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Purple Typographic Promo Announcement Poster

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The first source I looked at for the history on French Connection was Wikipedia. I was able to create a page on the history of the brand, when it first opened, where it operates from and the history of the founder Stephen Marks.

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For their brand values, I looked on their wesbite. I went to the small print at the bottom of the page and was able to find all the information that I needed. I found out where all their stores are located, how the control their environmental impacts and their social and markeitng efforts.

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A simple advertising campaign launched French Connection onto the British High Street in the spring of '97 and has since evolved to personify the casual wear offering of the brand. The controversial ad campaign featuring the simple line 'fcuk fashion' hit the headlines and when 'fcuk advertising' followed hot on its heels the attitude of the brand was established. We never fail to keep the brand exciting and original, pushing boundaries and always making a statement.

Frenchconnection.com embodies all the characteristics of the brand. Showcasing the season's latest pieces through unique, high quality photography and video. Always ahead of the curve, French Connection were among the first premium retailers to launch a website and since its launch frenchconnection.com has remained at the forefront of the e-tail experience. Online, on mobile and in store, our customers can access and interact with the brand anytime. A responsively designed website ensures the customers enjoy a seamless experience no matter the device.

Building on the brands British Heritage and international presence, key advertising initiatives promote and support the iconic French Connection brand worldwide. Seasonal campaigns are supported with a mix of traditional print advertising in a selection of style publications including Vogue, i-D and Wonderland, alongside key weekly and monthly fashion titles; Stylist, Elle, GQ, Glamour. In addition to print media, OOH activity supports and extends the campaign reach. Traditional print billboards and digital screens showcase the brand campaigns. This includes high footfall locations including London Underground stations, key commuter visual spaces and retail landmarks.

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A simple advertising campaign launched French Connection onto the British High Street in the spring of '97 and has since evolved to personify the casual wear offering of the brand. The controversial ad campaign featuring the simple line 'fcuk fashion' hit the headlines and when 'fcuk advertising' followed hot on its heels the attitude of the brand was established.

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WGSN- Using their development reports for research on what will be trending in s/s20.

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Using WGSN to research current s/s20 catwalks and what is repeated throughout to implement into my range.

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For some of their marketing, I wanted to research who they had previously collaborated with and found articles on their Anthony Joshua x FCUK range all the way back in 1998.

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Anthony Joshua & French Connection say fcuk fear | TrendLife Magazine

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Back in 1998, French Connection launched their 'FCUK FEAR' campaign with so-to-be heavyweight champion of the World Lennox Lewis. Lewis became the face of the campaign and the slogan still resonates with boxing fans to this day. To celebrate 15 years since the launch, French Connection ...

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Using WGSN Catwalk gallery to research images from the S/S20 Milan catwalks, where you can narrow down the the cities and choose which fashion week looks you want.

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Looking on Nike.com we were able to find their sustainable page, where they listed a lot of the measures they are taking to make their brand eco friendly.

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Nike has pushed the boundaries of sustainable innovation for decades. But what got us here won't get us where we need to go. We're evolving the playbook, transforming science fiction to science fact, at Nike's scale. We're not there yet, but we know where we're going-moving to zero and then beyond. We think of it as "Bloom Over Doom"-tenacious optimism, audacious innovation and collective action so we all, and this beautiful blue ball, thrive.

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We're committed to a better tomorrow for all athletes. Move to Zero is our journey toward zero carbon and waste to help protect the future of sport.

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For the comp shop, the main research I had to complete was the primary research where I had to visit competitive stores myself and take images of the concessions, the store itself and the garments to compare them to French Connections products, comparing prices, fabrics and quality.

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I researched the top trends on 2020 and one of them was organza. I wanted to use this for my trend report as its a versatile fabric that can be used for any garment.

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Organza Is The Breakout Trend We Didn't See Coming - Now It's Everywhere

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Zara's organza blouses went viral and promptly sold out. Luckily, the brand has even more organza pieces, along with the likes of Miu Miu, Maje and Rejina Pyo.

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I also looked at articles on how to style them as this would eventually help me in creating my range for my range plan as I was choosing organza for my main range.

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More often than not, you have to be a bit of a bold dresser to rock any of the latest fashion trends. That's why we were so pleased when we spotted an exception to the rule across the spring/summer 2020 catwalks: sheer layering. The fashion world's obsession with barely-there, transparent fabrics continues and it's no-where near as scary as you might first think. Trust.

Sheer, skin-bearing fabrics first became a thing during the spring/summer shows in 2019 when Roksanda showcased ruched, sheer dresses and Saint Laurent's see-through shirts quickly gained popularity. Valentino got in on the action, too, with monochrome sheer fabrics which we fell head over heels in love for.

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For spring/summer 2020, sheer layering has had an update. Sheer dresses and organza blouses are making it bigger than ever, in part because going sheer is a great way to play with silhouettes and textures. Whether you layer a sheer shirt atop a vest or go all out with a sheer dress, you'll be bang on trend, following in the footsteps of the models at Supriya Lele, House of Holland and Richard Malone.

The only tricky part of the sheer layering trend is knowing what to wear underneath (while still looking like a semi-respectable grown-up), but to be honest, there aren't any hard or fast rules. If you're rocking a sheer blouse on a night out, simply donning your best undies can be enough.

To make your sheer dress work, consider a seamless slip like this one from Selfridges. Or how about wearing your sheer midi over jeans and a cami? It works, we promise, and you'll feel just the right amount of covered up. You could also save the trend for your summer holiday and rock your sheer dress over a bikini. Summer chic, nailed.

Our edit of the chicest, sexiest lingerie that money can buy (just in time for Valentine's Day)

Here are our favourite sheer pieces on the high street right now for you to shop. And make sure you check out our round-up of every other trend worth rocking this season, while you're at it.

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The sheer layering trend is hot right now, so here are 7 pieces to help you nail it

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More often than not, you have to be a bit of a bold dresser to rock any of the latest fashion trends. That's why we were so pleased when we spotted an exception to the rule across the spring/summer 2020 catwalks: sheer layering.

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For my databases part of my comp shop, I used the garments I photographed in the competitive stores and found the reports and analysis on how these pfoducts were selling on similar websites to French Connection such as Reiss and Arket. Both highstreet and some higher end such as All Saints.

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I used more articles to research the max jacket trend I was using in my Trend Report. I looked at the different types of trending maxi jackets for each season.

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One fashion trend I'm planning to embrace this fall is the trend of maxi coats fall 2019! The fashion of going for midi- and maxi lengths have been a popular one the past seasons and has arrived at coats and jackets this seaons. The full-length of the coats will simply keep you warm and extra trendy! Here's a trend alert on the maxi coats! And oh, don't forget to check out some other fall trends in this article.

Courtsey of Oscar de la Renta | Pre-Fall 2019

Maxi Coats Fall 2019

The maxi coats this season are quite timeless as they're mainly done in neutral shades of black, grey, brown and camel. The maxi/midi length might not be the most classical style, but is nevertheless a clever investment as it keeps you extra warm during fall and winter. The maxi/midi length is also a great alternative if you like to keep it more preppy, as the style of the coat often gives a flattering silhouette. The maxi coats are also useful when it comes to layering. You can favorably layer with cardigans and skirts/dresses under! A v-shaped neckline is probably the most timeless look, but a belt around the waist defines the body in a stylish way!

How To Style the Maxi Coats

As mentioned above, I love the idea of layering your outfits with your maxi coat. Go for a midi or maxi dress as the maxi coat will frame the outfit nicely. Also a longer scarf around your neck will give a polished look. If you want a more casual look, I like the idea of layering with a college sweatshirt or a hoodie, to make the coat more informal. A pair of chunky sneakers will also balance the style of the coat and is a trendy look in general. Another trendy style to try, is to do a pair of high boots under the maxi coat. It'll be a fun contrast with the material of the coat. And speaking of materials, don't forget to choose interesting ones such as denim, faux fur, suede and leather to make the outfit more lively!

Street Style Inspiration

And as always, here's some street style inspiration! I love the dove blue color in the first outfit. Dove blue and leopard is an unexpected combination, but such a magic match! Love how the jacket in the second picture frames the outfit nicely. Great idea to go for a matching top and jacket! The third outfit is a trend statement with the high jeans, the turtleneck and the leopard coat. Love the way all three classic pieces are creating a wow-statement! The monochromatic outfit in the fourth picture is another trend statement, this time done monochromatic. The way that the darker maxi jacket is adding a mature touch to the more energetic pea green, is such a stylish detail. The cozy coat with the statement sneakers, in the last picture, should definitely be a go-to look this winter! The sneakers are an unexpected contrast, but a bold fashion move nonetheless!

Folks! What are your thoughts on the maxi coats fall 2019? Let's chat in the comments! Xx

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Trend Alert: Maxi Coats Fall 2019 | The Fashion Folks

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One fashion trend I'm planning to embrace this fall is the trend of maxi coats fall 2019! The fashion of going for midi- and maxi lengths have been a popular one the past seasons and has arrived at coats and jackets this seaons. The full-length of the coats will simply keep you warm and extra trendy!

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As I was later on in the Unit creating a Range plan, I researched on WGSN. Looking at the catwalk gallery for S/S20 as my range was to be for the spring/ summer season. I looked at the S/S20 Jackets and Outerwear report which showed the different jackets in lighter materials for the S/S20 season.

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For the online comp shop, I used Net a Porter as my competitive brand. I used their website as a primary research source, where I could screenshot images of simialr garments and brands to add into my comp shop presentation.

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Shop designer fashion online at NET-A-PORTER.COM. Designer clothes, designer shoes, designer bags and designer accessories from top designer brands: Christian Louboutin, Matthew Williamson, Alexander McQueen, Marc Jacobs and more...

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They also have a page called sustainability news were they update their consumers with new ways they are improving their brand to become more sustainable. From this we were able to decide on development for the brand to help them become more sustainable, looking at what they had and hadnt done already.

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Your source for the latest NIKE, Inc. stories, news and company information.

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For the research of the Mods subculture, I used the John Smedley blog, which had a lot of history on fashion and was a great source of information.

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Throughout the Mod movement the main influencers have been Music and Fashion (closely followed by smart haircuts) - when the two go together a culture is created. Each play an equally important role in what makes a Mod, a Mod. Initially it was Music that fashioned an entrance for the Mods, but as the movement grew and image became more important, especially for bands, it was the Mod look and the subculture itself that paved the way for bands, the prime example being The Jam.

Examples of Artists influenced by the Mod subculture are: The Action, The Who, The Rolling Stones, Rod Stewart, Small Faces, The Kinks, The Beatles, David Bowie, Marc Bolan, The Specials, The Jam/Paul Weller, Oasis, Blur, The Libertines, Amy Winehouse, Miles Kane, Jake Bugg.

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British Mod Culture and Fashion: Discover John Smedley

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Discover how British Mod Culture has been influencing fashion since it's inception, and how it still influences our designs today.

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As we knew that the Mods and Rockers cutlure was around in the 1960s and 70s, we decided to look at the full history of this era to also gather information on what might have influenced this culture, such as music and films.

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Fashion of the 1960s featured a number of diverse trends. It was a decade that broke many fashion traditions, mirroring social movements during the time. Around the middle of the decade, fashions arising from small pockets of young people in a few urban centres received large amounts of media publicity, and began to heavily influence both the haute couture of elite designers and the mass-market manufacturers. Examples include the mini skirt, culottes, go-go boots, and more experimental fashions, less often seen on the street, such as curved bad-shaped PVC dresses and other PVC clothes.

Mary Quant popularised the mini skirt, and Jackie Kennedy introduced the pillbox hat; both became extremely popular. False eyelashes were worn by women throughout the 1960s. Hairstyles were a variety of lengths and styles. Psychedelic prints, neon colors, and mismatched patterns were in style.

In the early-to-mid 1960s, London "Modernists" known as Mods influenced male fashion in Britain. Designers were producing clothing more suitable for young adults, which led to an increase in interest and sales. In the late 1960s, the hippie movement also exerted a strong influence on women's clothing styles, including bell-bottom jeans, tie-dye and batik fabrics, as well as paisley prints.

Women's fashion

American fashions in the early years of the decade reflected the elegance of the First Lady, Jacqueline Kennedy. In addition to tailored skirts, women wore stiletto heel shoes and suits with short boxy jackets, and oversized buttons. Simple, geometric dresses, known as shifts, were also in style. For evening wear, full-skirted evening gowns were worn; these often had a low décolletage and close-fitting waists. For casual wear, capri trousers were the fashion for women and girls.

The bikini, named after the nuclear test site on Bikini Atoll, was invented in France in 1946 but struggled to gain acceptance in the mass-market during the 1950s, especially in America. The breakthrough came in 1963, after rather large versions featured in the surprise hit teen film Beach Party, which launched the Beach party film genre.

The 1960s were an age of fashion innovation for women. The early 1960s gave birth to drainpipe jeans and capri pants, which were worn by Audrey Hepburn. Casual dress became more unisex and often consisted of plaid button down shirts worn with slim blue jeans, comfortable slacks, or skirts. Traditionally, trousers had been viewed by western society as masculine, but by the early 1960s, it had become acceptable for women to wear them everyday. These included Levi Strauss jeans, which had previously been considered blue collar wear, and "stretch" drainpipe jeans with elastane. Women's trousers came in a variety of styles: narrow, wide, below the knee, above the ankle, and eventually mid thigh. Mid-thigh cut trousers, also known as shorts, evolved around 1969. By adapting men's style and wearing trousers, women voiced their equality to men.

Space age fashion first appeared in the late 1950s, and developed further in the 1960s. It was heavily influenced by the Space Race of the Cold War, in addition to popular science fiction paperbacks, films and television series such as , , or Lost In Space. Designers often emphasized the energy and technology advancements of the Cold War era in their work.

The space age look was defined by boxy shapes, thigh length hemlines and bold accessories. Synthetic material was also popular with space age fashion designers. After the Second World War, fabrics like nylon, corfam, orlon, terylene, lurex and spandex were promoted as cheap, easy to dry, and wrinkle-free. The synthetic fabrics of the 1960s allowed space age fashion designers to design garments with bold shapes and a plastic texture. Non-cloth material, such as polyester and PVC, became popular in clothing and accessories as well. For daytime outerwear, short plastic raincoats, colourful swing coats and dyed fake-furs were popular for young women. In 1966, the Nehru jacket arrived on the fashion scene, and was worn by both sexes. Suits were very diverse in color but were, for the first time ever, fitted and very slim. Waistlines for women were left unmarked and hemlines were getting shorter and shorter.

Footwear for women included low-heeled sandals and kitten-heeled pumps, as well as the trendy white go-go boots. Shoes, boots, and handbags were often made of patent leather or vinyl. The Beatles wore elastic-sided boots similar to Winkle-pickers with pointed toes and Cuban heels. These were known as "Beatle boots" and were widely copied by young men in Britain.

The French designer André Courrèges was particularly influential in the development of space age fashion. The "space look" he introduced in the spring of 1964 included trouser suits, goggles, box-shaped dresses with high skirts, and go-go boots. Go-go boots eventually became a staple of go-go girl fashion in the sixties. The boots were defined by their fluorescent colors, shiny material, and sequins.

Other influential space age designers include Pierre Cardin and Paco Rabanne. Italian-born Pierre Cardin was best known for his helmets, short tunics, and goggles. Paco Rabanne was known for his 1966 "12 Unwearable Dresses in Contemporary Materials" collection, which made use of chain mail, aluminum, and plastic.

Although designer Mary Quant is credited with introducing the miniskirt in 1964, André Courrèges also claimed credit for inventing the miniskirt. The miniskirt changed fashion forever.

The definition of a miniskirt is a skirt with a hemline that is generally between 6 and 7 inches above the knees. Early references to the miniskirt from the Wyoming newspaper The Billings Gazette, described the miniskirt as a controversial item that was produced in Mexico City. During the 1950s, the miniskirt began appearing in science fiction films like Flight to Mars and Forbidden Planet

Mary Quant and Andre Courreges both contributed to the invention of the miniskirt during the 1960s. Mary Quant, A British designer, was one of the pioneers of the miniskirt during 1960. She named the skirt after her favorite car, the Mini Cooper. Quant introduced her design in the mid-60s at her London boutique, Bazaar. She has said: " We wanted to increase the availability of fun for everyone. We felt that expensive things were almost immoral and the New Look was totally irrelevant to us." Miniskirts became popular in London and Paris and the term "Chelsea Look" was coined.

Andre Courreges was a French fashion designer who also began experimenting with hemlines in the early 1960s. He started to show space-age dresses that hit above the knee in late 1964. His designs were more structured and sophisticated than Quant's design. This made the miniskirt more acceptable to the French public. His clothes represented a couture version of the " Youthquake" street style and heralded the arrival of the "moon girl" look.

As teen culture became stronger, the term " Youthquake" came to mean the power of young people. This was unprecedented before the 1960s. Before World War II, teenagers dressed and acted like their parents. Many settled down and began raising families when they were young, normally right after high school. They were often expected to work and assist their families financially. Therefore, youth culture begins to develop only after World War II, when the advancement of many technologies and stricter child labor laws became mainstream. Teenagers during this period had more time to enjoy their youth, and the freedom to create their own culture separate from their parents. Teens soon began establishing their own identities and communities, with their own views and ideas, breaking away from the traditions of their parents. The fabulous "little girl" look was introduced to USA-styling with Bobbie Brooks, bows, patterned knee socks and mini skirts. The miniskirt and the "little girl" look that accompanied it reflect a revolutionary shift in the way people dress. Instead of younger generations dressing like adults, they became inspired by childlike dress.

Second-wave feminism made the miniskirt popular. Women had entered the professional workforce in larger numbers during World War II and many women soon found they craved a career and life outside the home. They wanted the same choices, freedoms, and opportunities that were offered to men.

During the mid 60s, Mod girls wore very very short miniskirts, tall, brightly colored go-go boots, monochromatic geometric print patterns such as houndstooth, and tight fitted, sleeveless tunics. Flared trousers and bell bottoms appeared in 1964 as an alternative to capri pants, and led the way to the hippie period introduced in the 1960s. Bell bottoms were usually worn with chiffon blouses, polo-necked ribbed sweaters or tops that bared the midriff. These were made in a variety of materials including heavy denims, silks, and even elasticated fabrics. Variations of polyester were worn along with acrylics. A popular look for females was the suede mini-skirt worn with a French polo-neck top, square-toed boots, and Newsboy cap or beret. This style was also popular in the early 2000s.

Women were inspired by the top models of the day which included Twiggy, Jean Shrimpton, Colleen Corby, Penelope Tree, and Veruschka. Velvet mini dresses with lace-collars and matching cuffs, wide tent dresses and culottes pushed aside the geometric shift. False eyelashes were in vogue, as was pale lipstick. Hemlines kept rising, and by 1968 they had reached well above mid-thigh. These were known as "micro-minis". This was when the "angel dress" first made its appearance on the fashion scene. A micro-mini dress with a flared skirt and long, wide trumpet sleeves, it was usually worn with patterned tights, and was often made of crocheted lace, velvet, chiffon or sometimes cotton with a psychedelic print. The cowled-neck "monk dress" was another religion-inspired alternative; the cowl could be pulled up to be worn over the head. For evening wear, skimpy chiffon baby-doll dresses with spaghetti-straps were popular, as well as the "cocktail dress", which was a close-fitting sheath, usually covered in lace with matching long sleeves. Feather boas were occasionally worn. Famous celebrities associated with marketing the miniskirt included: Twiggy; model Jean Shrimpton, who attended an event in the Melbourne Cup Carnival in Australia wearing a miniskirt in 1965; Goldie Hawn, who appeared on Rowan and Martin's Laugh-In with her mini skirt in 1967; and Jackie Kennedy, who wore a short white pleated Valentino dress when she married Aristotle Onassis in 1968.

Writer, Helen Gurley Brown, wrote Sex and the Single Girl in 1962. This book acted as a guide for women of any marital status to take control of their own lives financially as well as emotionally. This book was revolutionary since it encouraged sex before marriage; something that was historically looked down upon. With the high success of this book, a pathway was set for media to also encourage this behavior. Betty Friedan also wrote The Feminine Mystique the following year, giving insight into the suburban female experience, further igniting women's push for a more independent lifestyle. The second-wave of feminism was getting its start during this period: pushing for a new feminine ideal to be capitalized on.

Fashion photography in the 1960s represented a new feminine ideal for women and young girls: the Single Girl. 1960s photography was in sharp contrast to the models of the 1920s, who were carefully posed for the camera and portrayed as immobile. The Single Girl represented 'movement'. She was young, single, active, and economically self-sufficient. To represent this new Single Girl feminine ideal, many 1960s photographers photographed models outside-often having them walk or run in fashion shoots. Models in the 1960s also promoted sports wear, which reflected the modern fascination with speed and the quickening pace of the 1960s urban life. Although the Single Girl was economically, socially and emotionally self-sufficient, the ideal body form was difficult for many to achieve. Therefore, women were constrained by diet restrictions that seemed to contradict the image of the empowered 1960s Single Girl. Fashion photographers also photographed the Single Girl wearing business wear, calling her the Working Girl. The Working Girl motif represented another shift for the modern, fashionable woman. Unlike earlier periods, characterized by formal evening gowns and the European look, the 1960s Working Girl popularized day wear and "working clothing". New ready to wear lines replaced individualized formal couture fashion. The Working Girl created an image of a new, independent woman who has control over her body.

There was a new emphasis on ready-to-wear and personal style. As the 1960s was an era of exponential innovation, there was appreciation for something new rather than that of quality. Spending a lot of money on an expensive, designer wardrobe was no longer the ideal and women from various statuses would be found shopping in the same stores.

The Single Girl was the true depiction of the societal and commercial obsession with the adolescent look. Particular to the mid-sixties, icons such as Twiggy popularized the shapeless shift dresses emphasizing an image of innocence as they did not fit to any contours of the human body. The female body has forever been a sign of culturally constructed ideals. The long-limbed and pre-pubescent style of the time depicts how women were able to be more independent, yet paradoxically, also were put into a box of conceived ideals.

The "Dolly Girl" was another archetype for young females in the 1960s. She emerged in the mid-sixties, and her defining characteristic is the iconic miniskirt. "Dolly Girls" also sported long hair, slightly teased, of course, and childish-looking clothing. Clothes were worn tight fitting, sometimes even purchased from a children's section. Dresses were often embellished with lace, ribbons, and other frills; the look was topped off with light colored tights. Crocheted clothing also took off within this specific style.

Corsets, seamed tights, and skirts covering the knees were no longer fashionable. The idea of buying urbanized clothing that could be worn with separate pieces was intriguing to women of this era. In the past, one would only buy specific outfits for certain occasions.

Starting in 1967, youth culture began to change musically and Mod culture shifted to a more laid back hippie or Bohemian style. Hosiery manufacturers of the time like Mary Quant (who founded Pamela Mann Legwear) combined the "Flower Power" style of dress and the Pop Art school of design to create fashion tights that would appeal to a female audience that enjoyed psychedelia. Ponchos, moccasins, love beads, peace signs, medallion necklaces, chain belts, polka dot-printed fabrics, and long, puffed "bubble" sleeves were popular fashions in the late 1960s. Both men and women wore frayed bell-bottomed jeans, tie-dyed shirts, work shirts, Jesus sandals, and headbands. Women would often go barefoot and some went braless. The idea of multiculturalism also became very popular; a lot of style inspiration was drawn from traditional clothing in Nepal, India, Bali, Morocco and African countries. Because inspiration was being drawn from all over the world, there was increasing separation of style; clothing pieces often had similar elements and created similar silhouettes, but there was no real "uniform".

Fringed buck-skin vests, flowing caftans, the "lounging" or "hostess" pajamas were also popular. "Hostess" pajamas consisted of a tunic top over floor-length culottes, usually made of polyester or chiffon. Long maxi coats, often belted and lined in sheepskin, appeared at the close of the decade. Animal prints were popular for women in the autumn and winter of 1969. Women's shirts often had transparent sleeves. Psychedelic prints, hemp and the look of " Woodstock" emerged during this era.

In general, urban Indian men imitated Western fashions such as the business suit. This was adapted to India's hot tropical climate as the Nehru suit, a garment often made from khadi that typically had a mandarin collar and patch pockets. From the early 1950s until the mid 60s, most Indian women maintained traditional dress such as the gagra choli, sari, and churidar. At the same time as the hippies of the late 60s were imitating Indian fashions, however, some fashion conscious Indian and Ceylonese women began to incorporate modernist Western trends. One particularly infamous fad combined the miniskirt with the traditional sari, prompting a moral panic where conservatives denounced the so-called "hipster sari" as indecent.

During the late 60s, there was a backlash by radical feminists in America against accouterments of what they perceived to be enforced femininity within the fashion industry. Instead, these activists wore androgynous and masculine clothing such as jeans, work boots or berets. Black feminists often wore afros in reaction to the hair straighteners associated with middle class white women. At the 1968 feminist Miss America protest, protestors symbolically threw a number of feminine fashion-related products into a "Freedom Trash Can," including false eyelashes, high-heeled shoes, curlers, hairspray, makeup, girdles, corsets, and bras which they termed "instruments of female torture".

Men's fashion

During the early 1960s, slim fitting single breasted continental style suits and skinny ties were fashionable in the UK and America. These suits, as worn by Sean Connery as James Bond, the Rat Pack's Frank Sinatra, and the cast of , were often made from grey flannel, mohair or sharkskin. Tuxedos were cut in a similar form fitting style, with shawl collars and a single button, and were available either in the traditional black, or in bright colors such as red or sky blue popularized by Frankie Valli of The Four Seasons. Men's hats, including the pork pie hat and Irish hat, had narrower brims than the homburgs and fedoras worn in the 1950s and earlier. During the mid 1960s, hats began to decline after presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson appeared in public without one.

Ivy League fashion, the precursor to the modern preppy look, was desirable casual wear for middle class adults in America during the early to mid 60s. Typical outfits included polo shirts, harrington jackets, khaki chino pants, striped T-shirts, Argyle socks, seersucker or houndstooth sportcoats, sweater vests, cardigan sweaters, Nantucket Reds, basketweave loafers, Madras plaid shirts, and narrow brimmed Trilbys sometimes made from straw. The style remained fashionable for men over 21 until it was supplanted by more casual everyday clothing influenced by the hippie counterculture during the late 1960s and early 1970s.

In America and Australia, surf rock went mainstream from 1962-66, resulting in many teenage baby boomers imitating the outfits of groups like The Beach Boys. Pendleton jackets were common due to their cheapness, warmth and durability. Design wise the surf jacket suited popularly with nonchalance, warmth for coastal Californian climate, and utility pockets for surf wax and VW car keys, two surf essentials (Pendleton Woolen Mills).

The Pendleton Surf Jacket expanded upon Fifties pop cultural fashions, however new in its relaxed, intangibly cool vibe. The surf jacket split from the tough guy rock 'n' roll teen, and mellowing leather's rock attitudes to woolen plaids. Following Rock n Roll's decline where rebels without causes, " Greasers" and "Beats"; dressed down in inappropriate daywear to denounce conformity, Sixties youth, inventors of Surf Fashion, expressed more nomadic and hedonically in this "dress down" style. Surf styles mainstreamed into fashion when Soul Surfers wanted to make livings in surfing associated careers. They opened businesses that expanded selling surf products into selling surf clothing. These surfer entrepreneurs proliferate surf fashion by mixing their lifestyles into casual wear. As Rock n Roll Beats, and Greaser car clubs used jackets to identify, and as 1950 varsity sports wore lettered cardigans, 1960s Surfies wore surf jackets to identify with surf clubs and as surfers (Retro 1960s Swimwear). Jackets worn as group status identifiers continued in the Sixties, but with focus around beach music and lifestyle.

As surfers banded over localism, plaid and striped surf jackets gained relevancy. Teens wore them to proclaim surf clubs; what beach they were from, and where they surfed. For a surfer though, it is curious why a woolen plaid jacket paired with UGG boots, and not the board-short or aloha shirt identified the surfer. The Pendleton , originally worn by loggers, hunters and fishermen, was a common item of casual wear for American men of all classes before the British invasion. For the youth of the 60s, however, the plaid Pendleton signified counterculture, and tribal seamen style translated from Welsh folklore, rebellious Scots Highlanders, and rugged American frontiersmen (Bowe).

The Sixties invented the Californian Cool style, by relaxing style to escape Cold War meltdowns with Polynesian fascinations, bridging the macho 1950s teen towards 1960s Hippie style. The Cold War's tense political context conceived Surf Fashion as a way to relax and escape established violence. California, the birthplace of American Surfing, also produced much of the technology experimentations used in the nuclear space race. Caltech designers in Pasadena were designing nuclear arms for day jobs, and were surfing at night. The modern surfboard design itself originates from the military industrial complex's product development, where the Manhattan Project's Hugh Bradner also designed the modern neoprene wetsuit (Inside the Curl).

Californian engineers for the Cold War were also surfing and equally engineering that fashion. Just as the Bikini's name comes from a nuclear test site, Surf fashion in this era consistently references the Cold War context. Surfing became an attractive fashion identity in this era because it perpetuates adolescence, and the pursuit of pleasure in times of anxiety and paranoia. In a teenage driven culture, which aimed to ignore establishment conflicts, surfers mused Hawaii and its associated tiki culture as a place of escape with tropical paradises as the antithesis to modern society. This sustained Hawaiian flora and fauna patterns' in fashion its attraction. The Sixties Surfer was not the first to escape violence or revolutionize the pursuit of happiness through Polynesian fascination. Accounts of Thomas Jefferson theorize that his exposure to the surfer image in South Pacific travel journals influenced his imagined Pursuit of Happiness (Martin D. Henry). Similarly, Hawaii's surfer image and Californian translation responds to the decade's violence and further inspired full on nonviolent revolutionary Hippie fashions.

Additionally, as Californian water inspired lifestyles influenced fashion, many guys improvised their own faded jeans using chlorine from backyard swimming pools. Sneakers such as Converse All Stars made the transition from sportswear to streetwear, and guys in California and Hawaii began to grow out their hair.

The leaders of mid-1960s style were the British. The Mods (short for Modernists) adopted new fads that would be imitated by many young people. Mods formed their own way of life creating television shows and magazines that focused directly on the lifestyles of Mods. British rock bands such as The Who, The Small Faces, the Beatles, and The Kinks emerged from the Mod subculture. It was not until 1964, when the Modernists were truly recognized by the public, that women really were accepted in the group. Women had short, clean haircuts and often dressed in similar styles to the male Mods.

The Mods' lifestyle and musical tastes were the exact opposite of their rival group, known as the Rockers. The rockers liked 1950s rock-and roll, wore black leather jackets, greased, pompadour hairstyles, and rode motorbikes. The look of the Mods was classy. They mimicked the clothing and hairstyles of high fashion designers in France and Italy, opting for tailored suits that were topped by anoraks. They rode on scooters, usually Vespas or Lambrettas. Mod fashion was often described as the City Gent look. The young men incorporated striped boating blazers and bold prints into their wardrobe. Shirts were slim, with a necessary button down collar accompanied by slim fitted pants. Levi's were the only type of jeans worn by Modernists.

In the USSR during the mid to late 1960s, Mods and Hippies were nicknamed Hairies for their mop top hair. As with the earlier Stilyagi in the 1950s, young Russian men who dressed this way were ridiculed in the media, and sometimes forced to get their hair cut in police stations.

The late 60s to early 70s witnessed the emergence of the hippie counterculture and freak scene in Britain, Australia, New Zealand and America. Middle class youths of both sexes favored a unisex look with long hair, tie dye and flower power motifs, Bob Dylan caps, kurtas, hemp waistcoats, baja jackets, bell bottoms, sheepskin vests, western shirts and ponchos inspired by acid Westerns, sandals, digger hats, and patches featuring flowers or peace symbols. Jimi Hendrix popularized the wearing of old military dress uniforms as a statement that war was obsolete. Early hippies, derisively referred to as freaks by the older generation, also used elements of roleplay such as headbands, cloaks, frock coats, kaftans, corduroy pants, cowboy boots, and vintage clothing from charity shops, suggesting a romantic historical era, a distant region, or a gathering of characters from a fantasy or science fiction novel.

By 1968, the space age mod fashions had been gradually replaced by Edwardian influenced style, with men wearing double-breasted suits of crushed velvet or striped patterns, brocade waistcoats and shirts with frilled collars. Their hair worn below the collar bone. Rolling Stones guitarist Brian Jones epitomised this "dandified" look. Due to the colorful nature of menswear, the time period was described as the Peacock Revolution, and male trendsetters in Britain and America were called " Dandies," " Dudes," or "Peacocks." From the late 60s until the mid 70s Carnaby Street and Chelsea's Kings Road were virtual fashion parades, as mainstream menswear took on psychedelic influences. Business suits were replaced by Bohemian Carnaby Street creations that included corduroy, velvet or brocade double breasted suits, frilly shirts, cravats, wide ties and trouser straps, leather boots, and even collarless Nehru jackets. The slim neckties of the early 60s were replaced with Kipper ties exceeding five inches in width, and featuring crazy prints, stripes and patterns.

Women's hair styles ranged from beehive hairdos in the early part of the decade to the very short styles popularized by Twiggy and Mia Farrow just five years later to a very long straight style as popularized by the hippies in the late 1960s. Between these extremes, the chin-length contour cut and the pageboy were also popular. The pillbox hat was fashionable, due almost entirely to the influence of Jacqueline Kennedy, who was a style-setter throughout the decade. Her bouffant hairstyle, described as a "grown-up exaggeration of little girls' hair", was created by Kenneth.

During the mid and late 60s, women's hair styles became very big and used a large quantity of hair spray, as parodied in the musical Hairspray. The most important change in hairstyles at this time was that men and women wore androgynous styles that resembled each other. In the UK, it was the new fashion for mod women to cut their hair short and close to their heads. Meanwhile, hippie girls favored long, straight natural hair, kept in place with a bandana.

For professional men born before 1940, the side parted short back and sides was the norm in the UK, Europe and America from the early 60s until the end of the decade. Black men usually buzzed their hair short or wore styles like the conk, artificially straightened with chemicals. Blue collar white men, especially former military personnel, often wore buzzcuts and flat tops during the summer. During the early to mid 60s, rebellious Irish-American, Italian-American and Hispanic teens influenced by the greaser subculture often wore ducktails, pompadours and quiffs.

Due to the influence of mod bands like the Beatles or the Rolling Stones, mop-top hairstyles were most popular for white and Hispanic men during the mid 60s. The mod haircut began as a short version around 1963 through 1964, developed into a longer style worn during 1965-66, and eventually evolved into an unkempt hippie version worn during the 1967-69 period and into the early 1970s. Facial hair, evolving in its extremity from simply having longer sideburns, to mustaches and goatees, to full-grown beards became popular with young men from 1966 onwards.

Head coverings changed dramatically towards the end of the decade as men's hats went out of style, replaced by the bandanna, digger hat, Stetson, or Bob Dylan cap if anything at all. As men let their hair grow long, the Afro became the hairstyle of choice for African Americans. This afro was not just a fashion statement but also an emblem of racial pride. They started to believe that by allowing their hair to grow in its nature state without chemical treatments, they would be accepting their racial identities.

A selection of images representing the fashion trends of the 1960s:

Fashion model from Leipzig, GDR wearing a wool suit trimmed with fur and a matching fur hat, 1966.

In the late 1960s, brides often wore white mini wedding dresses.

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Fashion of the 1960s featured a number of diverse trends. It was a decade that broke many fashion traditions, mirroring social movements during the time. Around the middle of the decade, fashions arising from small pockets of young people in a few urban centres received large amounts of media publicity, and began to heavily influence both the haute couture of elite designers and the mass-market manufacturers.

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We didn't just research the fashion of the Mod cutlure, we also looked at the popular destinations for the mod culture followers. Central London was a huge destination for the Mods, especially Carnaby Street, nowadays this is still reflected in Carnaby Street by the way it is decorated and the types of stores.

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Carnaby Street became famous throughout the world after the 15 April 1966 publication of Time magazine's cover and article that celebrated the street's role:

Perhaps nothing illustrates the new swinging London better than narrow, three-block-long Carnaby Street, which is crammed with a cluster of the 'gear' boutiques where the girls and boys buy each other clothing...

Carnaby Street gets its name from Karnaby House, which was built in 1683 to the east of the road. No one knows where the name originally came from. The street was probably laid out in 1685 or 1686 and within three or four years was completely built up with small houses. They were not built to any high standard and were all replaced in the 1720s (numbers 22, 23 and 40 survive from this time). At the same time as the rebuilds a market started in the 1820s. Benjamin Disraeli, the British Prime Minister, referred in his novel, Sybil (1845), to "a carcase-butcher famous in Carnaby-market".

By the middle of the 19th century Carnaby Street was given over to trades of various kinds including tailors working for the gentlemen's outfitters in nearby Savile Row.

In the 1950s some of these tailors began to produce clothes for direct sale and smartly dressed Mods came to Carnaby Street for relatively cheap, stylish suits. From that time the street has always catered for men's fashion and clothes. Off-the-peg fashion retailers joined the tailors and seemingly overnight Carnaby Street and its immediate environs became famous for the trendy boutiques and their 'dedicated followers of fashion' who were their customers.

In October 1973, the Greater London Council tried to revitalise the street and pedestrianised the street and covered it with an odd rubberised surface.

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Once the 'Swingingest Street in the World': Pictures of Carnaby Street 1924-1975 - Flashbak

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Carnaby Street became famous throughout the world after the 15 April 1966 publication of Time magazine's cover and article that celebrated the street's role: Perhaps nothing illustrates the new swinging London better than narrow, three-block-long Carnaby Street, which is crammed with a cluster of the 'gear' boutiques where the girls and boys buy each other ...

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As I chose to research the history of the roll-neck, the first place I decided would be best to get information on it would be Wikipedia. I used Wikipedia to research the history of the roll-neck, when it was first introduced in fashion and who were the main influencers and celebrities who made the roll-neck popular.

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A polo neck, roll-neck ( UK), turtleneck ( US, Canada), or skivvy ( Australia, New Zealand, US) is a garment-usually a sweater-with a close-fitting, round, and high part similar to a collar that folds over and covers the neck. It can also refer to the type of neckline, the style of collar itself, or be used as an adjective ("polo necked").

A simpler variant of the standard polo neck is the mock polo neck (or mock turtleneck), that resembles the polo neck with the soft fold at its top and the way it stands up around the neck, but both ends of the tube forming the collar are sewn to the neckline. This is mainly used to achieve the appearance of a polo neck where the fabric would fray, roll, or otherwise behave badly unless sewn. The mock polo neck clings to the neck smoothly, is easy to manufacture, and works well with a zip closure.

Polo neck-like garments have been worn for hundreds of years, dating at least to the 15th century. They were originally designed to protect the necks of knights wearing chainmail. Royalty adopted high-neck fashion, with the height and volume of the neck ruffly indicating status.

From the late 19th century on, polo necks were commonly worn by menial workers, athletes, sailors and naval officers. Since the middle of the 20th century black polo necks have been closely associated with radical academics, philosophers, artists and intellectuals. Also in the early 20th century, the polo neck shirt became a fashionable option for women with the rise of the Gibson Girl. The polo neck jumper became an iconic symbol of the French philosopher Michel Foucault. Polo necks also became a big fashion for young wealthy men after they were worn by European film stars Marcello Mastroianni and Yves Montand.

Greta Garbo often wore polo necks and trousers privately, as later Audrey Hepburn would do in official photographs.

Vladimir Putin of Russia and Andreas Papandreou of Greece are two examples of European leaders fond of wearing polo necks.

United States

Their adoption by Noël Coward in the 1920s turned polo necks into a brief middle-class fashion trend, and feminists made them into a unisex item. Absorbed into mainstream American fashion by the mid 20th century, the polo neck came to be viewed as an anti- tie, a smart form of dress for those who rejected formal wear. Senator Ted Kennedy, pianist/conductor Vladimir Ashkenazy, conductor Seiji Ozawa, philosopher Michel Foucault, shipping tycoon Stavros Niarchos, singer Barry Manilow, scientist Carl Sagan, Oracle Corporation co-founder Larry Ellison, Theranos founder Elizabeth Holmes, and Apple Inc. co-founder Steve Jobs were among those often seen in polo necks.

Over time it became a fad among teenage girls, especially in a lightweight form that emphasised their figures. It was not long before Hollywood was also exploiting this image as part of the sweater girl look.

By the late 1950s the "tight turtleneck" had been adopted as part of the preppy style among students, a style emphasising neatness, tidiness and grooming. This would become an important aspect of the polo neck's image in the United States. The look would filter through to Britain and the rest of Europe in a watered-down version.

Very elegant polo necks of silk or nylon knit, especially made with French cuffs for formal dress affairs, have also seen success in American fashion. They have become iconic fashion choices for Steve Jobs and Elizabeth Holmes.

Polo necks have historically (and controversially) acted as substitutes of the traditional and dominant shirt-and- tie look. Some of the fiercest conflicts regarding the polo neck's use took place in upscale restaurants and in weddings, where polo necks have been used in violation of the shirt and tie.

the turtleneck was the boldest of all the affronts to the status quo. It was the picture of masculine poise and arrogance, redolent of athletes, sportsmen, even U-boat commanders. The simplicity of its design made neckties seem fussy and superfluous by comparison

turtlenecks are the most comfortable garment you can wear. They move with the body, and they're flattering too, because they accentuate the face and elongate the figure. They make life so easy: you can wear a turtleneck to work and then afterwards throw on a jacket, and it becomes very dressy. You can go anywhere you like.

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A polo neck, roll-neck ( UK), turtleneck ( US, Canada), or skivvy ( Australia, New Zealand, US) is a garment-usually a sweater-with a close-fitting, round, and high part similar to a collar that folds over and covers the neck. It can also refer to the type of neckline, the style of collar itself, or be used as an adjective ("polo necked").

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One of the biggest infuencers of the roll-neck was The Beatles. This blog I found had lots of information on the how the roll-neck shaped fashion and influenced fashion enthusiasts during the 1950s and 60s.

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When doing my research for the timeline assigment, I learnt a lot about how the roll-neck was represented and how people would see it as something only creatives would wear.

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For the 30s presentation, we used Wikipedia to research facts and information about this era. It had lots on politics and war, fashion films and music.

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The 1930s (pronounced "nineteen-thirties", commonly abbreviated as the " Thirties") was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1, 1930, and ended on December 31, 1939.

The decade was defined by a global economic and political crisis that culminated in the Second World War. It saw the international financial system collapse, beginning with the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the largest stock market crash in American history, and an economic downfall called the Great Depression that had a traumatic effect worldwide, leading to widespread unemployment and poverty, especially in the United States, an economic superpower, and Germany, who had to deal with the reparations regarding World War I. The Dust Bowl (which gives the nickname the Dirty Thirties) in the United States further emphasised the scarcity of wealth. Herbert Hoover worsened the situation with his failed attempt to balance the budget by taxes. Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected, as a response, in 1933, and introduced the New Deal. The founding of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) and the funding of numerous projects (e.g. the Hoover Dam) helped restore prosperity in the US.

The decade also saw the rapid retreat of Liberal democracy, as authoritarian regimes emerged in countries across Europe and South America, in particular the Third Reich in Germany. Germany elected Adolf Hitler, who imposed the Nuremberg Laws, a series of laws which discriminated against Jews and other ethnic minorities. Weaker states such as Ethiopia, China, and Poland were invaded by expansionist world powers, the last of these attacks leading to the outbreak of World War II on September 1, 1939, despite calls from the League of Nations for worldwide peace. World War II helped end the Great Depression when governments spent money for the war effort. The 1930s also saw a proliferation of new technologies, especially in the fields of intercontinental aviation, radio, and film.

Hitler pulls Germany out of the League of Nations, but hosts the 1936 Summer Olympics to show his new Reich to the world as well as the supposed superior athleticism of his Aryan troops/athletes.

Neville Chamberlain, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1937-1940), attempts the appeasement of Hitler in hope of avoiding war by allowing the dictator to annex the Sudetenland (the German-speaking regions of Czechoslovakia), later signing the Munich Agreement and promising constituents "Peace for our time". He was ousted in favor of Winston Churchill in May 1940, after the Invasion of Norway.

The assassination of the German diplomat Ernst vom Rath by a German-born Polish Jew triggers the Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass) which occurred between 9 and 10 November 1938, carried out by the Hitler Youth, the Gestapo, and the SS, during which much of the Jewish population living in Nazi Germany and Austria was attacked - 91 Jews were murdered, and between 25,000 and 30,000 more were arrested and sent to Nazi concentration camps. Some 267 synagogues were destroyed, and thousands of homes and businesses were ransacked. Kristallnacht also served as the pretext for the wholesale confiscation of firearms from German Jews.

Germany and Italy pursue territorial expansionist agendas. Germany demands the annexation of the Federal State of Austria and of other German-speaking territories in Europe. Between 1935 and 1936, Germany recovers the Saar and re-militarizes the Rhineland. Italy initially opposes Germany's aims for Austria, but in 1936 the two countries resolve their differences in the aftermath of Italy's diplomatic isolation following the start of the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, Germany becoming Italy's only remaining ally. Germany and Italy improve relations by forming an alliance against communism in 1936 with the signing of the Anti-Comintern Pact. Germany annexes Austria in the event known as the Anschluss. The annexation of the Sudetenland followed negotiations which resulted in the Munich Agreement of 1938. The Italian invasion of Albania in 1939 succeeds in turning the Kingdom of Albania into an Italian protectorate. The vacant Albanian throne was claimed by Victor Emmanuel III of Italy. Germany receives the Memel territory from Lithuania, occupies what remains of Czechoslovakia, and finally invades the Second Polish Republic, the last of these events resulting in the outbreak of World War II.

In 1939, several countries of the Americas, including Canada, Cuba, and the United States, controversially deny asylum to hundreds of German Jewish refugees on board the MS St. Louis who are fleeing the Nazi regime's racist agenda of anti-Semitic persecution in Germany. In the end, no country accepts the refugees, and the ship returns to Germany with most of its passengers on board. Some commit suicide, rather than return to Nazi Germany.

In 1930, Miguel Primo de Rivera, Prime Minister of Spain and head of a military dictatorship is forced to resign in response to a financial crisis (part of the Great Depression). Alfonso XIII of Spain, who had previously backed the dictatorship, attempts to return gradually to the previous system and restore his prestige. This failed utterly, as the King was considered a supporter of the dictatorship, and more and more political forces called for the establishment of a republic. In 1931, republican and socialist parties won a major victory in the local elections, while the monarchists were in decline. Street riots ensued, calling for the removal of the monarchy. The Spanish Army declared that they would not defend the King. Alfonso flees the country, effectively abdicating and ending the Bourbon Restoration phase which had started in the 1870s. A Second Spanish Republic emerges.

In the Soviet Union, agricultural collectivization and rapid industrialization take place. Millions died during the Holodomor.

More than 25 million people migrate to cities in the Soviet Union.

Anglo-German Naval Agreement is signed in 1935, removing the Treaty of Versailles' level of limitation on the size of the Kriegsmarine (navy). The agreement allows Germany to build a larger naval force.

The 1937 World's Fair in Paris, France displays the growing political tensions in Europe. The pavilions of the rival countries of Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union face each other. Germany at the time was internationally condemned for Luftwaffe (its air force) having performed a bombing of the Basque town of Guernica in Spain during the Spanish Civil War. Spanish artist Pablo Picasso depicted the bombing in his masterpiece painting at the World Fair, which was a surrealist depiction of the horror of the bombing.

Hertzog of South Africa, whose National Party had won the 1929 election alone, after splitting with the Labour Party, received much of the blame for the devastating economic impact of the depression.

Major international media attention follows Mohandas Gandhi's peaceful resistance movement against the British colonial rule in India.

Mao Zedong's Chinese communists begin a large retreat from advancing nationalist forces, called the Long March, beginning in October 1934 and ending in October 1936 and resulting in the collapse of the Chinese Soviet Republic.

Colonial India's Muslim League leader Muhammed Ali Jinnah delivers his "Day of Deliverance" speech on December 2, 1939, calling upon Muslims to begin to engage in civil disobedience against the British colonial government starting on December 12. Jinnah demands redress and resolution to tensions and violence occurring between Muslims and Hindus in India. Jinnah's actions are not supported by the largely Hindu-dominated Indian National Congress whom he had previously closely allied with. The decision is seen as part of an agenda by Jinnah to support the eventual creation of an independent Muslim state called Pakistan from British Empire.

The German dirigible airship Hindenburg explodes in the sky above Lakehurst, New Jersey, United States on May 6, 1937. 36 people are killed. The event leads to an investigation of the explosion and the disaster causes major public distrust of the use of hydrogen-inflated airships and seriously damages the reputation of the Zeppelin company.

The New London School in New London, Texas, is destroyed by an explosion, killing in excess of 300 students and teachers (1937).

The Dust Bowl, or Dirty Thirties: a period of severe dust storms causing major ecological and agricultural damage to American and Canadian prairie lands from 1930 to 1936 (in some areas until 1940). Caused by extreme drought, coupled with decades of extensive farming without crop rotation, fallow fields, cover crops, or other techniques to prevent erosion, and heavy winds, it affected an estimated 100,000,000 acres (400,000 km²) of land (traveling as far east as New York and the Atlantic Ocean), caused mass migration (which was the inspiration for the Pulitzer Prize-winning The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck), food shortages, multiple deaths and illness from sand inhalation (see History in Motion), and a severe reduction in the going wage rate.

The 1938 Yellow River flood pours out from Huayuankou, China in 1938, inundating 54,000 km² (21,000 sq mi) of land, and takes an estimated 500,000 lives.

Prominent assassinations, targeted killings, and assassination attempts include:

The entire decade is marked by widespread unemployment and poverty, although deflation (i.e. falling prices) was limited to 1930-32 and 1938-39. Prices fell 7.02% in 1930, 10.06% in 1931, 9.79% in 1932, 1.41% in 1938 and 0.71% in 1939.

In an effort to reduce unemployment, the United States government created work projects such as the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) which was a public work relief program that operated from 1933 to 1942 to maintain National Parks and build roads. Other major U.S. government work projects included Hoover Dam which was constructed between 1931 and 1936.

Rapid industrialization takes place in the Soviet Union.

Drought conditions in Oklahoma and Texas caused the Dust Bowl which forced tens of thousands of families to abandon their farms and seek employment elsewhere.

Many technological advances occurred in the 1930s, including:

Nestlé releases the first white chocolate candy as the Milkybar.;

Air mail service across the Atlantic Ocean began;

Radar was invented, known as RDF (Radio Direction Finding), such as in British Patent GB593017 by Robert Watson-Watt in 1938;

In 1933, the 3M company marketed Scotch Tape;

In 1931, RCA Victor introduced the first long-playing phonograph record.

In 1935, Kodachrome is invented, being the first color film made by Eastman Kodak.

In 1935, Howard Hughes, flying the H-1, set the landplane airspeed record of 352 mph (566 km/h).

In 1937, flying the same H-1 Racer fitted with longer wings, ambitious Hughes set a new transcontinental airspeed record by flying non-stop from Los Angeles to Newark in 7 hours, 28 minutes, and 25 seconds (beating his own previous record of 9 hours, 27 minutes). His average ground speed over the flight was 322 mph (518 km/h).

First intercontinental commercial airline flights.

The chocolate chip cookie was developed in 1938 by Ruth Graves Wakefield.

The Frying Pan was the first electric lap steel guitar ever produced.

Edwin Armstrong invented wide-band frequency modulation radio in 1933.

The Bass guitar was invented by Paul Tutmarc of Seattle, Washington, in 1936.

Clyde Tombaugh identifies Pluto, which goes on to be announced as the ninth planet in the solar system.

Height of the Art Deco movement in North America and Western Europe.

Notable poetry include W. H. Auden's .

Notable literature includes F. Scott Fitzgerald's Tender Is the Night (1934), T. H. White's The Sword in the Stone (1938), J. R. R. Tolkien's (1937), Aldous Huxley's Brave New World (1932), John Steinbeck's Grapes of Wrath (1939) and Of Mice and Men (1937), Ernest Hemingway's To Have and Have Not (1937), John Dos Passos's U.S.A trilogy, William Faulkner's As I Lay Dying (1930) and Absalom, Absalom! (1936), John O'Hara's Appointment in Samarra (1934) and Butterfield 8 (1935).

Notable "hardboiled" crime fiction includes Raymond Chandler's The Big Sleep, Dashiell Hammett's The Maltese Falcon, James M. Cain's The Postman Always Rings Twice (1934).

Notable plays include Thornton Wilder's (1938).

Near the end of the decade, two of the world's most iconic superheroes and recognizable fictional characters were introduced in comic books; Superman first appeared in 1938, and Batman in 1939.

The pulp fiction magazines began to feature distinctive, gritty adventure heroes that combined elements of hard boiled detective fiction and the fantastic adventures of the earlier pulp novels. Two particularly noteworthy characters introduced were Doc Savage and The Shadow, who would later influence the creation of characters such as Superman and Batman.

Popular comic strips which began in the 1930s include Captain Easy by Roy Crane, Alley Oop by V. T. Hamlin, Prince Valiant by Hal Foster, and Flash Gordon by Alex Raymond.

David Alfaro Siqueiros paints the controversial mural América Tropical (full name: América Tropical: Oprimida y Destrozada por los Imperialismos, or Tropical America: Oppressed and Destroyed by Imperialism) (1932) at Olvera Street in Los Angeles.

In the art of film making, the Golden Age of Hollywood entered a whole decade, after the advent of talking pictures (" talkies") in 1927 and full-color films in 1930: more than 50 classic films were made in the 1930s: most notable wereGone With The Wind and The Wizard of Oz.

The soundtrack and photographic technology prompted many films to be made or re-made, such as the 1934 version of , using lush art deco sets which won an Academy Award (see films 1930-1939 in: Academy Award for Best Cinematography);

Universal Pictures begins producing its distinctive series of horror films, which came to be known as the Universal Monsters, featuring what would become iconic representations of literary and mythological monsters, the horror films (or monster movies) included many cult classics, such as , Frankenstein, , Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, , The Hunchback of Notre Dame, and other films about wax museums, vampires and zombies, leading to the 1941 film The Wolf Man These films led to the stardom of stars such as Bela Lugosi, Lon Chaney Jr, and Boris Karloff.

In 1930, Howard Hughes produces Hell's Angels (film), the first movie blockbuster to be produced outside of a professional studio, independently, as well as becoming the most expensive movie made, at that time, costing roughly 4 million dollars, and taking four years to make. Hell's Angels was an epic masterpiece, valued, and relative to the people at those specific times, of harsh war.

Radio becomes dominant mass media in industrial nations, serving as a way for citizens to listen to music and get news- providing rapid reporting on current events.

October 30, 1938 - Orson Welles' radio adaptation of The War of the Worlds is broadcast, causing panic in various parts of the United States.

"Swing" music starts becoming popular (from 1935 onward). It gradually replaces the sweet form of Jazz that had been popular for the first half of the decade.

Charlie Christian becomes the first electric guitarist to be in a multiracial band with Benny Goodman and Lionel Hampton in 1939.

The most characteristic North American fashion trend from the 1930s to 1945 was attention at the shoulder, with butterfly sleeves and banjo sleeves, and exaggerated shoulder pads for both men and women by the 1940s. The period also saw the first widespread use of man-made fibers, especially rayon for dresses and viscose for linings and lingerie, and synthetic nylon stockings. The zipper became widely used. These essentially U.S. developments were echoed, in varying degrees, in Britain and Europe. Suntans (called at the time "sunburns") became fashionable in the early 1930s, along with travel to the resorts along the Mediterranean, in the Bahamas, and on the east coast of Florida where one can acquire a tan, leading to new categories of clothes: white dinner jackets for men and beach pajamas, halter tops, and bare midriffs for women.

Fashion trendsetters in the period included The Prince of Wales (King Edward VIII from January 1936 until his abdication that December) and his companion Wallis Simpson (the Duke and Duchess of Windsor from their marriage in June 1937), socialites like Nicolas de Gunzburg, Daisy Fellowes and Mona von Bismarck and such Hollywood movie stars as Fred Astaire, Carole Lombard and Joan Crawford.

Social Realism became an important art movement during the Great Depression in the United States in the 1930s. Social realism generally portrayed imagery with socio-political meaning. Other related American artistic movements of the 1930s were American scene painting and Regionalism which were generally depictions of rural America, and historical images drawn from American history. Precisionism with its depictions of industrial America was also a popular art movement during the 1930s in the USA. During the Great Depression the art of photography played an important role in the Social Realist movement. The work of Dorothea Lange, Walker Evans, Margaret Bourke-White, Lewis Hine, Edward Steichen, Gordon Parks, Arthur Rothstein, Marion Post Wolcott, Doris Ulmann, Berenice Abbott, Aaron Siskind, Russell Lee, Ben Shahn (as a photographer) among several others were particularly influential.

The Works Progress Administration part of the Roosevelt Administration's New Deal sponsored the Federal Art Project, the Public Works of Art Project, and the Section of Painting and Sculpture which employed many American artists and helped them to make a living during the Great Depression.

Mexican muralism was a Mexican art movement that took place primarily in the 1930s. The movement stands out historically because of its political undertones, the majority of which of a Marxist nature, or related to a social and political situation of post-revolutionary Mexico. Also in Latin America Symbolism and Magic Realism were important movements.

In Europe during the 1930s and the Great Depression, Surrealism, late Cubism, the Bauhaus, De Stijl, Dada, German Expressionism, Symbolist and modernist painting in various guises characterized the art scene in Paris and elsewhere.

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Actors / Entertainers

Prominent criminals of the Great Depression:

The following articles contain brief timelines which list the most prominent events of the decade:

Brendon, Piers. The Dark Valley: A Panorama of the 1930s (2000) global political history; 816pp excerpt

Gardiner, Juliet, The Thirties: An Intimate History. London, Harper Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-00-724076-0 on Britain

Garraty, John A. The Great Depression: An Inquiry into the Causes, Course, and Consequences of the Worldwide Depression of the Nineteen-Thirties, As Seen by Contemporaries (1986).

Grenville, J.A.S. A History of the World in the Twentieth Century (Harvard UP, 1994) pp 160-251.

Grossman, Mark. Encyclopedia of the Interwar Years: From 1919 to 1939 (2000). 400pp. worldwide coverage

Lewis, Thomas Tandy, ed. The Thirties in America. 3 volumes. Pasadena: Salem Press, 2011.

Watt D.C. et al., A History of the World in the Twentieth Century (1968) pp 423-463.

The Dirty Thirties - Images of the Great Depression in Canada

America in the 1930s Extensive library of projects on America in the Great Depression from American Studies at the University of Virginia

The 1930s Timeline year by year timeline of events in science and technology, politics and society, culture and international events with embedded audio and video. AS@UVA

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The 1930s (pronounced "nineteen-thirties", commonly abbreviated as the " Thirties") was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1, 1930, and ended on December 31, 1939. The decade was defined by a global economic and political crisis that culminated in the Second World War.

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Again, we used Wikipedia to research the main information on the 1940s. We found out the fashion, films, political and social facts about this era.

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Above title bar: events during World War II (1939-1945): From left to right: Troops in an LCVP landing craft approaching Omaha Beach on D-Day; Adolf Hitler visits Paris, soon after the Battle of France; The Holocaust occurs as Nazi Germany carries out a programme of systematic state-sponsored genocide, during which approximately six million European Jews are killed; The Japanese attack on the American naval base of Pearl Harbor launches the United States into the war; An Observer Corps spotter scans the skies of London during the Battle of Britain and The Blitz; The creation of the Manhattan Project leads to the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the first uses of nuclear weapons, which kill over a quarter million people and lead to the Japanese surrender; Japanese Foreign Minister Mamoru Shigemitsu signs the Instrument of Surrender on behalf of the Japanese Government, on board USS Missouri, effectively ending the war.
Below title bar: events after World War II: From left to right: The Declaration of the State of Israel in 1948; The Nuremberg trials are held after the war, in which the prominent members of the political, military, and economic leadership of the defeated Nazi Germany are prosecuted; After the war, the United States carries out the Marshall Plan, which aims at rebuilding Western Europe; ENIAC, the world's first general-purpose electronic computer.

The 1940s (pronounced "nineteen-forties" and commonly abbreviated as " the '40s" or " the Forties") was a decade that began on January 1, 1940, and ended on December 31, 1949.

Most of World War II took place in the first half of the decade, which had a profound effect on most countries and people in Europe, Asia, and elsewhere. The consequences of the war lingered well into the second half of the decade, with a war-weary Europe divided between the jostling spheres of influence of the Western world and the Soviet Union, leading to the beginning of the Cold War. To some degree internal and external tensions in the post-war era were managed by new institutions, including the United Nations, the welfare state, and the Bretton Woods system, facilitating the post-World War II economic expansion, which lasted well into the 1970s. The conditions of the post-war world encouraged decolonization and the emergence of new states and governments, with India, Pakistan, Israel, Vietnam, and others declaring independence, although rarely without bloodshed. The decade also witnessed the early beginnings of new technologies (such as computers, nuclear power, and jet propulsion), often first developed in tandem with the war effort, and later adapted and improved upon in the post-war era.

The world population increased from about 2.25 to 2.5 billion over the course of the decade, with about 850 million births and 600 million deaths in total.

Flag map of the world from 1942, during World War II

World War II

In Green: German Reich at its peak (1942):

World War II (1939-1945)

Nazi Germany invades Poland, Denmark, Norway, Benelux, and the French Third Republic from 1939 to 1941.

Soviet Union invades Poland, Finland, occupies Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania and Romanian region of Bessarabia from 1939 to 1941.

Germany faces the United Kingdom in the Battle of Britain (1940). It was the first major campaign to be fought entirely by air forces, and was the largest and most sustained aerial bombing campaign up until that date.

Germany attacks the Soviet Union (June 22, 1941).

Continuation War (Second Soviet-Finnish War), was a conflict fought by Finland and Nazi Germany against the Soviet Union from 25 June 1941 - 19 September 1944.

The United States enters World War II after the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. It would face the Empire of Japan in the Pacific War.

Germany, Italy, and Japan suffer defeats at Stalingrad, El Alamein, and Midway in 1942 and 1943.

Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in 1943 was the largest Jewish uprising in Nazi-occupied Poland.

Warsaw Uprising against Nazis in 1944 in Poland was the single largest military effort taken by any European resistance movement during World War II.The United States Army Air Forces send support for Poles on September 18, 1944, when flight of 110 B-17s of the 3 division Eighth Air Force airdropped supply for soldiers.

Normandy landings. The forces of the Western Allies land on the beaches of Normandy in Northern France (June 6, 1944).

Yalta Conference, wartime meeting from February 4, 1945, to February 11, 1945, among the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union-President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Premier Joseph Stalin, respectively-for the purpose of discussing Europe's postwar reorganization, intended to discuss the re-establishment of the nations of war-torn Europe.

The Holocaust, also known as The Shoah (Hebrew: השואה , Latinized ha'shoah; Yiddish: חורבן , Latinized churben or hurban [1]) is the term generally used to describe the genocide of approximately six million European Jews during World War II, a program of systematic state-sponsored extermination by Nazi Germany, under Adolf Hitler, its allies, and collaborators.[2] Some scholars maintain that the definition of the Holocaust should also include the Nazis' systematic murder of millions of people in other groups, including ethnic Poles, the Romani, Soviet civilians, Soviet prisoners of war, people with disabilities, gay men, and political and religious opponents.[3] By this definition, the total number of Holocaust victims is between 11 million and 17 million people.[4]

The German Instrument of Surrender signed (May 7-8, 1945). Victory in Europe Day.

Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (August 6 and August 9, 1945); Surrender of Japan on August 15.

World War II officially ends on September 2, 1945.

Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts

Arab-Israeli conflict (Early 20th century-present)
1948 Arab-Israeli War (1948-1949) - The war was fought between the newly declared State of Israel and its Arab neighbours. The war commenced upon the termination of the British Mandate of Palestine in mid-May 1948. After the Arab rejection of the 1947 United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine (UN General Assembly Resolution 181) that would have created an Arab state and a Jewish state side by side, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria attacked the state of Israel. In its conclusion, Israel managed to defeat the Arab armies.

Indonesian War of Independence (1945-1949)

First Indochina War (1946-1954)

Establishment of the United Nations Charter (June 26, 1945) effective (October 24, 1945).

Establishment of the defence alliance NATO April 4, 1949.

David Ben-Gurion proclaiming Israeli independence from the United Kingdom on May 14, 1948.

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it.

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it.

The Bretton Woods Conference was the gathering of 730 delegates from all 44 Allied nations at the Mount Washington Hotel, situated in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, United States, to regulate the international monetary and financial order after the conclusion of World War II. The conference was held from July 1-22, 1944. It established the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and created the Bretton Woods system.

Prominent assassinations, targeted killings, and assassination attempts include:

Mahatma Gandhi

December 24, 1942 - François Darlan, French Admiral and political figure, is assassinated by Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle in Algiers, French Algeria.

April 18, 1943 - In a targeted killing, Japanese admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, who oversaw the operation against Pearl Harbor, is killed when the bomber transporting him is shot down by P-38 fighters over Bougainville.

July 20, 1944 - Adolf Hitler, German fascist dictator is attacked with a bomb by anti-Nazi Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg and others of the German resistance in the 20th July plot. Hitler survives with minor wounds and the suspects are either arrested or executed.

January 30, 1948 - Mahatma Gandhi, Indian activist and leader of the Indian independence movement is assassinated by Nathuram Godse using a pistol.

Orson Welles as Charles Foster Kane in Citizen Kane (1941)

Humphrey Bogart and Ingrid Bergman as Rick Blaine and Ilsa Lund in the trailer for Casablanca (1942)

Oscar winners: Rebecca (1940), How Green Was My Valley (1941), Mrs. Miniver (1942), Casablanca (1943), Going My Way (1944), The Lost Weekend (1945), The Best Years of Our Lives (1946), Gentleman's Agreement (1947), Hamlet (1948), All the King's Men (1949).

Some of Hollywood's most notable blockbuster films of the 1940s include: The Maltese Falcon directed by John Huston (1941), It's a Wonderful Life directed by Frank Capra (1946), Double Indemnity directed by Billy Wilder (1944), Meet Me in St. Louis directed by Vincente Minnelli (1944), Casablanca directed by Michael Curtiz (1942), Citizen Kane directed by Orson Welles (1941), The Great Dictator directed by Charlie Chaplin (1940), The Big Sleep directed by Howard Hawks (1946), The Lady Eve directed by Preston Sturges (1941), The Shop Around the Corner directed by Ernst Lubitsch (1940), White Heat directed by Raoul Walsh (1949), Yankee Doodle Dandy directed by Michael Curtiz (1942), and Notorious directed by Alfred Hitchcock, (1946). The Walt Disney Studios released the animated feature films Pinocchio (1940), Dumbo (1941), Fantasia (1940), and Bambi (1942).

Although the 1940s was a decade dominated by World War II, important and noteworthy films about a wide variety of subjects were made during that era. Hollywood was instrumental in producing dozens of classic films during the 1940s, several of which were about the war and some are on most lists of all-time great films. European cinema survived although obviously curtailed during wartime and yet many films of high quality were made in the United Kingdom, France, Italy, the Soviet Union and elsewhere in Europe. The cinema of Japan also survived. Akira Kurosawa and other directors managed to produce significant films during the 1940s.

Polish filmmakers in Great Britain created anti-nazi color film Calling Mr. Smith (1943) about current nazi crimes in occupied Europe during the war and about lies of nazi propaganda.

Film Noir, a film style that incorporated crime dramas with dark images, became largely prevalent during the decade. Films such as The Maltese Falcon and The Big Sleep are considered classics and helped launch the careers of legendary actors such as Humphrey Bogart and Ava Gardner. The genre has been widely copied since its initial inception.

In France during the war the tour de force Children of Paradise directed by Marcel Carné (1945), was shot in Nazi occupied Paris. Memorable films from post-war England include David Lean's Great Expectations ( 1946) and Oliver Twist ( 1948), Carol Reed's ( 1947) and The Third Man ( 1949), and Powell and Pressburger's A Matter of Life and Death ( 1946), Black Narcissus ( 1946) and The Red Shoes ( 1948), Laurence Olivier's , the first non-American film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture and Kind Hearts and Coronets ( 1949) directed by Robert Hamer. Italian neorealism of the 1940s produced poignant movies made in post-war Italy. Roma, città aperta directed by Roberto Rossellini (1945), directed by Vittorio De Sica (1946), directed by Roberto Rossellini (1946), La terra trema directed by Luchino Visconti (1948), The Bicycle Thief directed by Vittorio De Sica (1948), and Bitter Rice directed by Giuseppe De Santis (1949), are some well-known examples.

In Japanese cinema, The 47 Ronin is a 1941 black and white two-part Japanese film directed by Kenji Mizoguchi. The Men Who Tread on the Tiger's Tail (1945), and the post-war Drunken Angel (1948), and (1949), directed by Akira Kurosawa are considered important early works leading to his first masterpieces of the 1950s. Drunken Angel (1948), marked the beginning of the successful collaboration between Kurosawa and actor Toshiro Mifune that lasted until 1965.

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it.

Bing Crosby was the best selling pop artist of the 1940s. Crosby was the leading figure of the crooner sound as well as its most iconic, defining artist. By the 1940s, he was an entertainment superstar who mastered all of the major media formats of the day, movies, radio, and recorded music.

The most popular music style during the 1940s was swing, which prevailed during World War II. In the later periods of the 1940s, less swing was prominent and crooners like Frank Sinatra, along with genres such as bebop and the earliest traces of rock and roll, were the prevalent genre.

Katharine Hepburn c. 1941, who popularized trousers for women

Because fashion items and fabrics were rationed due to World War II, fashion became more utilitarian. Women's fashion started including suits, which were feminized with straight knee-length skirts and accessories. There were challenges imposed by shortages in rayon, nylon, wool, leather, rubber, metal (for snaps, buckles, and embellishments), and even the amount of fabric that could be used in any one garment.[citation needed ] After the fall of France in 1940, Hollywood drove fashion in the United States almost entirely, with the exception of a few trends coming from wartorn London in 1944 and 1945, as America's own rationing hit full force. The idea of function seemed to overtake fashion, if only for a few short months until the end of the war. Fabrics shifted dramatically as rationing and wartime shortages controlled import items such as silk and furs.[citation needed ] Floral prints dominated the early 1940s, with the mid-to-late 1940s also seeing what is sometimes referred to as "atomic prints" or geometric patterns and shapes. In response to the war effort, patriotic nautical themes and dark greens and khakis dominating the color palettes, as trousers and wedges slowly replaced the dresses and more traditional heels due to shortages in stockings and gasoline. The most common characteristics of this fashion were the straight skirt, pleats, front fullness, squared shoulders with v-necks or high necks, slim sleeves and the most favorited necklines were sailor, mandarin and scalloped.

Actors / Entertainers

During the 1940s, sporting events were disrupted and changed by the events that engaged and shaped the entire world. The 1940 and 1944 Olympic Games were cancelled because of World War II. During World War II in the United States Heavyweight Boxing Champion Joe Louis and numerous stars and performers from American baseball and other sports served in the armed forces until the end of the war. Among the many baseball players (including well known stars) who served during World War II were Moe Berg, Joe DiMaggio, Bob Feller, Hank Greenberg, Stan Musial (in 1945), Warren Spahn, and Ted Williams. They like many others sacrificed their personal and valuable career time for the benefit and well-being of the rest of society. The Summer Olympics were resumed in 1948 in London and the Winter games were held that year in St. Moritz, Switzerland.

In 1947, Wataru Misaka of the New York Knicks became the first person of color to play in modern professional basketball, just months after Jackie Robinson had broken the color barrier in Major League Baseball for the Brooklyn Dodgers.

During the early 1940s World War II had an enormous impact on Major League Baseball as many players including many of the most successful stars joined the war effort. After the war many players returned to their teams, while the major event of the second half of the 1940s was the 1945 signing of Jackie Robinson to a players contract by Branch Rickey the general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers. Signing Robinson opened the door to the integration of Major League Baseball finally putting an end to the professional discrimination that had characterized the sport since the 19th century.

During the mid-1930s and throughout the years leading up to the 1940s Joe Louis was an enormously popular Heavyweight boxer. In 1936, he lost an important 12 round fight (his first loss) to the German boxer Max Schmeling and he vowed to meet Schmeling once again in the ring. Louis' comeback bout against Schmeling became an international symbol of the struggle between the US and democracy against Nazism and Fascism. When on June 22, 1938, Louis knocked Schmeling out in the first few seconds of the first round during their rematch at Yankee Stadium, his sensational comeback victory riveted the entire nation. Louis enlisted in the U.S. Army on January 10, 1942, in response to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Louis' cultural impact was felt well outside the ring. He is widely regarded as the first African American to achieve the status of a nationwide hero within the United States, and was also a focal point of anti-Nazi sentiment leading up to and during World War II.

Track and Field

The following articles contain brief timelines listing the most prominent events of the decade.

Buchanan, Andrew. "Globalizing the Second World War," Past and Present no. 258 (February 2023): 246-281. online; also see online review

Lewis, Thomas Tandy, ed. The Forties in America. 3 volumes. Pasadena: Salem Press, 2011.

Lingeman, Richard. The Noir Forties: The American People from Victory to Cold War (New York: Nation Books, 2012. xii, 420 pp.)

Yust, Walter, ed., 10 Eventful Years (4 vol., Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc, 1947), encyclopedia of world events 1937-46

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The 1940s (pronounced "nineteen-forties" and commonly abbreviated as " the '40s" or " the Forties") was a decade that began on January 1, 1940, and ended on December 31, 1949. Most of World War II took place in the first half of the decade, which had a profound effect on most countries and people in Europe, Asia, and elsewhere.

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Updating my Linkedin account so I am more visible to other professionals in the industry. I added an updated CV, work experience and school qualifications.

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We looked at the difference between faux leather and real leather. We didn't just look at the difference in price, but the difference in sustainability, quality and longevity.

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Faux leather (also referred to as "leatherette" or "vegan" leather) is often considered as a lower cost alternative to genuine leather. Genuine leather is in high demand and for good reasons. Real leather has an inviting feel, it provides exceptional durability, and quality leather improves with age. In a previous blog, we discussed two types of faux leather: bi-cast and bonded leather. Here, we continue the comparison with two additional types of faux leather: PU faux leather fabric and PVC faux leather fabric.

PU Faux Leather Fabric

PU leather fabric is made by applying or laminating a 100% polyurethane finish to a base material. Typical base materials include polyester, cotton, nylon, or rayon. A roller applies an artificial grain pattern to the surface to imitate the look of genuine leather. The artificial grain is typically very uniform.

PVC Faux Leather Fabric

PVC leather fabric is very similar to PU leather fabric. Instead of polyurethane, PVC leather fabric is made by combining polyvinylchloride with stabilizers (to protect), plasticizers (to soften) and lubricants (to make flexible), and then applying to a base material. Again, the base materials are typically polyester, cotton, nylon, or rayon.

Genuine Leather

Genuine leather is made from organic materials, typically bovine hides. The natural collagen fibers are intricately intertwined, providing superior durability over man-made, weaved products. There are numerous variations of leather with different types of finishes. Some finishes provide better protection against daily wear, however, all leather is inherently stronger due to the innate composition of the hides.

Buyer Beware

Although the low price of faux leather may be enticing, it is important to consider the long-term value of your purchase. While many faux leathers are attractive because they are easy to clean with harsh chemicals, the laminated surface often cracks after only a few years of use. Genuine leather, on the other hand, has been known to last for 10 to 20 years or longer.

Learn More

Garrett Leather offers an hour-long IDCEC accredited course titled "A Comparison Between Genuine Leather and Faux Leathers". Upon completion, designers may earn .1 CEU credit. Contact us for more information or to schedule a presentation.

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How Do Faux Leather Fabrics Compare to Real Leather?

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Faux leather (also referred to as "leatherette" or "vegan" leather) is often considered as a lower cost alternative to genuine leather. Genuine leather is in high demand and for good reasons. Real leather has an inviting feel, it provides exceptional durability, and quality leather improves with age.

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We looked at the wash and care instructions for your outerwear to keep it in good condition when it is stored away for the warmer months.

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Spring is officially here. But before you start scheduling outdoor picnics to celebrate that extra hour of sunlight, you may want to add one more item to your spring cleaning list.

The task in question?

Washing, organizing, and storing your winter coats. Because you don't want a pile of sweat-stained, smoky, rain-splattered jackets and puffer vests cluttering your closet when you need to make room for shorts and open-toed shoes.

But before you set aside your winter outerwear for the next few seasons (with a MakeSpace pickup, perhaps?), read on to learn how to properly clean and store your winter coats to keep them in tip-top shape.

How to Wash Your Winter Coats

1. Check the care tag for instructions

This is the first rule of thumb when washing anything. The care tag will usually have all the information you need, like whether or not your coat is machine-washable, which wash cycle and water temperature it needs, special instructions about specific detergents, and how to properly dry it.

Needless to say, you should interpret these instructions as rules, not suggestions. Your coat will thank you.

2. Pre-treat stains

If you haven't washed your winter coat all season, it probably has a few stains from food, dirty snow, puddle splashes, or just serious armpit sweating.

Pre-treat these stains with a stain remover or a squirt of Dawn dish soap. Apply the treatment to the stain, then let it soak for 10 minutes before tossing it in the washing machine or scrubbing it with a wet cloth.

3. Fasten all buttons and zippers

The metal teeth on zippers can damage other clothes in the washing machine. To minimize the potential of snags and tears, it's best to zip, fasten, and button everything on your coat before washing it.

This also helps your coat retain its shape as it tumbles around in the machine.

4. Wash similar materials together

When certain opposite materials rub together, it can cause pilling, fading, or degradation to your clothes.

To keep your coats in prime condition, always wash them separately or with clothes of similar materials. Keep wool with wool, nylon with nylon, fleece with fleece, and so on.

Want more smart cleaning tips? Learn how to clean your bedding in five easy steps and how to wash and store your mattress properly.

Down Jackets, Parkas, and Puffer Coats

As a general rule, nylon and puffy, down-filled jackets, coats, and vests can all go in the washing machine. Wash them on a gentle cycle with cold water and regular detergent.

You can dry your puffer coats in the dryer, too. Besides being way more efficient than air-drying, the dryer is actually better for your these types of garments since it helps evenly re-distribute the down material. Just keep it on a low or gentle cycle.

To help fluff up your coats, add a couple wool dryer balls to your load. Dryer balls are an easy, eco-friendly alternative to fabric softeners and dryer sheets - they soften and fluff your clothes, reduce wrinkling, and speed up the drying process.

If you're in a pinch, clean tennis balls are also great fluffing tools.

Free Bonus: Check out these five insanely easy (and ridiculously effective) cleaning hacks

Wool Coats

Regular detergents, hot water, and normal washing machine cycles can all cause the fibers in wool to break down or shrink. That's why it's crucial to be extra gentle with your fancy wool coat.

You can either hand-wash it in a tub with cold water and baby shampoo, or put it in the washing machine on a delicate cycle. If you do this, make sure you use cold water and a detergent specifically designed for dealing with wool products.

To dry it, lay your coat flat and use your hands to gently reshape the shoulders and arms as it dries.

Fleece Jackets

Fleece jackets are a year-round staple, but they do double-duty in the winter as comfy indoor loungewear and outdoorsy, sweat-proof outerwear. To freshen up your fleece jackets, turn them inside out, throw them in the washer, and set your machine's settings to "cold" and "gentle."

Your fleece will get linty and pilled - and may even become less water-resistant - if you wash it with materials like cotton, so be sure to keep it separate from your other clothes.

Hang it up to air-dry.

Leather Jackets, Suede, and Fur

Don't even attempt to wash your fur coats, leather jackets, or suede trenches at home. Take them to your local dry cleaners for a thorough, high-quality cleaning.

4 Easy Tips For Storing Your Winter Coats

1. Use wooden hangers

Coats made of natural materials like leather, suede, wool, and down need a little room to breathe. Hang them on sturdy wooden hangers so they can retain their shape and stay wrinkle-free.

If you want to go the extra mile, cover your coats in fabric garment bags to protect them from dust and mildew.

Pro Tip: Before you hang your coats, you may want to get organized. Here's how to easily organize everything in your closet (for cheap).

2. Stack coats in plastic storage boxes

To save hanging space, store your fleece and nylon coats in plastic boxes. Gently fold and stack your coats so they don't get misshapen.

If you have a pile of puffer vests and jackets made from polyfill (as opposed to down feathers), you can use vacuum-sealed plastic bags to squish them down to half their size and save double the closet space.

Free Bonus: While you're at it, learn how to easily store your other winter accessories like hats, gloves, scarves, and boots

3. Store coats somewhere dry, cool, and dark

To avoid moisture build-up, mold, and damage from sunlight, store your coats someplace clean, cool, dry, and dark. Aim for a spot that hovers around 65 degrees Fahrenheit.

If your closet or entryway space is maxed out, slide your storage box below your bed or place it on the top shelf of your linen closet.

Want more clever tips for storing your winter necessities? We've got you covered: learn how to store your skis off-season, how to store your snowboards and snowboarding gear, and how to store your shoes, boots, and sneakers.

4. Store your coats with MakeSpace

If your apartment is short on space, use MakeSpace to safely store your winter jackets and coats.

Simply schedule a pickup and pack your stuff. We'll grab everything from your home and transport it to our secure, temperature-controlled storage facility.

And when you need something back, just browse your convenient online photo catalog of your stuff, click the item's photo, and we'll deliver it back to you.

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Spring is officially here. But before you start scheduling outdoor picnics to celebrate that extra hour of sunlight, you may want to add one more item to your spring cleaning list. The task in question? Washing, organizing, and storing your winter coats.

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We researched the ethical side of outerwear and how many jackets and coats are made of real animal fur and down feather such as Canada Goose outerwear and Moncler outerwear.

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This year's El Niño-inspired warm winter is probably a source of frustration for anyone who shelled out hundreds of dollars on a down coat last year, and was looking forward to showing it off again. Last year, Canadian jacket-maker Canada Goose became so popular that the company experienced a problem with counterfeiting, and the company says it's on course for US sales to grow 50% in 2016. You can be sure that when the temperature finally drops (and it's starting to), the ubiquitous Canada Goose logo will probably regain its place on every other sleeve in America.

Other brands, such as North Face and Patagonia, are also finding plenty of takers for their down coats, despite the often eye-watering prices confronting shoppers. But animal welfare groups warn that consumers should be careful over their purchases due to increasing awareness of the suffering that can go into the production of warm jackets with down, the soft fluffy feathers that lie next to the skin of geese and ducks.

Five years ago, it was revealed that birds were plucked of their feathers while alive in Hungary, with the down ending up in Patagonia's jackets. The company subsequently undertook an investigation and found that geese in its supply chain had also been force-fed so their ballooning livers could be used as foie gras. Other businesses suddenly realised they also had a problem.

Some have now put policies in place to ensure their down is ethically sourced - North Face's responsible down standard, for instance, has been shared with other industry players including H&M.

But concern lingers that cruelty is still occurring, with the added dimension of China becoming a leading supplier - the country now produces 80% of the world's down. A recent investigation by Peta found that of 66 Chinese suppliers contacted by phone or email, nearly half still sold live-plucked down wholesale.

"Birds would be pinned down while they are literally ripped apart for their feathers before being sewn back together with no painkillers," said Anne Brainard, Peta's corporate affairs manager. "There's just no way a consumer can tell whether down has come from a live-plucked bird or a goose force-fed for foie gras. The reality is it's impossible to conduct audits across the whole global supply chain with the thoroughness to ensure that birds aren't having their feathers yanked out while alive or tubes shoved down their throats."

There's just no way a consumer can tell whether down has come from a live-plucked bird

Anne Brainard, Peta

But the retail brands insist they are on top of the problem. Wendy Savage, who oversees animal welfare at Patagonia, said the company was "shocked" at what was going on in its supply chain and has strived to avoid a repeat.

"There were no standards around live-plucking and force-feeding so we thought we needed to create our own," Savage said. "We listened to what animal welfare groups were saying. Even though they were attacking us they had uncovered some things."

Patagonia ditched its wayward supplier and set up a new system where its own staff and external auditor NSF International - which is looking to sign up other retailers for its nascent oversight service - would monitor the supply chain from the egg to the slaughter. This traceable down standard was applied to a lightweight jacket in 2013 before expanding to Patagonia's entire range last year.

Daniel Uretsky, president of down supplier Allied, said eliminating cruelty has become a major focus for the industry. Uretsky's company is the largest supplier in North America and provides insulation for North Face, Patagonia, Helly Hansen and others.

Allied's down comes from China, where an office oversees the supply chain, as well as eastern Europe. Uretsky said he is confident no live-plucked or force-fed animals end up providing down for Allied's clients.

"Typically that material would be higher quality, quite expensive, it's not something suppliers will just give to you unless you ask for it," he said. "It's not accepted now, so it's done less and less. I don't think it's as prevalent as it has been made out to be by some of the NGOs."

Uretsky said consumers can now track the down in their coats with a new QR code application that shows where the down was sourced. But he conceded that this check wasn't universal and that it's still not entirely certain where unbranded coats get their down from.

With several different standards out there, the industry lacks a universal welfare assurance that shoppers can easily note. This patchwork set-up means that some brands are doing much better than others - animal welfare group Four Paws, which exposed cruelty in Patagonia's supply chain, has produced a ranking system that places Fjall Raven and Patagonia near the top, Kathmandu and Marmot at the bottom.

"Given the lack of information it can be hard to know if the risk is high or low when you buy a coat," said Nina Jamal, a campaigner at Four Paws. "Only a few brands have taken full responsibility for their supply chains. Most of the fashion and sports brands have not started going back to the farms, they depend upon certificates from slaughterhouses. It's a way for brands to wash away their responsibility, basically saying that they don't care about the welfare of animals before they are slaughtered.

"North Face don't go as far back as the parent farm, where birds are kept for four or five years. There is a great temptation to live-pluck these birds because the quality of the down gets better as birds age. And Canada Goose say they work with just one supplier, but that they source the down globally."

That one Canada Goose supplier, Toronto-based Feather Industries, insists its staff conduct checks along the supply chain and do not tolerate any cruelty. A full traceability program, with an external auditor, is currently being set up.

Alex Pryde, spokesman for Feather Industries, said force-fed geese aren't used for two key reasons: "The quality of the feather is poor, and the practice itself is abhorrent and inhumane as far as we are concerned."

Meanwhile, a spokeswoman for North Face said the company aims to have fully certified, responsibly produced down across all products by 2017.

"We believe there should be a universal standard and that is the purpose of the responsible down standard," she said. "We are incredibly excited to see the adoption of the RDS across industry and competitive boundaries. We would support the introduction of a universal standard like the RDS to help further the charge to transform the down supply chain for the better."

But this isn't enough for some campaigners who argue the entire process of raising, transporting and slaughtering birds is inherently cruel and that there can never be a 100% guarantee of an ethically sourced down jacket.

"The only way to reduce animal suffering is for retailers to go for synthetic rather than natural down," said Peta's Brainard. Peta has already managed to convince firms such as Marriott Hotels and Pottery Barn to either reduce or eliminate their natural down use.

"Synthetic down is allergen-free, it doesn't collect dust and mould. In many ways it is better. Modern technology means that companies can be innovative as well as compassionate."

This is the point where the industry parts company with animal welfare groups. Clothing retailers and suppliers alike insist natural down is here to stay.

"It would be a huge mistake to move away from down," said Uretsky. "Down is a superior material in terms of warmth and weight. It's environmentally friendly. It's also a byproduct of the food industry - if it wasn't being used by apparel companies it would still be there because people are eating the birds. The campaign groups sometimes forget that."
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