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Victim is a concept, like crime that is socially constructed, who is and who isn't a victim changes depending on the context.
1. Positivism Victimology: Tries to identify why certain people are victims of crimes. Early work focused on victim proneness, meaning, finding social and pyschological characteristics that made some more vulnerable than others. Hans Von Hentig identified 13 characteristics that imply victims invite victimisation by the way they are. This has been identified as Victim Blaming.
2. Critical Victimology: Based on Marxism and Feminism to highlight structural factors like poverty or patriarchy which put the powerless at greater risk.
Failure to label- Interested in the way the state has the power to attach or deny a victim label. If police decide not to press charges then you are denied the status of victim.
3. Patterns of victimisation: Class- the poorest groups are most likely to be victims of all crimes. Age- Younger people are most at risk of crimes like assault, theft and sexual harassment. Enicity- Minority ethnic groups are at the most risk of all types of crime. Gender- Males most at risk of violent attacks
4. The Impact of Victimisation- effects such as disrupted sleep, feelings of helplessness, increased security consciousness and difficulties in socialising. Fear- the media has a large part to play when stirring up fear.

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Synoptic Surveillance: Mathiesen argues that Foucault's account tells half the story in contemporary society. The media now enables the many to see the few, and an increase in top-down centralised surveillance.
Surveillaint Assemblages: Foucault's idea is based upon the idea that surveillance involves the manipulation of physical bodies. Haggerty and Erikson argues that surveillance now involves the manipulation of virtual objects.
Actuarial justics and Risk management: Feeley and Simon- a new technology of power is emerging which focuses on groups rather than individuals.
Labelling and Surveillance: Ditton et al- judgements can be based upon the typicfications or stereotypical beliefs of surveillance operators.

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8.75 million people in prisons across the world.
U.S has the highest prison population
U.K has the highest prison population in Europe

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Argues there has been a relatively recent shift in attitudes towards punishment. In the 1950s the state practissed 'penal welfarism' in which the criminal justice system did not just try to catch and punish offenders, but also tries to rehabilitate them. Since the 1950s, individual freedoms have increased while social bonds have weakened and life is more uncertain and the public are more worried about crime than ever before. The state has now abandoned 'penal welfarism' and its primary concern is now taking a tough approach on crime to reassure communities. The 'punitive state' now enforces a 'culture of control' by:

Increasingly identifying potential offending groups

Increasing amounts of arrests

Politicians increasinly using the idea of being tough on crime to win elections

EVAL: Cynical theory- do politicians really use the idea of being 'tough on crime' to win votes? Foucault would argue that this theory is too simplistic in terms of understanding political power- it diverts our attention away from other agencies of social control in preventing/constructing deviance through surveillance

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Sovereign Power= Before the 19th century where the monarch had power over people and could punish them in public
Disciplinary Power= Controls people through surveillance
Panopticon= Prison designed by Jeremy Bentham, and its design means the inmates do not know if they're being watched. Surveillance turned into self-surveillance and becomes internalised.
Punishment has shifted fomr direct, immediate and pyhsical, to be more focused on incarceration and rehabilitating.
Although punishment is now less harsh, the state has more control over its citizens in subtle ways and 'invades' our private lifes.
Foucalt sees the growth of prison as a means of punishment as relfecting the move from sovereign power to disciplinary power

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Inmates lives come under complete control of the institution, and while in the institution the inmate undergoes a 'mortification of the self' as they are subjected to degrading and humiliating treatments desgined to remove any trace  of identity. An ID number is an example of a clear seperation between the inmates' former selves and their institutional selves.
Inmates are constantly under surveillance and have no privacy, their behvaiour is observed and assessed and if necessary, sancitoned. Inamtes lose the abilty to construct their own identity. The institutions can make the individual more insane as they can amplify their behaviour.

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Function of punishment is to maintain existing social order and it is part of the repressive state apparatus. Marxists consider how punishment serves the ruling class, and look at how prison is similar to the slave labour of capitalism.
Melossi and Pavarubi see imprisonment as reflecting capitalist relations of production as they both have disciplinary style

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Function of punishment is to uphold social solidarity and reinforce shared values. There are two types of justice according to Durkheim:
1. Retributive Justice- traditional society there is solidarity between individuals and when a crime is committed it brings this consciousness together against the individual
2.Restituitive Justice- modern society contains lots of specialisation so people are not similar. Independence is threatened by crime so punishment must restore independence

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Tries to restore things by making offenders meet their victims to personally see the effect their crime has ha

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Offenders deserve to be punished and society is entitled to take its revenge

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Aims to prevent future crime:
Deterence- punishing people in order to make crime less appealing
Rehabilitation- punishment as a form of rehabilitation
Incapacitation- permanently stopping the offender from committing crime

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Place emphasis firmly on the offender and their social context. Aim of these strategies is to remove the conditions that predispose individuals to crime.
Perry Pre-School Prjoect: Project provided high-quality pre-school education to three- and four-year old African-American children living in poverty.
Divided randomly into two groups. Fifty-eigth children received the HighScope pre-school programme, 65 similar children were assigned to a control group.
The curriculum emphasised active learning, in which children got involved in decision making and problem solving and were planned by the children themselves with the support of adults. Teachers provided a weekly home visit to each mother and child to involve the mother.
Method does not stop crime, but decreases it.

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Broken Windows: Crime flourishes in situations where social control breaks down- maintenance on certain areas will make sure they're well kept.
Zero Tolerance Policy: Influenced by the Broken Windows idea to New York crime in the 1980s.
EVAL: Shows how crime can be reduced and managed, but not effective in all areas and some may feel targeted.

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Clarke: A pre-emptive approach that relies up reducing opportunities for crime. Measure directed at specific crimes.
Felson: Post Authority Bus Terminal- Re-shaping the physical environment to 'design crime out'.
Displacement:

Spatial- Moving elsewhere

Temporal- Different time

Target- Different victim

Tactical- Different Method

Functional- Different crime

EVAL: Works to some extent with reducing certain types of crime, issues with displacement. Focuses on petty, opportunistic state crime