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So MANY good resources for reflective practice to download from here

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Considerations and information about how to implement reflection into courses, workshops, and other initiatives.

If you have made your way onto this part of the platform it suggests that you are considering reflection and might even want to include it in an initiative you are running. Maybe you are already facilitating reflection and you want make the process easier. In either case, this part of the Reflection Toolkit contains information and considerations that are valuable for facilitating reflection in others, particularly in an educational context.

the conscious examination of past experiences, thoughts and ways of doing things. Its goal is to surface learning about oneself and the situation, and to bring meaning to it in order to inform the present and the future. It challenges the status quo of practice, thoughts and assumptions and may therefore inform our decisions, actions, attitudes, beliefs and understanding about ourselves.

Reflection can be used for many things including:

Quick links: Are youlooking for a particular topic, or new to the Reflection Toolkit and not sure where to begin? Use the links below to guide you to some useful starting points , or watch the video for a quick overview.

The sections below the video explore this in more detail with information, advice, and actions you can take.

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Considerations and information about how to implement reflection into courses, workshops, and other initiatives.

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This site is for people who want to reflect - maybe you already reflect or you have to do reflection in a course. Here you will find resources, models, and questions that can help you start your reflections as well as structuring them.

Reflection can happen anywhere and anytime and doesn't require anything but yourself and your mind. Sometimes it can be helpful to capture it, whether that is in conversation, in writing, drawing, or something completely different.

The aim of this site is that you will have a look around and get a sense of what is useful when reflecting and then pick out the information and questions that work for you. You are your own expert.

However, if you are producing reflections for a course, make sure you know what they are asking for and follow their assessment criteria - they might have specific requirements.

In either case, reflective practice examines our thoughts, actions and experience and ask why they happened that way with the goal of improving ourselves or our understanding. This is clearly seen in the definition found on the homepage of the Reflection Toolkit.

New to the Reflectors' Toolkit and not sure where to begin? Use the link below for some starting points, or watch the video for a quick overview.

The sections below the video explore this in more detail with information, advice, and actions you can take.

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This site is for people who want to reflect - maybe you already reflect or you have to do reflection in a course. Here you will find resources, models, and questions that can help you start your reflections as well as structuring them.

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This framework developed by Bain et al. (for example 2002), focuses on five core stages, each addressing one aspect of reflection. By thinking about all 5 stages individually you will engage with all the essential components of reflection, enabling you to produce a critically engaged reflection based in your experience. This model can also be helpful for structuring reflective writing.

The 5 stages are:

Reporting of the context of the experience

Responding to the experience (observations, feelings, thoughts, etc.)

Relating the experience to knowledge and skills you already have

Reasoning about the significant factors/theory to explain the experience

Reconstructing your practice by planning future actions for a similar experience

Below is further information on the model - each stage is given a fuller description, tips about language use, guiding questions to ask yourself and an example of how this might look in a reflection.

This is just one model of reflection. Test it out and see how it works for you. If you find that only a few of the questions are helpful, focus on those. However, by thinking about each stage you are likely to engage more critically with your learning experience.

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The 5R framework for reflection will guide you through Reporting, Responding, Relating, Reasoning, and Reconstructing to make sense of a learning experience.

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One of the most famous cyclical models of reflection leading you through six stages exploring an experience: description, feelings, evaluation, analysis, conclusion and action plan.

Below is further information on:

The model

Gibbs' reflective cycle

This model is a good way to work through an experience. This can be either a stand-alone experience or a situation you go through frequently, for example meetings with a team you have to collaborate with. Gibbs originally advocated its use in repeated situations, but the stages and principles apply equally well for single experiences too. If done with a stand-alone experience, the action plan may become more general and look at how you can apply your conclusions in the future.

For each of the stages of the model a number of helpful questions are outlined below. You don't have to answer all of them but they can guide you about what sort of things make sense to include in that stage. You might have other prompts that work better for you.

Description

Here you have a chance to describe the situation in detail. The main points to include here concern what happened. Your feelings and conclusions will come later.

Helpful questions:

Example of 'Description'

Feelings

Here you can explore any feelings or thoughts that you had during the experience and how they may have impacted the experience.

Helpful questions:

What were you feeling during the situation?

Example of 'Feelings'

Evaluation

Here you have a chance to evaluate what worked and what didn't work in the situation. Try to be as objective and honest as possible. To get the most out of your reflection focus on both the positive and the negative aspects of the situation, even if it was primarily one or the other.

Helpful questions:

What was good and bad about the experience?

Example of 'Evaluation'

Analysis

The analysis step is where you have a chance to make sense of what happened. Up until now you have focused on details around what happened in the situation. Now you have a chance to extract meaning from it. You want to target the different aspects that went well or poorly and ask yourself why. If you are looking to include academic literature, this is the natural place to include it.

Helpful questions:

Example of 'Analysis'

I think the reason that our initial division of work went well was because each person had a say in what part of the assignment they wanted to work on, and we divided according to people's self-identified strengths. I have experienced working this way before and discovered when I'm working by myself I enjoy working in areas that match my strengths. It seems natural to me that this is also the case in groups.

I think we thought that this approach would save us time when piecing together the sections in the end, and therefore we didn't think it through. In reality, it ended up costing us far more time than expected and we also had to stress and rush through the rewrite. I think the fact we hadn't planned how we were writing and structuring the sections led us to this situation.

I searched through some literature on group work and found two things that help me understand the situation. Belbin's (e.g. 2010) team roles suggests that each person has certain strengths and weaknesses they bring to a group. While we didn't think about our team members in the same way Belbin does, effective team work and work delegation seems to come from using people's different strengths, which we did.

Another theory that might help explain why we didn't predict the plan wouldn't work is 'Groupthink' (e.g. Janis, 1991). Groupthink is where people in a group won't raise different opinions to a dominant opinion or decision, because they don't want to seem like an outsider. I think if we had challenged our assumptions about our plan - by actually being critical, we would probably have foreseen that it wouldn't work. Some characteristics of groupthink that were in our group were: 'collective rationalisation' - we kept telling each other that it would work; and probably 'illusion of invulnerability' - we are all good students, so of course we couldn't do anything wrong.

I think being aware of groupthink in the future will be helpful in group work, when trying to make decisions.

Conclusions

In this section you can make conclusions about what happened. This is where you summarise your learning and highlight what changes to your actions could improve the outcome in the future. It should be a natural response to the previous sections.

Helpful questions:

What did I learn from this situation?

Example of a 'Conclusion'

Action plan

At this step you plan for what you would do differently in a similar or related situation in the future. It can also be extremely helpful to think about how you will help yourself to act differently - such that you don't only plan what you will do differently, but also how you will make sure it happens. Sometimes just the realisation is enough, but other times reminders might be helpful.

Helpful questions:

If I had to do the same thing again, what would I do differently?

Example of 'Action Plan'

Different depths of reflection

Depending on the context you are doing the reflection in, you might want use different levels of details. Here is the same scenario, which was used in the example above, however it is presented much more briefly.

Short example of Gibbs' reflective cycle:

Feelings:

Adapted from
Gibbs G (1988). Learning by Doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods. Further Education Unit. Oxford Polytechnic: Oxford.

This article was published on

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One of the most famous cyclical models of reflection leading you through six stages exploring an experience: description, feelings, evaluation, analysis, conclusion and action plan.

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The Integrated Reflective Cycle (BASSOT)

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The Integrated Reflective Cycle draws on other models takes you through four steps to consider: the experience, your actions, relevant theory, and preparation for the future.

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Driscoll (1994) developed this model of reflection based on the three simple questions - What? So what? Now what? - originally asked by Terry Borton (1970). The model provides one of the simplest frameworks for reflection. In practice you should ask yourself the three questions after a critical incident that has taken place and you want to extract learning from.

'What?' helps you describe the situation you want to learn from. You should identify the facts and feelings of the situation.

'So What?' allows you to extract the meaning of 'What?'. Moreover, you should question what knowledge you and others had in the situation, and what knowledge or theories that could help you make sense of the situation.

'Now what?' allows you to create an action plan for the future based on the previous questions.

Below is further information on the model - each stage includes guiding questions to ask yourself and a couple of examples of how this might look in a reflection.

This is just one model of reflection. Test it out and see how it works for you. If you find that only some of the outlined questions are helpful, focus on those. However, by thinking about each stage you are likely to engage more critically with your learning experience.

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Driscoll (1994) developed this model of reflection based on the three simple questions - What? So what? Now what? - originally asked by Terry Borton (1970). The model provides one of the simplest frameworks for reflection. In practice you should ask yourself the three questions after a critical incident that has taken place and you want to extract learning from.

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This framework takes you through Context, Action, Results, and Learning.

Overview

The CARL model is adapted from a job interview technique where you structure each of your answers according to the different aspect of the model. Given the reflective nature of successfully answering many job interview questions, this model can easily be used in general to guide your reflective process on experiences. CARL stands for:

Context: Briefly describe the context of you experience

Action: Explain what actions you took

Results: Explain what happened as a result of your actions

Learning: Identify what you have learned

One thing to be conscious of with this model is that it is possible to work through the stages while only describing at each level. Be sure you stop and ask yourself how and why the things happened - this will help move it from descriptions to reflections.

Below is further information on the model - each stage is given a fuller description, guiding questions to ask yourself and a couple of examples of how this might look in a reflection.

This is just one model of reflection. Test it out and see how it works for you. If you find that only a few of the questions are helpful, focus on those. If you think about each area you are likely to engage more critically with your learning experience.

The model

The CARL framework of reflection

This model, unlike a fair amount of other reflection models, does not explicitly require further planned actions. This is not essential for reflection, as identifying new learning is an extremely valuable process and will in many cases affect practice on its own. The model is frequently seen in interviews without the 'learning' stage, however it is important to include this stage in reflection as it allows you to critically extract knowledge and learning from the situation.

One potential challenge with using this model is that it encourages you to describe throughout - that is describe the context, the actions, and results and only think about implications in learning. While there can be benefits from solely describing as it can make you aware of the consequences of your actions, describing is not the same as being critically reflective. To ensure that you remain reflective throughout, keep asking yourself the question why - 'why did I do what I did?' etc.

For other models there is a natural place where you introduce and think about relevant theoretical literature. In this model each step can benefit from literature, as it can help explain your motivations, for example in actions you might want to use a particular theory to explain why you chose a specific action above another.

A number of helpful questions are outlined below for each of the sections. You don't have to answer all of them, but they can guide you to what sort of things make sense to include in that section. You might have others questions that work better for you.

Context

Here you will set the context for yourself or the reader. Describe what is essential to understand the situation.

Helpful questions:

What was the context of the situation?

Depending on whether you are presenting the reflection, for example as an interview answer, or using the model as a helpful framework for your own reflective process, you may wish to tailor how extensive you are. If doing it for yourself, it can be very helpful to understand a full comprehensive context, whereas when presenting it to others you may wish to only include enough that the audience understand the context.

Examples of Context

The examples below show how the reflective process can happen at an overarching process level and a specific experience level. Both will tackle the same scenario, but their conclusions can be different. When reflecting both levels can be helpful.

Action

Here you can describe what your actions were in relation to the context specified above. To critically engage with the reflection it is important not only to describe your actions, but think about why you did these actions and not something else.

Helpful questions:

Examples of Action

Results

Here you can discuss the results that came from your actions and what the implications are of the results.

Helpful questions:

Did I accomplish what I wanted?

Examples of Results

Learning

Here you have a chance to conclude using the insights gained from the three sections above. While not explicitly suggested by the model, if you want to include an action plan this is a natural place to do so.

Helpful questions:

What did I learn from the experience?

Examples of Learning

I have learned that I get better at public speaking when I give myself the opportunity to practise in front of people. I will therefore continue to seek out challenges including public speaking. However, I have also realised that while I get similar benefit to my own development in term of confidence through standing in front of others, I can practise the most effective way of delivering the content. In the future I have to give myself more time to prepare.

Adopted from
The CAR model of interview techniques, for example BlueSteps (2011) CAR interview Technique.

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This framework takes you through Context, Action, Results, and Learning.

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The four F’s of reviewing will help you to review an experience and plan for the future by moving through four levels: Facts, Feelings, Findings, and Future.

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Teaching and learning are complex due to the many factors that impact what happens in a classroom. The teacher's personality, the learners' personalities, the dynamics amongst the stakeholders, their moods, the physical space of the classroom, the content to be taught, the resources that are or are not available, the context of curriculum, the time of day and year, even the weather will result in slightly different actions and reactions amongst teachers and learners alike. It is therefore not surprising that there is no one correct and universally applicable approach to teaching.

Teachers need to constantly adapt and change their activities and plans accordingly. And in order to do just that in an efficient and effective way, teachers must be reflective.

Trainee teachers often underestimate the power of reflection when it comes to improving their own practice. Their view is that they need to practise being teachers. Practising planning and delivering lessons is necessary, but ultimately, improvements can only be made if critical reflections take place at every stage, during the planning and delivery phases, as well as thereafter. John Dewey, among the first scholars to write about reflective practice, explained that we do not learn from experience, but from reflecting on experience.

However, reflections must not be superficial evaluations of how the lesson went; the teacher needs to actively engage with what happened and must not shy away from admitting errors and considering alternative viewpoints. Solid theoretical and practical knowledge and understanding of models of reflective practice is paramount. Such knowledge can be acquired best when the models of reflections are applied regularly and consistently.

To this end, initially, reflections do not necessarily need to be about teaching practice. In order to get used to systematic reflections, to apply the reflective models and to understand the models' individual advantages and drawbacks, all learning situations or observations of experienced staff may be used as a starting point for reflections. As long as reflections are critical, honest and deep enough, learning will take place.
Examples for reflective models: Tripp: critical incidents
Kolb: experiential learning
Gibbs: reflective cycle
Brookfield: four lenses
Rolfe et al.: reflective model
Reference:

Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and Education. Toronto: Collier-MacMillan Canada Ltd.

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Teaching and reflective practice - Dr Nicole Brown

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Teaching and learning are complex due to the many factors that impact what happens in a classroom. Teachers need to constantly adapt and change their activities and plans accordingly. And in order to do just that in an efficient and effective way, teachers must be reflective.

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KOLB

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Kolb's reflective model is referred to as "experiential learning". The basis for this model is our own experience, which is then reviewed, analysed and evaluated systematically in three stages. Once this process has been undergone completely, the new experiences will form the starting point for another cycle.
Concrete experience:
You consciously and physically experience a situation, which makes you realise that you need to reflect systematically in order to learn something new or improve on your existing skill and practice. At this stage you will make a note of the specific situation and just describe what you see, how you feel and what you think.

Reflective observation:
Having written down the description of the experience, it is now time to reflect more deeply on what has happened in that situation. The questions you need to ask yourself are: what worked? what failed? why did the situation arise? why did others and I behave the way we did?

Abstract conceptualisation:
The guiding question for this stage leads on from the questions in the reflective observation stage: what could I have done better or differently? how can I improve? Initially, you try to find different ways for dealing with the situations and think up strategies for when you experience a similar situation again. Also, this is the stage where you should consult colleagues and literature in order to get a better understanding and further ideas.

Active experimentation:
This stage is now practising the newly acquired theoretical knowledge. You take your own reflections and thoughts about improvements as well as the theories back into your practice and try out the new strategies. Some of them will work, others won't, so this is then automatically the basis for the new cycle. As the experiences within the active experimentation stage become the new "concrete experiences".

Reference:

Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential learning: experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

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Reflective model according to Kolb - Dr Nicole Brown

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Kolb's reflective model is referred to as "experiential learning". The basis for this model is our own experience, which is then reviewed, analysed and evaluated systematically in three stages. Once this process has been undergone completely, the new experiences will form the starting point for another cycle.

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Reflective model according to BROOKFIELD - Dr Nicole Brown

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The basis for this reflective model is the consideration of a situation from different vantage points. Once you have experienced a situation, which you need to learn from, you need to take a step back and consider this situation through what Brookfield calls "lenses": the autobiographical lens, the students' view, the colleagues' view and the theoretical lens.

Autobiographical lens:
Think about the situation in relation to your own previous experiences and your current reactions and feelings. Consider how your personal story and past may have shaped your view of what happened or may have resulted in unwanted physical and emotional reactions and responses.

Students' views:
Try to put yourself in your students' shoes and review the situation by looking at what happened through their eyes. Consider their reactions and how their stories may have led to the experiences. Also, think about how they have experienced the same situation. You may even be able to include students in your reflections by talking to them about what happened or by offering a system of written feedback.

Colleagues' views:
At this stage you are asked to include the views of your colleagues in your reflections. Their experiences and their observations of your work may offer you new insights into what happened and what you can do to improve your work.

Theoretical lens:
In order to make sense of your experiences and in order to improve your practice you need to consult literature. Theories will help you gain new insights and better understanding. At this stage you need to relate your reading to the three other lenses in order to get a full view. This will then help you to think of new steps to take and of how you can apply theory to your practice.

Reference:

Brookfield, S. (1995). Becoming a Critically Reflective Teacher. San-Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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Reflective model according to Brookfield - Dr Nicole Brown

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The basis for this reflective model is the consideration of a situation from different vantage points. Once you have experienced a situation, which you need to learn from, you need to take a step back and consider this situation through what Brookfield calls "lenses": the autobiographical lens, the students' view, the colleagues' view and the theoretical lens.

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Reflective model according to GIBBS - Dr Nicole Brown

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The reflective model according to Gibbs is based on several stages, during which you are required to answer several questions in order to go as deep as possible with your reflections. Gibbs suggests the following stages: description, feelings, evaluation, analysis, conclusions and action plan.
The idea of this model is to systematise reflections and isolate feelings. The different stages usually help to slow down our thought processes so that we don't jump to conclusions too quickly.

Description:
What happened?
At this stage you are asked to describe the situation and not to make any judgements or draw conclusions. Try to be as detailed as possible, but remain descriptive.

Feelings:
What were your reactions and feelings?
Again you are not to analyse the situation, yet. You are asked to describe your emotional response to the situation you have experienced. Consider what you felt, how your body felt and what you did as well as how the others reacted to your actions.

Evaluation:
What was good or bad about the experience?
At this stage you are considering the situation and your responses more objectively to make your first value judgements. You should also consider the experience from other people's perspective in addition to your own. This will help you understand if the situation was bad for you only, or if it was a bad experience for others, too.

Analysis:
What sense can you make of the situation? What was really going on? Were different people's experiences similar or different?
Once you have considered the situation in an evaluative way, you can start to analyse it in greater detail by considering the above questions. At this stage you should also bring in ideas from outside the experience to help you. This could mean involving colleagues and peers in your reflections, but also to consult literature and theories in order to make sense of what happened.

Conclusions:
What can be concluded from these experiences and the analyses you have undertaken? What can be concluded about your personal situation and your way of working?
When you draw conclusions you ought to consider the general applicability as well as your specific situation. Think about what your conclusions mean for you personally, for your immediate context and then more widely for others, too.

Personal action plan:
What are you going to do differently in this type of situation next time? What steps are you going to take on the basis of what you have learnt?
In order for you to improve on your practice and learn from specific experiences you need to take this stage particularly seriously. Think about what you can do differently and how you will improve your practice. Complete a simple action plan with key pointers about what you will do and how you will decide that your practice has improved.
Reference:
Gibbs, G. (1988) Learning by Doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods. Further Education Unit, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford.

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Reflective model according to Gibbs - Dr Nicole Brown

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The reflective model according to Gibbs is based on several stages, during which you are required to answer several questions in order to go as deep as possible with your reflections. Gibbs suggests the following stages: description, feelings, evaluation, analysis, conclusions and action plan .

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DRISCOLL Model of Reflection | NursingAnswers.net

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The Driscoll model of reflection is one of the simplest models you will come across. It was developed by Driscoll in 1994, 2004 and 2007. Driscoll studied the three stem questions which were initially asked by Terry Boston in 1970, they were:

Driscoll connected these three stem questions to the stages of an experience learning cycle, and then added trigger questions that must be answered to complete the reflection cycle. The three questions were developed in 1994, 2000 and 2007. The John Driscoll Model of Reflection is one of the simplest models of reflection.

By answering these three questions, you can start to analyse experiences and learn from these. First, it's important to describe what the situation or experience was like. The context is essential. This gives the user a more complete idea of what is going on. This is achieved by thinking about the 'what' question? What was learnt from the experience? The last phase encourages the user to think about the action that is taken as a result of the reflection. Should behaviour be changed? Must something new be introduced? Or is the status quo sufficiently positive, which means no changes are needed?

What are the steps of Driscoll model of reflection?

Step 1: what?

To complete the first step of the structured reflection, the following questions must be answered:

Briefly describe the experience/situation/incident you will be reflecting on

What exactly happened?

What exactly did you do?

Was someone else involved?

Was it a good experience? Or bad? Or both? And why?

Step 2: so what?

To complete the second step of the structured reflection, the following questions must be answered:

How did you feel at that specific moment?

How you react?

Why did you react this way?

Did you feel the same about the situation then as you do now?

Were you experiencing a conflict with your personal values?

Do you think past situations have influenced your experience during this situation?

Who else was involved? How did they feel? And how did they react? And why did they react this way?

Step 3: now what?

To complete the third step of the structured reflection, the following questions must be answered:

What have you learnt from reflecting on this situation/experience/incident?

Could you have prevented negative outcomes?

And how could you have done so?

What would you do differently if a similar situation were to occur in the future?

What could you do to better prepare yourself for this?

Where did it go wrong last time and what will you focus on now?

Ask yourself these three simple questions to yourself, then you can start to analyse your experiences. Firstly, explain the main incident, situation, experience, or event which was to set it in context. This initial step is basic yet important as it will give you a clear picture of what you are going to deal with.

Moving on, you will then reflect on the main event, experience or situation by proposing a question: So What? - What will I learn because of this particular situation? For the third question of the Driscoll Cycle, you need to think about the actions. These are supposed to be the actions you will take as an outcome of your reflection. Think about whether you will change behaviour? Or "Is there any need to bring some changes or is it okay to continue it as it is?"

Evaluation

Driscoll's model of reflection is not the most commonly cited, however, the Driscoll model has several advantages, mainly due to its level of simplicity. The three-stage model is easier to remember when compared to other models and more straightforward in nature. If a tool or framework is easy to use, it is more likely you will use it more frequently.

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Driscoll Model of Reflection | NursingAnswers.net

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The Driscoll model of reflection is a three stage model that is simple to use. As a student nurse you will often have to reflect on your nursing practice using a model of reflection to help you critically analyse your experiences.

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Reflective model according to ROLFE et al. - Dr Nicole Brown

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This reflective model is probably amongst the simplest ones, as it is based on three questions only. However, this does not mean that the reflections should remain superficial, but should be as comprehensive as possible.

What ?
The first stage is a mere description of what happened and of the experience you would like to analyse and take forward for your own learning.

So what?
Once the description has been completed carefully you should ask yourself what the experience and situation means. To this end you will need to consult literature and colleagues if you are to get a comprehensive insight into the matter, as otherwise you will rely on your own interpretations only.

Now what?
At this last stage of Rolfe et al.'s model you are asked to consider the steps you will be taking in order to improve your practice and learn from the initial experience. You ought to complete a simpleaction plan with key pointers about what you will do and how you will decide that your practice has improved.

Reference:

Rolfe, G., Freshwater, D. and Jasper, M. (2001). Critical reflection in nursing and the helping professions: a user's guide. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

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Reflective model according to Rolfe et al. - Dr Nicole Brown

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This reflective model is probably amongst the simplest ones, as it is based on three questions only. However, this does not mean that the reflections should remain superficial, but should be as comprehensive as possible. What ? The first stage is a mere description of what happened and of the experience you would like to analyse and take forward for your own learning.

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The Active Reviewing Cycle and articles about Active
Reviewing

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An interactive tutorial about active reviewing and facilitation skills using the playing card learning cycle.

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Terry Borton's (1970) 3 stem questions: 'What?', 'So What?' and 'Now What?' were developed by John Driscoll in 1994, 2000 and 2007. Driscoll matched the 3 questions to the stages of an experiential learning cycle, and added trigger questions that can be used to complete the cycle.

The stem questions are easy to remember. Click on the items below to find out more...

The following pieces using Driscoll's cycle were written by a paramedic reflecting on a serious incident and by a nurse reflecting on a letter she received from a patient's family

Reflection on a Significant Incident from Practice (PDF)

Example portfolio evidence: letter (PDF)

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Terry Borton's (1970) 3 stem questions: 'What?', 'So What?' and 'Now What?' were developed by John Driscoll in 1994, 2000 and 2007. Driscoll matched the 3 questions to the stages of an experiential learning cycle, and added trigger questions that can be used to complete the cycle.

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LibGuides: Reflective Practice Toolkit: Models of reflection

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LibGuides: Reflective Practice Toolkit: Models of reflection

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Hey, guys. It's Adam Lee here. I know we're all being encouraged more and more to write reflections, but we don't really know how or why. So I thought I'd share how I've used reflection as part of developing my portfolio, and show you a few practical steps that you can use as a guide. Reflecting helps me take a step back and realise what I'm actually learning, not only during this study at Uni, but through all the other stuff going on in my life, too. I only just realised that reflection isn't just about looking inwards. It's also about what you want to reflect outwards to the world about yourself.

Anyone who checks out my portfolio can say what I've done and what I've learned from my experiences. And they can also say that I've thought about my learning and the skills I'm developing. Let's have a look at this diagram, My selection, My learning, My self. The examples and evidence that I select for my portfolio help me to highlight what I've learned. And reflecting helps me to take a good, hard look at what I'm learning and recognise the significance of it. One of the language and learning advisors summed this process up nicely by saying, "What you select to reflect on tells you about your learning and yourself."

My selection, I want to select artefacts that demonstrate different areas of learning while making sure that the content is appropriate for a professional setting. So demonstrating that you've developed your communication and teamwork skills through hours upon hours of online gaming might not be the best idea.

My learning: A written assignment would showcase my academic learning. Some of my practical work, like my web design, would demonstrate my technical ability. And evidence of my volunteer work with my local footy club would illustrate my people skills. The biggest tip is to remember that it's not just in lecture theaters and classrooms that you can learn. When you are travelling, volunteering, on work placements, or even during social activities, you're developing skills. Reflecting is about realising which ones.

My self: This section mainly refers to my professional self. The artefacts that I choose and how I reflect on them define the projection of myself that is seen by the world. It's also helping me to develop a sense of what I can do, and what I have that I can offer an employer. OK, enough theory. Here's three practical steps that will help you with your reflections. Just ask yourself these three questions. What? So what? Now what? The first step is simple, what? What did I achieve today? Identify something that you've done recently that involves some kind of learning or skill development. My group and I gave a presentation for Uni on a project we've just completed. So what?

Now think about what that achievement means, and what key concepts we learned in doing it. So what did I actually learn from doing this, and how does that relate to what I already know not only from this unit, but from other units as well? How can I apply what I've learned to other units I'm studying? Or looking longer term, how would this be of use to me in the future? Does it relate to any of the professional skills you need to develop, say knowledge? I learned a lot about the topic we chose. Hmm, communication? I thought our presentation was good, but my delivery may have been affected by my nerves. Digital literacy?

We used library databases and Creative Commons images to create our presentation. What about critical thinking? The whole project was an exercise in critical thinking, to be honest. We needed to look at the complexities of our issue, analyse information in depth so that we could come up with our suggested solution, and back it up with evidence. Problem solving, or team work? One of our team members got sick, so we had to adapt and really work together to ensure the project was completed on time. OK. Self-management? As we really needed to work from our strengths, I realised I like doing research, and nominated myself for the task.

I don't always want to take the lead role, but I'd like to be more assertive. And global citizenship? We had to communicate with clients of differing cultural backgrounds. Hmm. Now what? The really important step is thinking about what I could do next. What could I do to improve? I've identified a couple of areas I'd like to work on next time. I'd like to learn how to use the library databases more effectively, and work on my oral presentation skills. By simply writing these goals down, I can have something practical to focus on and work towards, which really helps to make sure I get there.

Looking over what I've done, acknowledging what I've learned and how it applies to my professional development, helps me to touch base with the bigger picture, and remember what I'm essentially trying to get out of Uni. Which means taking that moment to reflect is totally worthwhile.

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It should be by now becoming more evident that self reflection is a critical key to unlocking your career smart potential.

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Reflective models provide a framework for students or practitioners to review their own performance with a view to understanding personal reactions and performance levels and the way they can improve (Moon, 2004). There are several models which may be used to guide the process, which requires the willingness to be self-critical. The Driscoll Model is one of these frameworks (Driscoll, 2007).

Driscoll (2007) first developed their reflective model in 1994 as a framework to guide self-reflection on specific events or happenings. The model was based on the 1970s work of Borton (1970) who had advocated for reflective practice using three questions: What? So what? and Now what? (Driscoll, 2007). These three questions are useful but may be argued as somewhat ambiguous, so Driscoll's development took Boston's questions and matched them to an experiential learning cycle (Driscoll, 2007).

Driscoll's (2007) model is designed for the learner guide their own learning by reflecting on the event using the three questions, with the addition of guidance regarding what should be incorporated at each stage pf the model. The first stage, the What? Is where the learned should reflect on what happened, first considering why they are undertaking the reflection. For example, the learner may want to understand why they reacted in a specific way, to assess what went right or what went wrong and identify behaviours or practices to avoid, repeat, or improve, or any combination of these motivations. The what stage is a descriptive stage, describing what occurred, the questions which may be used at this stage to fully describe what occurred may include several of the following questions:

* What was it that happened?

* What did you observe?

* What action(s) did you take?

* How did you react?

* How did other people react?

* What are the most important elements in the event?

This stage is purely descriptive; it is not asking why, the stage is merely allowing the data to be collected that will form the framework for the next stage of the analysis. However, the process does require the user to be honest and recall events accurately.

The second stage is the So What? question. This is the stage where the analysis is undertaken, and it the stage where most learning will be undertaken. By asking So What? the model will trigger the cognitive processes to increase understandings of the event (Driscoll, 2007). During this stage, the learner will examine their own feelings regarding the event and assess the way their feelings impacted on their behaviour or actions (Driscoll, 2007). Questions the learner may ask themselves during this stage include:

* What did you feel during the event?

* How do you feel about it now?

* Do you feel differently now? If you do, why do you feel differently?

* Why did you react (or fail to react) in the way you did?

* What (if any) were the positive aspects of the happening?

* What were the negative or worrying aspects of the experience?

* Were your experiences different to others? If so, why was that?

The second stage requires the learned to accept and acknowledge weaknesses or errors, but it is also a stage where the strengths and good reaction may be recognised. The understanding of what happened leads naturally to the last stage: Now What?

The third question leads to the improvement with the learner developing an action plan to decide who they will react or behave the next time they are in a similar position (Driscoll, 2007). To adjust behaviours and reactions, the learner must have self-awareness and understand how and why they acted or reacted in a specific way (Perusso, Blankesteijn and Leal, 2019). By understanding and being aware of the issues, they may adjust their reactions, even if the improvements are not fully aligned with the desired outcomes (Moon, 2004). Questions a learner may ask themselves during this stage may include:

* What impact did the event have on/for you?

* What needs to take place to alter the outcome?

* What actions would you take next time in the same situation?

* What information will you need when you face the same situation again?

* What do you need to prepare or adapt so you can improve your performance the next time?

This is a planning stage: by determining what needs to be done next time the learning process is brought to the fore, allowing a proactive approach which is more likely to create change compared to an unstructured and anecdotal review or unplanned approach (NMC, 2020; Driscoll, 2007). The process creates a cycle, as when the event or a similar event occurs, the same stages of What? So What? And Now What? with the next first stage identifying what happened and how, which will reflect any changes which are made and will allow reflection of the process, creating an ongoing learning cycle (Driscoll, 2007). A summary of the model is presented in the figure below.

The Driscoll Learning Model
Source: (Driscoll, 2007, p. 44)

Which Fields use the Driscoll Reflective Model?

Reflective models are commonly used across a wide range of disciplines where the abilities of an individual impact on their performance or the completion of tasks where there is not a simple standardisation of processes. The Driscoll model is one of many which may be used, so can be applied in many situations (Moon, 2000, 2004). Examples of disciplines which use reflective learning include, but are not limited to, education (Hébert, 2015), earth sciences (Harrison, Short and Roberts, 2003), business (Perusso, Blankesteijn and Leal, 2019), and in situations where there is a need to work with others (Loo and Thorpe, 2002). Invariably, the circumstances where it can be used are those where practice and experience will improve the performance of the practitioner. The reflective process accelerates the learning process and supplementing personal experience alone.

Driscoll's (2007) model can be applied to any of these as it is a general model, as it does not have elements which are specific to any discipline or professions. However, it is worth noting the model was developed with clinical practice situations mind (Driscoll, 2007). Therefore, it is unsurprising that the model is most commonly found used in a clinical/medical setting (Laverdure, 2017).

Driscoll Model of Reflection in Nursing Practice

Nursing practice is an area where there is extensive use of reflective learning. Nursing has multiple aspects which provide for a very diverse range of situations in which a partition will need to work, where there will be the requirement for subjective judgement (Mann, Gordon and MacLeod, 2009). As a nurse gains more experience, of the medical situations as well as different types of patient needs, they are likely to become more effective practitioner (Gibbs, 1988), meaning that reflective learning models, including the Driscoll model, are highly relevant to the profession. Indeed, if applying the definition of reflection given by Boud (1999, p. 19) that it is "a generic term for those intellectual and affective activities in which individuals engage to explore their experiences in order to lead to a new understanding and appreciation", it is very apparent how and why this is beneficial to nurses, as the Driscoll model will support the reflective process. A student or practicing nurse can use the Driscoll model without the need for direct mentor support in order to enhance their own learning processes. However, as already noted, there are multiple reflective learning models that can be used, so there may also be consideration regarding why the Driscoll model could be used.

Why Use the Driscoll Reflective Model?

The professional nursing bodies, such as the Royal College of Nursing and the Nursing and Midwifery Council, all advocate for the use of reflective learning (NMC, 2020; McKinney, 2017). There are many models, and Driscoll's is not the most commonly cited; an anecdotal search of peer review literature indicates it is Gibbs (1988) reflective learning cycle that is more commonly found in practice. However, it may be argued that the Driscoll model has several advantages, mainly due to its higher level of simplicity. The three-stage model is easier to remember when compared to other models with more prescriptive stages. Notability, it is not only that there are just three stages; it is their straightforward nature, which makes remembering the different stages much simpler as they follow a logical and easy to recall progression. This may also be considered as one of the advantages associated with the model. But there are also disadvantages or weaknesses.

Pros and Cons of the Driscoll Reflective Model

As seen above, the main advantage of the Driscoll model is its' easy to use structure, because it is effortless to remember and relativity simple to apply. Experience in using reflective learning may improve personal efficacy. The approach also reflects many other models, providing many of the same steps in an easy to apply approach. For example, the ERA cycle requires a learner to experience, then reflect and finally develop an action plan (Jasper, 2013). These three steps are directly comparable to those of Driscoll. Furthermore, it is also a model that is easier than more widely used frameworks, such as Gibbs (1988), where there are 6 stages, and proficiency using the model requires practice. Driscoll model incorporates most of the stages seen in the Gibbs model, for example, Gibbs (1988) also starts with a description of what happened, and the second stage requires consideration of the feelings. These are both encompassed in the first What? stage of Driscoll's model. The third stage of Gibbs' model; evaluate, requires the learner to determine how the scenario progressed to identify positive and negative aspects, and then analyse why specific outcomes occurred. Again, these two stages in Gibbs (1988) model are only the single So What? stage in Driscoll's model. The final conclusion and action plan stages of Gibbs (1988) are incorporated into the Now What? stage. This shows the simplicity is an advantage.

The simplicity may also be seen as a disadvantage, as the application using the more ambiguous terms may be less detailed when compared to the more prescriptive models such as Gibbs (1988). For example, where evaluation and analysis provided as separate stages increase the level of thought required to assess the causal relationship between the different elements of the experience. Likewise, the development of a specific action plan as a specific stage may solicit more effort or detail to support personal learning.

The disadvantages with the Driscoll model are also the same as seen with many other reflective learning models. The real world where experiences are gained may not always be logical and subject to analysis in such a formulated manner. Indeed, there are circumstances were reflective learning is not appropriate, as the models cannot account for every situation. Even where situations are suitable for the application of reflective learning, the situation may not have started at the 'beginning' of the scenario considered in the analysis (Jasper, 2013). The last disadvantage is the way it needs to be a continual practice, as it is through the cyclic nature of the process that the benefits will be gained, singular practices will only provide minimal benefits (Gibbs, 1988).

Why is Driscoll a Good Reflective Model?

The Driscoll model can be an excellent reflective model. With many tools, it is not the tool itself that is the key to being successful, it is the way the tool is used, as seen within areas such as analysis and diagnostics, it is also true in reflective learning. The main advantage of the Driscoll is the way the tool is easy to apply; the concepts allow the individual to undertake the reflection without the need to refer to the model and guidance notes to complete the process thoroughly, this is illustrated in the model shown in figure 1. If a tool or framework is easy to use, it is more likely the student nurse or the practitioner will use it more frequently, including informal application when simply reviewing an event rather than undertaking a full reflective learning analysis. The Driscoll model may help to build good habits.

How to Write a Reflection Using the Driscoll Model

Using the model requires the learner reflecting to completing the three stages. The initial stage requires the learner to think about the event. The learner should adopt an appropriate attitude, including a willingness to be critical of ones' own performance, as well as open to recognising good performance. The reflection should also take into consideration the role of the learner and their current level of knowledge. For example, if a student nurse is undertaking a reflective learning practice considering how a patient was treated during a medical emergency, they should focus on their own role when considering how they performed, as they would not be in a position to have a major influence on the outcome for the patient.

The writing process may start with the student noting down the three headings and then answering the questions indicated at the beginning of this paper. The notes should allow for spaces in the initial draft, as the learner may remember more issues of factors as they progress. It is only after the second stage is completed that it is possible to consider how you would behave differently if the same event occurred again. The action plan may also be used to identify further learning that may be undertaken to prepare for a similar situation. Importantly, the process should be used continually to maximise the benefits it will provide.

How to Cite the Driscoll Reflective Model

The reflection model is an idea developed by another, so should always be cited to indicate the originator. The citation method should be in line with the citation style that is recommended by the learning establishment, of if non is recommended by the citation style preferred by the student. As a minimum, this should include an in-text citation indicating the author with the full details provided in the reference list provided at the end. For example, in this paper, the model referred to was in Driscoll's (2007) publication, the reference for this being:

Driscoll, J. (2007) Practising Clinical Supervision: A Reflective Approach, London, Bailliere Tindall.

This is despite the fact it had been published previously by Driscoll.

If the model is accessed in a secondary source, then the citation may include the author and the year, and then details which include 'cited in', for example; (Driscoll, 2007, cited Jasper, 2013). Wherever possible, the original source should be located. For further understanding, see the first section of this paper.

Example of the Driscoll Reflective Cycle

The following is a demonstration of the Driscoll model would look like. A full example of a reflective essay using Driscoll's (2007) model of reflection can be found here.

What?

A child was presented by her mother to have a standard scheduled vaccination. The female child, aged 3, was upset and appeared to be scared of the needle and did not want to have the injection. The mother wanted to get it done but was also upset at seeing her child distressed. I was asked by the junior doctor giving the shot to try and distract the child while he prepared and gave her the injection. I did not know what to do. I first tried to talk to the child to distract her, which did not work. The mother said to me 'peekaboo'. I then played peekaboo pretending to hide behind my hands, and the girl was distracted, and the doctor rapidly gave her the injection which she hardly noticed

So What?

I felt a little lost and confused at first. I did not know how to distract the child, and the request to keep her occupied took me by surprise. While I was lost on what to do, the doctor remained calm, and the mother, although upset, knew what to do. I was pleased I listened to the child's mother as it gave me the information I needed, and I could then distract the girl. If I had known this before, I could have distracted the child sooner, reducing the stress for her and her mother. I have learned that it is better to be prepared and able to distract a child if it is needed and that peekaboo can be very useful. I noticed that I was also relieved when the child was successfully distracted and felt happy that I had been able to help.

Now What?

I need to be more prepared to distract children when having treatment, not only injections but any form of treatment where they may be upset. When the child is calmer, it is easier for the parents and the medical professionals to look after them. If I can play my part and be prepared to distract the child, I will be playing an important role. I need to practice keeping a smile and watching for signs that a child may be getting distressed, particularly if their parent is occupied, for example, talking to the doctor. Concurrently, I need to remain aware of the parent and physicians' preferences to ensure I am reacting appropriately. To achieve this, I will be more observant in future situations and will also practice effective communication with small children,

References

Borton, T. (1970) Reach, Touch and Teach, London, Hutchinson.

Boud, D. (1999) Avoiding the traps: Seeking good practice in the use of self-assessment and reflection in professional course, Social Work Education, 18, pp. 121-132.

Driscoll, J. (2007) Practising Clinical Supervision: A Reflective Approach, London, Bailliere Tindall.

Gibbs, G. (1988) Learning by Doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods, Oxford, Oxford Polytechnic.

Harrison, M., Short, C. and Roberts, C. (2003) Reflecting on Reflective Learning: The case of geography, earth and environmental sciences, Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 27(2), pp. 133-152.

Hébert, C. (2015) Knowing and/or experiencing: a critical examination of the reflective models of John Dewey and Donald Schön, Reflective Practice, 16(3), pp. 361-371.

Jasper, M. (2013) Beginning Reflective Practice, Andover. MA, Cengage Learning.

Laverdure, P. (2017) Using Reflection to Advance Professional Expertise, OT Practice, pp. 8-11.

Loo, R. and Thorpe, K. (2002) Using reflective learning journals to improve individual and team performance, Team Performance Management, 8(5/6), pp. 134-139.

Mann, K., Gordon, J. and MacLeod, A. (2009) Reflection and reflective practice in health professions education: a systematic review, Advances in Health Sciences Education, 14, pp. 595-621.

McKinney, A. (2017) The value of life story work for staff, people with dementia and family members, NursingOlder People, 29(5), pp. 25-29.

Moon, J. A. (2004) A Handbook of Reflective and Experiential Learning, Abingdon, Routledge.

Moon, J. A. (2000) Reflection in Learning and Professional Development: Theory and Practice, Abingdon, Routledge.

NMC (2020) Guidance Sheet: Reflective Practice, Nursing and Midwifery Council, [online] Available from: https://www.nmc.org.uk/globalassets/sitedocuments/revalidation/reflective-practice-guidance.pdf.

Perusso, A., Blankesteijn, M. and Leal, R. (2019) The contribution of reflective learning to experiential learning in business education, Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, [online] Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338204133_The_contribution_of_reflective_learning_to_experiential_learning_in_business_education.

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Reflective models provide a framework for students or practitioners to review their own performance with a view to understanding personal reactions and performance levels and the way they can improve (Moon, 2004). There are several models which may be used to guide the process, which requires the willingness to be self-critical.

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A range of models that can be used to prompt and structure reflection on experience.