules and procedures.

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CHAPTER 8 : Power and Influence in the WorkplacePower is the capacity of a person, team, or organization to influence others. Also to have potential to change attitudes and behaviour.	Legitimate Power : agreement that people in certain roles can request certain        behaviours of others.Zone of indifferences – range of behaviours for deference to authority.	Expert Power : capacity to influence others by possessing knowledge or skills that they value.People gain power by using their expertise to : prevent environmental changes.						  : forecast environmental changes.						  : absorb environmental changes.Other sources of power :•	Reward power•	Coercive power•	Referent powerContingencies of power :•	Substitutability – availability of alternatives, reduce substitutability through monopoly over resources, controlling access to the resource, differentiating the resource.•	Centrality – degree and nature of interdependence with powerholder.•	Visibility – you are known as holder of valued resource.•	Discretion – the freedom to exercise judgement.Social Network Ties :•	Strong ties – close-knit relationship ( frequent interaction, high sharing, multiple roles)•	Weak ties – acquaintances, offer unique resources not held by us or people in other networks.•	Many ties – resources increase with number of ties, limited capacity to form weak / strong ties.Influence is any behaviour that attempts to alter someone’s attitudes or behaviour.Types of influence :1.	Silent authority – following request without overt influence, based on legitimate power2.	Assertiveness – actively applying legitimate and coercive power.3.	Information control – manipulating other’s access to information.4.	Coalition formation – group forms to gain more power than individuals alone.5.	Upward appeal – appealing to higher authority, includes appealing to firm’s goals.6.	Persuasion – logic , facts, emotional appeals, depends on persuader, message content, message medium, audience.7.	Impression management – actively shaping or public image, self-presentation, ingratiation.8.	Exchange – promising or reminding of past benefits in exchange for compliance, negotiation, reciprocity, networking.

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CHAPTER 8 : Power and Influence in the WorkplacePower is the capacity of a person, team, or organization to influence others. Also to have potential to change attitudes and behaviour.	Legitimate Power : agreement that people in certain roles can request certain        behaviours of others.Zone of indifferences – range of behaviours for deference to authority.	Expert Power : capacity to influence others by possessing knowledge or skills that they value.People gain power by using their expertise to : prevent environmental changes.						  : forecast environmental changes.						  : absorb environmental changes.Other sources of power :•	Reward power•	Coercive power•	Referent powerContingencies of power :•	Substitutability – availability of alternatives, reduce substitutability through monopoly over resources, controlling access to the resource, differentiating the resource.•	Centrality – degree and nature of interdependence with powerholder.•	Visibility – you are known as holder of valued resource.•	Discretion – the freedom to exercise judgement.Social Network Ties :•	Strong ties – close-knit relationship ( frequent interaction, high sharing, multiple roles)•	Weak ties – acquaintances, offer unique resources not held by us or people in other networks.•	Many ties – resources increase with number of ties, limited capacity to form weak / strong ties.Influence is any behaviour that attempts to alter someone’s attitudes or behaviour.Types of influence :1.	Silent authority – following request without overt influence, based on legitimate power2.	Assertiveness – actively applying legitimate and coercive power.3.	Information control – manipulating other’s access to information.4.	Coalition formation – group forms to gain more power than individuals alone.5.	Upward appeal – appealing to higher authority, includes appealing to firm’s goals.6.	Persuasion – logic , facts, emotional appeals, depends on persuader, message content, message medium, audience.7.	Impression management – actively shaping or public image, self-presentation, ingratiation.8.	Exchange – promising or reminding of past benefits in exchange for compliance, negotiation, reciprocity, networking.

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CHAPTER 7 : Understanding Work Teams
Teams can achieve feats an individual could never accomplish. Teams are flexible and responsive to changing events. They can quickly assemble, deploy, refocus, and disband. They are an effective means to democratize organizations and increase employee involvement. They introduce a collaborative mindset.
Five types of teams :
1. Problem-solving.
2. Self-managed.
3. Cross-functional.
4. Virtual.
Characteristics of Effective Teams :
 Context – adequate resources, leadership and culture, climate of trust, performance evaluation and reward system.
 Composition – ability of member, personality, allocating roles, diversity, cultural differences, size of teams, member preferences.
 Process – common purpose, specific goals, team efficacy, team identity, team cohesion, mental models, conflict level, social loafing.
Creating Team Players :
Selecting – hire team players.
Training – create team players.
Rewarding – incentives to be a good team player.
All three of these is needed if you want to build and create a strong team players.

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CHAPTER 5 : Foundations of Employee Motivation
The forces within a person that affect the direction, intensity, and persistence of voluntary behaviour. Motivated employees are willing to exert a particular level or effort ( intensity ), for a certain amount of time ( persistence ), toward a particular goal ( direction ).
Drives and Needs
Drives : hardwired brain activity that energize individuals through generation of emotions to correct deficiencies and maintain equilibrium.
Needs : goal – directed forces that people experience.
Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory :
1. Physiological
2. Safety
3. Belongingness
4. Esteem
5. Self – actualization
6. Need for beauty
7. Need to know
Three Learned Needs :
 Need for achievement – want to accomplish reasonably challenging goals.
 Need for affiliation – seek approval from others, conform to others’ wishes, avoid conflict.
 Need for power – desire to control one’s environment.
Four Drive Theory :
• Drive to acquire – seek, acquire, control, retain objects or experience.
• Drive to bond – form social relationship and develop mutual caring commitments.
• Drive to comprehend – satisfy our curiosity, know and understand ourselves and the environment.
• Drive to defend – protect ourselves physically and socially.
A-B-C’s of Behaviour Modification
Antecedents : what happens before behaviour ( warning light flashes ).
Behaviour : what person says or does ( machine operator turns off power ).
Consequences : what happens after behaviour ( co-workers thank operator ).
Characteristics of Effective Feedback :
• Specific – connected to goal details.
• Relevant – relates to person’s behaviour.
• Timely – links actions to outcomes.
• Credible – trustworthy source.

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CHAPTER 6 : Foundations of Group BehaviourA group is defined as two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives.Groups can be either formal or informal.•	Formal groups – those defined by the organization’s structure.•	Informal groups – alliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined.How role requirement change :Role – a set of expected behaviour patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit.Role perception – one’s perception of how to act in a given situation.Role expectations – how others believe one should act in a given situation.Role conflict – situation in which an individual faces divergent role expectations.Norms : acceptable standards of behaviour within a group  that are shared  by the group’s members.Status : a socially defined position or rank  given to groups or group members by others.Status Characteristics Theory :•	The power a person wields over others.•	A person’s ability to contribute to a group’s goals.•	An individual’s personal characteristics.1.	Status and Norms – high status individuals  often have more freedom to deviate from norms.2.	Status and group interaction – high status people are often more assertive.3.	Status inequity – perceived inequity creates disequilibrium and can lead to resentment and corrective behaviour.4.	Status and stigmatization – stigma by association.5.	Social loafing – the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than alone.Strength of Group Decision Making :	More complete information and knowledge	Increased diversity of views	Increased acceptance of solutionsWeakness of Group Decision Making :	Time consuming	Conformity pressures	Dominance of a few members	Ambiguous responsibilityGroup Decision Making :	Groupthink – situations in which group pressures for conformity deter the group from critical appraising unusual, minority, or unpopular views.	Groupshift – a change between a group’s decision and individual decision that a member within the group would make.	Interacting group – members meet face-to-face and rely on both verbal and nonverbal interaction to communicate with each other.	Nominal group techniques – restricts discussion on interpersonal communication  during the decision making process.

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CHAPTER 6 : Foundations of Group BehaviourA group is defined as two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives.Groups can be either formal or informal.•	Formal groups – those defined by the organization’s structure.•	Informal groups – alliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined.How role requirement change :Role – a set of expected behaviour patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit.Role perception – one’s perception of how to act in a given situation.Role expectations – how others believe one should act in a given situation.Role conflict – situation in which an individual faces divergent role expectations.Norms : acceptable standards of behaviour within a group  that are shared  by the group’s members.Status : a socially defined position or rank  given to groups or group members by others.Status Characteristics Theory :•	The power a person wields over others.•	A person’s ability to contribute to a group’s goals.•	An individual’s personal characteristics.1.	Status and Norms – high status individuals  often have more freedom to deviate from norms.2.	Status and group interaction – high status people are often more assertive.3.	Status inequity – perceived inequity creates disequilibrium and can lead to resentment and corrective behaviour.4.	Status and stigmatization – stigma by association.5.	Social loafing – the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than alone.Strength of Group Decision Making :	More complete information and knowledge	Increased diversity of views	Increased acceptance of solutionsWeakness of Group Decision Making :	Time consuming	Conformity pressures	Dominance of a few members	Ambiguous responsibilityGroup Decision Making :	Groupthink – situations in which group pressures for conformity deter the group from critical appraising unusual, minority, or unpopular views.	Groupshift – a change between a group’s decision and individual decision that a member within the group would make.	Interacting group – members meet face-to-face and rely on both verbal and nonverbal interaction to communicate with each other.	Nominal group techniques – restricts discussion on interpersonal communication  during the decision making process.

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CHAPTER 4Perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. It is important to the study of OB because people’s behaviors are based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself.Factors that influence perceptionFactor in the perceiver •	Attitudes•	Motives•	Interest•	Experience •	ExpectationsFactors in the situations•	Time•	Work setting•	Social settingFactors in the target•	Novelty •	Motions•	Sounds•	Size •	Backgrounds•	Proximity•	SimilarityDetermination depends on three factors :1.	Distinctiveness2.	Consensus3.	ConsistencyCommon shortcuts in judging others :	Selective perception – any characteristics that makes a person or object stand out	Halo effect – occurs when we draw a general impression based on single characteristics.	Contrast effect – reaction to one person is influence by other persons.	Stereotyping – judging based on our perception of the group which they belongs.The decision maker must have complete information, able to identify all the relevant options in an unbiased manner and chooses the option with the highest utility.Common biases and errors in decision making : 	Overconfidence bias – individual whose intellectual and interpersonal abilities are weakest are most likely to overestimate their performance and ability.	Anchoring bias – fixating on initial information as a starting point and failed to adjust for subsequent information.	Confirmation bias – seek out information that reaffirms past choices.	Availability bias – tendency for people to base judgements on information that is readily available.	Escalation of commitment – staying with a decision even when there is clear evidence that it’s wrong.	Randomness error – our tendency to believe we can predict the outcome of random events.	Risk aversion – the tendency to prefer a sure thing instead of a risky outcome.	Hindsight bias – tendency to believe falsely that one has accurately predicted the outcome of an event.

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CHAPTER 4Perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. It is important to the study of OB because people’s behaviors are based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself.Factors that influence perceptionFactor in the perceiver •	Attitudes•	Motives•	Interest•	Experience •	ExpectationsFactors in the situations•	Time•	Work setting•	Social settingFactors in the target•	Novelty •	Motions•	Sounds•	Size •	Backgrounds•	Proximity•	SimilarityDetermination depends on three factors :1.	Distinctiveness2.	Consensus3.	ConsistencyCommon shortcuts in judging others :	Selective perception – any characteristics that makes a person or object stand out	Halo effect – occurs when we draw a general impression based on single characteristics.	Contrast effect – reaction to one person is influence by other persons.	Stereotyping – judging based on our perception of the group which they belongs.The decision maker must have complete information, able to identify all the relevant options in an unbiased manner and chooses the option with the highest utility.Common biases and errors in decision making : 	Overconfidence bias – individual whose intellectual and interpersonal abilities are weakest are most likely to overestimate their performance and ability.	Anchoring bias – fixating on initial information as a starting point and failed to adjust for subsequent information.	Confirmation bias – seek out information that reaffirms past choices.	Availability bias – tendency for people to base judgements on information that is readily available.	Escalation of commitment – staying with a decision even when there is clear evidence that it’s wrong.	Randomness error – our tendency to believe we can predict the outcome of random events.	Risk aversion – the tendency to prefer a sure thing instead of a risky outcome.	Hindsight bias – tendency to believe falsely that one has accurately predicted the outcome of an event.

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CHAPTER 3MARS Model of Individual Behaviour-Motivation-Ability-Role Perceptions-Situational FactorsAll of this factors leads to individual behaviour and results.Employees motivation consist of internal forces that affect a person’s voluntary choice of behaviour.Direction- Path along which people engage their effort.Intensity- amount of effort allocated to the goalPersistence- continuing the effort of a certain amount of time.And employees ability which include aptitudes and learned capabilities required successfully to complete a task. Aptitudes means that natural talents that the person have to help them learn tasks quickly while learned capabilities are skills and knowledge that the individual currently possesses and competencies are characteristics of a person that result in superior performance.Types of individual behaviour :1)	Task performance2)	Organizational citizenship3)	Counterproductive work behaviours4)	Joining and staying with the organization5)	Maintaining work attendanceFive Factor Personality Model (CANOE)Conscientiousness – organized , dependableAgreeableness – trusting , helpful , flexibleNeuroticism – anxious , self-consciousOpenness to experience – creative , nonconformingExtraversion – outgoing , talkative , energeticSchwartz’s Value Model : Openness to change – motivation to pursue innovative waysConservation – motivation to preserve the status quoSelf enhancement – motivated by self-interestSelf-transcendence – motivation to promote welfare of others and nature

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CHAPTER 3MARS Model of Individual Behaviour-Motivation-Ability-Role Perceptions-Situational FactorsAll of this factors leads to individual behaviour and results.Employees motivation consist of internal forces that affect a person’s voluntary choice of behaviour.Direction- Path along which people engage their effort.Intensity- amount of effort allocated to the goalPersistence- continuing the effort of a certain amount of time.And employees ability which include aptitudes and learned capabilities required successfully to complete a task. Aptitudes means that natural talents that the person have to help them learn tasks quickly while learned capabilities are skills and knowledge that the individual currently possesses and competencies are characteristics of a person that result in superior performance.Types of individual behaviour :1)	Task performance2)	Organizational citizenship3)	Counterproductive work behaviours4)	Joining and staying with the organization5)	Maintaining work attendanceFive Factor Personality Model (CANOE)Conscientiousness – organized , dependableAgreeableness – trusting , helpful , flexibleNeuroticism – anxious , self-consciousOpenness to experience – creative , nonconformingExtraversion – outgoing , talkative , energeticSchwartz’s Value Model : Openness to change – motivation to pursue innovative waysConservation – motivation to preserve the status quoSelf enhancement – motivated by self-interestSelf-transcendence – motivation to promote welfare of others and nature

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CHAPTER 2•	Emotion is defined as psychological behavioural, and physiological episodes that creates the state of readiness•	Attitude VS Emotions –   Attitudes are based on  judgements about an object, mainly   on rational logic and usually stable for days or longer. Where emotions are based on experienced related to the attitude object, based on innate and learned responses to environment.•	Beliefs - Formed from experience, other learning •	 Feelings - Composite valences of our multiple beliefs about the attitude object  People with same beliefs might form different feelings •	 Behavioral intentions - Feelings provide motivation source/direction of intentions  People with same feelings might form different behavioral intentions •	 Behavior - Influenced by behavioral intentions ,Effect of intentions on behavior depends on ability, situation, etc.Cognitive dissonance – emotional experienced caused by a perception that our beliefs, feelings, and behaviour are incongruent.Emotional Labour – Effort, planning and control needed to express organizationally desired emotions.The highest emotional intelligence occur when you have the ability to know your emotions, other’s emotions, manage our own emotions and able to manage other’s emotions.Job Satisfaction – an appraisal of the perceived job characteristics, work environment and emotional experience at work.EVLN Model – Exit, Voice, Loyalty, Neglect.Stress – adaptive response to situations perceived as challenging or threatening to well-being.               

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CHAPTER 2•	Emotion is defined as psychological behavioural, and physiological episodes that creates the state of readiness•	Attitude VS Emotions –   Attitudes are based on  judgements about an object, mainly   on rational logic and usually stable for days or longer. Where emotions are based on experienced related to the attitude object, based on innate and learned responses to environment.•	Beliefs - Formed from experience, other learning •	 Feelings - Composite valences of our multiple beliefs about the attitude object  People with same beliefs might form different feelings •	 Behavioral intentions - Feelings provide motivation source/direction of intentions  People with same feelings might form different behavioral intentions •	 Behavior - Influenced by behavioral intentions ,Effect of intentions on behavior depends on ability, situation, etc.Cognitive dissonance – emotional experienced caused by a perception that our beliefs, feelings, and behaviour are incongruent.Emotional Labour – Effort, planning and control needed to express organizationally desired emotions.The highest emotional intelligence occur when you have the ability to know your emotions, other’s emotions, manage our own emotions and able to manage other’s emotions.Job Satisfaction – an appraisal of the perceived job characteristics, work environment and emotional experience at work.EVLN Model – Exit, Voice, Loyalty, Neglect.Stress – adaptive response to situations perceived as challenging or threatening to well-being.               

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DESIGNING ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES

This topic is about the division of labor and patterns of coordination, communication, workflow, and formal power that direct organizational activities. This topic is related with the previous topics such as work teams, job design and power.

Division of labor means specialization or separate jobs for different people. This is to make sure the works becomes efficiency.

Coordination of work is limited because the limited division of labor. Besides, coordinating work might be costly.

Three coordinating mechanisms:

1.       informal communication

2.       formal hierarchy

3.       standardization

Coordination through Informal Communication
Informal communication coordinates work in all firms. It’s also vital in nonroutine and uncertain situations. It is easiest in small firms but technology extends its use in large firms.

Elements of Organizational Structure

1. Span of control - Number of people directly reporting to the next level.

2. Centralize - Formal decision making authority is held by a few people, usually at the top such as upper manager or middle.

3. Formalization - Standardizing behavior through rules, procedures or training.

Types of Organizational Structure

1. Functional Organizational Structure
- Organizes employees around specific knowledge or other resources such as finance, marketing

2. Divisional Structure
- Organizes employees around outputs such as electronic parts, clients such as patients, or geographic areas such as target for local consumers.

3. Team-based Structure
- Self-directed work teams organized around work processes. Team based more flexible and responsive. It’s also lower the admin costs.

4. Product Matrix Structure
- Every country or places focus on one category product which is becomes product leader.

5. Project-based Matrix Structure
- Employees are temporarily assigned to a specific project team and have a permanent functional unit.

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Conflict And Negotiation In The Workplace

Conflict in the workplace sometimes gives a positive and negative feedback towards the company. When the conflict occurs, it will help the whole organization start to generate more ideas. Negatively, it also can increase the work stress, more job dissatisfaction and turnover. So, it depends on how the leader or the organization handle and make the best solutions in handling the conflict. Hence, it’s also helping the company to become more productive.

1. Task (constructive) conflict – focus more on the issues, but still respect others point of view

2. Relationship conflict – focus more on someone’s characteristics, not the issues. Usually, it comes with the bad emotions.

How to minimize conflict?
1. Emotional intelligence
2. Cohesive team
3. Supportive team norms

Conflict Handling Contingencies

1.       Problem solving

Best when:

·         Interests are not perfectly contrast

·         Everyone being openness

·         Issues are difficult

Problem: other party may use information to its advantage

2.       Forcing

Best when:

·         you have a deep persuasion about your position

·         quick resolution required other party would take advantage of cooperation

Problems: relationship conflict, long-term relations

3.       Avoiding

Best when:

·         conflict is about relationship conflict

·         conflict resolution cost is higher than benefits

Problems: doesn’t resolve conflict; causes frustration

4.       Yielding

Best when:

·         other party has much more power

·         issue is much less important to you than other party

Problems: increases other’s expectations; imperfect solution

5.       Compromising

Best when:

·         Parties have equal power

·         Quick solution is required

·         Parties lack trust/openness

Problem: Sub-optimal solution where mutual gains are possible

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INFLUENCE
Influence is any behavior that attempts to alter someone’s attitudes or behaviour.

Types of influence:

1.       Silent authority – Following request without any obvious influence.

2.       Assertiveness - Reminding, confronting, checking, threatening

3.       Information control - Manipulating others’ access to information

4.       Coalition formation - Group forms to gain more power than individuals alone

5.       Upward appeal - Cooperate or perceived with higher status person

6.       Persuasion - Depends on persuader, message content, message medium, audience

7.       Impression management -  self-presentation

8.       Exchange - Promising or reminding of past benefits in exchange for compliance

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Power and influences in the workplace

Power is the ability of a person, team, or organization to influence others.

There are five sources of power.
1. Legitimate power - is known as positional power. It's derived from the position a person holds in an organization's hierarchy.

2. Reward power - arises from the ability of a person to influence the allocation of incentives in an organization. These incentives include salary increments, positive appraisals and promotions. In an organization, people who hold reward power tend to influence the actions of other employees.

3. Coercive power - is derived from a person's ability to influence others via threats, punishments or sanctions. Coercive power is, therefore, a person's ability to punish, fire or reprimand another employee. Coercive power helps control the behavior of employees by ensuring that they adhere to the organization's policies and norms.

4. Expert power - is derived from possessing knowledge or expertise in a particular area. Such people are highly valued by organizations for their problem solving skills. People who have expert power perform critical tasks and are therefore seems important.
5. Referent power - Referent power is derived from the interpersonal relationships that a person cultivates with other people in the organization. People possess reference power when others respect and like them. Referent power arises from charisma, as the charismatic person influences others via the admiration, respect and trust others have for her.

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Understanding Work Teams
A group is a collection of individuals who coordinate their individual efforts. On the other hand, at team is a group of people who share a common team purpose and a number of challenging goals. Members of the team are mutually committed to the goals and to each other.

Types of work teams
1. Problem-solving
2. Self-managed
3. Cross-functional
4. Virtual

Effective teams have adequate resources, effective leadership, a climate of trust, and a performance evaluation and reward system that reflects team contributions. These teams have individuals with technical expertise, and the right traits and skills. Effective teams have members who believe in the team’s capabilities, are committed to a common plan and purpose, and have an accurate shared mental model of what is to be accomplished.

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A group is defined as two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives. There are two types of groups which are informal and formal. Example of formal group is work team in an organization, and informal group is a group of friends socialize at the café.

Social Identity Theory

Social identity theory proposes that a person’s sense of who they are depends on the groups to which they belong. People have emotional reactions to the failure or success of their group because their self-esteem gets tied into the performance of the group. Social identities help us understand who we are and where we fit in with people.

Ingroups and Outgroups

An ingroup is a social group to which a person psychologically identifies as being a member. By contrast, an outgroup is a social group with which an individual does not identify.

Role

Role is a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit.
1. Role perceptions: one’s perception of how to act in a given situation.
2.  Role expectations: how others believe one should act in a given situation.
3.  Role conflict: situation in which an individual faces divergent role expectations.

Norms

Norms is a standard or pattern, especially of social behavior, that is typical or expected of a group. It’s can be acceptable within that group.

Status

Status: a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others.

Status characteristics theory: status is derived from one of three sources;

·         The power a person wields over others.

·         A person’s ability to contribute to a group’s goals.

·         An individual’s personal characteristics.

Strengths of group decision making:

·         More complete information and knowledge

·         Increased diversity of views

·         Increased acceptance of solutions

Weaknesses of group decision making:

·         Time consuming

·         Conformity pressures

·         Dominance of a few members

·         Ambiguous responsibility

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Four OB Mod Consequences

1.       Positive reinforcement – when consequence is introduced, the behavior is increased/maintained

2.       Punishment – when introduced, the frequency or probability of the behavior decreases

3.       Negative reinforcement –when this consequence is removed, behavior is increased/maintained

4.       Extinction –behavior decreases when no consequence occurs

Social Cognitive Theory

The social-cognitive theory is a theoretical perspective in which learning by observing others is the focus of study. There are few assumptions of social cognitive theory.

Firstly, one is that people can learn by observing others. Learners can acquire new behaviors and knowledge by simply observing a model. A model is a person who demonstrates behavior for someone else.

Secondly, learning is an internal process that may or may not lead to a behavior. Learning may not occur immediately. The observer could process the new behavior, but his/her learning may not be affected until a later point or never at all.

Thirdly, there's also an assumption of goal-directed behavior. They are motivated to accomplish those goals.

Next, another assumption of the social-cognitive theory is behavior eventually becomes self-regulated. Social-cognitivists, unlike behaviorists, believe that people eventually begin to regulate their own learning and behavior.

The final assumption deals with reinforcement and punishment. Social-cognitivists believe reinforcement and punishment have indirect (rather than direct) effects on learning and behavior. People form expectations about the likely consequences of future responses based on how current responses are reinforced or punished. People's expectations are also influenced by the observation of the consequences that follow other people's behavior.

Goal setting (SMARTER)

Specific – What, how, where, when, and with whom the task needs to be accomplished

Measurable – how much, how well, at what cost

Achievable – challenging, yet accepted (E-to-P)

Relevant – within employee’s control

Time-framed – due date and when assessed

Exciting – employee commitment, not just compliance

Reviewed – feedback and recognition on goal progress and accomplishment

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Foundations Of Employee Motivation

This topic is about motivation of the employees that will lead to the excellent organizations and how to make the employees satisfied with their work.

Motivation is a something that lead someone willing to do any work becomes more effectives and enjoys in the same time. Besides, motivated employees are willing to exert a particular level of effort (intensity), for a certain amount of time (persistence) then towards a particular goal (direction).

Engagement with the employees also important in order to make sure the employee will high level of focus and self-efficiacy

Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory
There is 5 main catogories in the hierarchy and 2 added categories.
The lowest level means it’s the strongest need. When satisfied, next higher need becomes primary motivator. Main problem of this hierarchy is it’s unique to each person, not universal.

Learned Need Theory
Needs are amplified or suppressed through self-concept, social norms, and past experience

Three learned need
1- Need for achievement
- Want to accomplish reasonably challenging goals
- Desire clear feedback, moderate risk tasks

2- Need for affiliation
- Seek approval from others, conform to others’ wishes, avoid conflict
- Effective decision makers have low need for affiliation

3- Need for power
- Desire to control one’s environment
- Personalized versus socialized power

Four Drive Theory
Four drives determine which emotions are automatically tagged to incoming sensory information. Emotions are usually unconscious, but become conscious experiences when sufficiently strong or conflict with each other. Then the mental will set based on social norms, personal values and experience then transform the emotions towards goal-directed.

1.       Drive to acquire: seek, acquire, control, retain objects or experiences

2.       Drive to bond: form social relationships and develop mutual caring commitments with others

3.       Drive to comprehend: satisfy our curiosity, know and understand ourselves and the environment

4.       Drive to defend: protect ourselves physically and socially

Expectancy Theory
Increasing E-to-P Expectancies

·         Hire, train, and match people to job requirements

·         Provide behavioral modeling and coaching

Increasing P-to-O Expectancies

·         Measure performance accurately

·         Explain how rewards are caused by past performance

Increasing Outcome Valences

·         Ensure that rewards are valued

·         Individualize rewards

A-B-Cs of Behavior Modification

- Firstly, the attitude is what happens before the behaviour which is the attitudes of the person.
- Then, it will lead the person towards act of behaviour.
- After that, people can make decisions by focusing on their attitude behaviour and most of all, the consequences.
- They can start by clarifying the consequences – the desired results – they want to achieve.
- They can then clarify the attitude and behaviour they need to demonstrate to get the desired consequences.

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DECISION MAKING

1.       Define the problem

2.       Identify the decision criteria

3.       Allocate weights to the criteria

4.       Develop the alternatives

5.       Evaluate the alternatives

6.       Select the best alternatives

INTUITION
Intuitive decision making occurs outside conscious thought; it relies on holistic associations, or links between disparate pieces of information, is fast, and is affectively charged, meaning it usually engages the emotions.

Common Biases and Errors in Decision Making

1.       Overconfidence Bias:
individuals whose intellectual and interpersonal abilities are weakest are most likely to overestimate their performance and ability.

2.       Anchoring Bias:
fixating on initial information as a starting point and failing to adequately adjust for subsequent information.

3.       Confirmation Bias:
type of selective perception. Seek out information that reaffirms past choices, and discount information that contradicts past judgments.

4.       Availability Bias:
tendency for people to base judgments on information that is readily available.

5.       Escalation of Commitment:
staying with a decision even when there is clear evidence that it’s wrong. Likely to occur when individuals view themselves as responsible for the outcome.

6.       Randomness Error:
our tendency to believe we can predict the outcome of random events. Decision making becomes impaired when we try to create meaning out of random events.

7.       Risk Aversion:
the tendency to prefer a sure thing instead of a risky outcome.
- Ambitious people with power that can be taken away appear to be especially risk averse.
- People will more likely engage in risk-seeking behavior for negative outcomes, and risk-averse behavior for positive outcomes, when under stress.

8.       Hindsight Bias:
the tendency to believe falsely that one has accurately predicted the outcome of an event, after that outcome is actually known.

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ATTRIBUTION THEORY

It is about whether the individual’s behaviour is caused by internally or externally.
Internally – caused by the person itself.
Externally – caused by the outside environment

Determination depends on three factors:

1. Distinctiveness

2. Consensus
3. Consistency

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Perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. Everyone have their own perceptions towards anything.

Factors that influence perceptions:

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Jungian Personality Theory
- Identifies preferences for perceiving the environment and obtaining/processing information.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
- Measures Jungian types

SCHWARTZ VALUES MODEL

Openness to change – motivation to pursue innovative ways

Conservation -- motivation to preserve the status quo

Self-enhancement -- motivated by self-interest

Self-transcendence -- motivation to promote welfare

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Types of individual behaviour :

1.       Task performance

2.       Organizational citizenship

3.       Counterproductive work behaviours

4.       Joining and staying with the organization

5.       Maintaining work attendance

What is personality?
Relatively enduring pattern of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize a person, along with the psychological processes behind those characteristics.

1. Nature personality- its personality is already in them. For example, twins has a similar personality, based on Minsotta tudies.

2. Nurture personality – Socialization, can be learned.

Five Factors Personality Model (CANOE)

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Individual behaviour, personality & values

MARS MODEL

MARS model of individual behavior is a model that seeks to elaborate individual behavior as a result of internal and external factors or influences combined together. The name itself is an acronym for individual Motivation, Abilities, Role Perception and Situational Factors.

M-Motivation is an internal forces that affect a person’s voluntary choice of behaviour.
- Direction
- Intensity
- Persistence

A-Ability is an aptitudes and learned capabilities required to successfully complete a task.
There are 3 steps in job matching;
1. Selecting
2. Developing
3. Redesigning

R-Role Perceptions means we know and understand the job duties that expected for us.

S-Situational factors is the environmental conditions beyond the individual’s short-term control that constrain or facilitate behaviour.

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WORKPLACE EMOTIONS, ATTITUDES, AND STRESS.

This topic are discussing about the emotions, attitudes and how to handle stress in the workplace.

What is emotion?

- Emotion is a psychological, behavioural, and physiological episode that creates a state of readiness.

- Most emotions occur without our awareness.

Types of emotions:

1.       High activation, negative emotions : fearful, jittery

2.       High activation, positive emotions : enthusiastic , elated

3.       Low activation, negative emotions : bored, tired

4.       Low activation, positive emotions : relaxed, calm

Traditional model: How attitudes influence behaviour
- Beliefs – learned from experience
- feelings – people with same beliefs might have different feelings
- behavioural intentions – people might have same feeling but different behavioral intentions
- behaviour – influenced by behavioral intentions but depends on ability or situations.

Job satisfaction
A person's evaluation of his or her job and work context or an appraisal of the perceived job characteristics, work environment, and emotional experience at work.

EVLN : Response to dissatisfaction

E- Exit : Leaving the situation or quit the job

V- Voice : Change the situations by voicing out

L-Loyalty : Patiently waiting for the situation to improve

N-Neglect : Reducing work effort or increasing absenteeism

Job satisfaction is important because our employee’s happiness will affect the company’s productivity.

STRESS

Workplace stress is happen by the environmental conditions that place a physical or emotional demand on the person. Some common workplace stressor are harassment an incivility, work overload and low task control.

How to overcome stress?
- Remove the stressor by having work-life balanced
- take a vacation or rest breaks
- make a positive self-concept, humour
- having a healthy lifestyle, fitness and wellness

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Four perspectives of Organizational Behavior

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Four perspectives of Organizational Behavior

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Madam Hanis have taught about Intro to OB for the chapter 1.

So, based on my understanding, here

1.       Organizational behavior is a relatively young field of inquiry that studies what people think, feel, and do in and around organizations.

2.       Organizations are groups of people who work interdependently toward some purpose.

Overall, we have discussed on how the people in an organizations act towards work, other employees and third parties .

There are four perspectives of organizational behaviour.
1. OPEN SYSTEMS
2. HIGH-PERFORMANCE WORK PRACTICES
3. ORAGNIZATIONAL LEARNING
4. STAKEHOLDER

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CHAPTER 1: Intro The Field Of OB                                                              • Organizational behaviour is the study and knowledge of how people act within the organization

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CHAPTER 1: Intro The Field Of OB                                                              • Organizational behaviour is the study and knowledge of how people act within the organization

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Challenges for Organizational Behaviour :
1) Globalization to respond
2)Managing diversity
3)Improving quality and productivity
4)Improving peoples' skills.
5)Improving customer service
6)Creating positive work environment

Importance of Organizational Behaviour :
> Provides a road map for our lives in an organization.
> It helps to influence organizational events.
> Helps manager to manage human resouce effectively.
> Helps organizations for maintaining cordial industrial relations.

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hi. Please share what you understand from Chapter 1: Intro the Field of OB

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hi. Please share what you understand from Chapter 1: Intro the Field of OB