# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How a community school in Greece makes refugee children happy

# data[].attributes.body
BULLYING

# data[].attributes.headline
Symptoms of Warzone Trauma (Parson, 2000)

# data[].attributes.subject
Symptoms of Warzone Trauma (Parson, 2000)

# data[].attributes.body
Nightmares, sleep disturbance, intrusive memories of violent episodes, feelings of retaliation and revenge, anger, anxiety, somatic complaints, fears, numbing and emotional distance, tendency to explosive hyperaggressive behaviors, inability to focus and sit still, and constriction of affect

# data[].attributes.body
Bullying is the use of force, coercion, or threat, to abuse, aggressively dominate or intimidate.

# data[].attributes.body
Neglect refers to the failure of a parent to provide for the development of the child – where the parent is in a position to do so – in one or more of the following areas: health, education, emotional
development, nutrition, shelter and safe living conditions. Neglect is thus distinguished from circumstances of poverty in that neglect can occur only in cases where reasonable resources are
available to the family or caregiver.

# data[].attributes.body
There are many different types of bullying that can be experienced by children and adults alike, some are obvious to spot while others can be more subtle. The different types of bullying that we look at below are some of the ways that bullying could be happening.

Physical bullying

Physical bullying includes hitting, kicking, tripping, pinching and pushing or damaging property.  Physical bullying causes both short term and long term damage.

Verbal bullying

Verbal bulling includes name calling, insults, teasing, intimidation, homophobic or racist remarks, or verbal abuse. While verbal bullying can start off harmless, it can escalate to levels which start affecting the individual target.

Social bullying

Social bullying, sometimes referred to as covert bullying, is often harder to recognise and can be carried out behind the bullied person’s back.  It is designed to harm someone’s social reputation and / or cause humiliation.

Social bullying can include:

lying and spreading rumours

negative facial or physical gestures, menacing or contemptuous looks

playing nasty jokes to embarrass and humiliate

mimicking unkindly

encouraging others to social exclude someone

damaging someone’s social reputation or social acceptance.

Cyber bullying

The Cyber Bullying Research Centre defines cyber bullying as:  Intentional and repeated harm inflicted through the use of computers, phones, and other electronic devices.

Cyber bullying can be overt or covert bullying behaviours using digital technologies including hardware such as computers and smartphones, and software such as social media, instant messaging, texts, websites and other online platforms.

Cyber bullying can happen at any time. It can be in public or in private and sometimes only known to the target and the person bullying.

Cyber bullying can include:

abusive or hurtful texts, emails or posts, images or videos

deliberately excluding others online

nasty gossip or rumours

imitating others online or using their log-in.

# data[].attributes.body
"According to the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS), which measures the relationship between life events, stress and susceptibility to illness, divorce is considered to be one of the most severe life stressors."

Sheela Raja, Ph.D., licensed clinical psychologist, and author of "Overcoming Trauma and PTSD" explains "that divorce would not cause PTSD. However, there are still similarities in symptoms."

Post-Dissolution PTSD

"What some researchers refer to as 'post-dissolution PTSS' (post-traumatic stress symptoms) is characterized by the re-experiencing of symptoms, including intrusive thoughts or dreams about the dissolution and avoidance behaviors."

Other post-traumatic stress symptoms that may arise in the aftermath of a divorce or separation include:
1. "Overly negative thoughts about oneself or the world"
2. "Exaggerated self-blame or blame of others
3. "Decreased interest in activities"
4. "Feeling isolated"
5. "Irritability or aggression"
6. "Paranoia"
7. "Risky or destructive behavior"
8. "Difficulty concentrating"
9. "Difficulty sleeping"

Source: Abrams, A. (2020, March 22). "Post-divorce trauma and PTSD." Verywell mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/post-divorce-trauma-4583824

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The loss of a significant relationship can be one of life's most difficult challenges. Divorce or separation, in particular, increases one's risk of distressful psychological symptoms.﻿﻿ According to some studies, it is also a potential risk factor for suicidal behavior.

According to the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS), which measures the relationship between life events, stress and susceptibility to illness, divorce is considered to be one of the most severe life stressors.﻿﻿ Number one on the list is the death of a loved one. Given these statistics, some wonder whether the trauma of divorce can lead to a diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Defining PTSD

Once referred to as "combat stress reaction" or "battle fatigue", PTSD gained official recognition as a mental health condition in 1980 in the third edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-lll). It was understood to be a common syndrome among war veterans. We now know that one need not go to war to develop a diagnosis of PTSD or to experience PTSD-related symptoms.

The most recent edition of the DSM, published by the American Psychiatric Association (the DSM-V) lists PTSD under the category of "trauma and stressor-related disorders," and defines it as a result of "exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence."

This may include directly experiencing, witnessing, or learning the traumatic event occurred to a close family member or friend. Further, the following criteria must be met:

Alterations in arousal and reactivity that began or worsened after the trauma (for example, risky or destructive behavior, hypervigilance, and a heightened startle reaction)

Intrusion symptoms such as persistently re-experiencing upsetting memories, nightmares, or flashbacks.

Exhibiting avoidance behaviors of feelings or external reminders.

At least two negative alterations in cognitions and mood that began or worsened after the trauma (such as inability to recall key features of the trauma, overly negative thoughts and assumptions about oneself or the world, exaggerated blame of self or others for causing the trauma, negative affect, decreased interest in activities, feeling isolated, and difficulty experiencing positive affect)

The onset of symptoms may occur immediately following the event or diagnostic criteria are not met until at least six months after the trauma (specified as delayed onset)

Symptoms that last for more than one month

Distress or functional impairment (social, occupational)

Symptoms that are not due to medication, substance use, or other illness.

In some cases, dissociative symptoms that may occur such as depersonalization (the feeling of being detached from oneself) or derealization (a feeling of unreality)

PTSD and Divorce

According to the National Health Service (NHS), a formal PTSD diagnosis does not usually apply to circumstances like "divorce, job loss or failing exams."

"A PTSD diagnosis requires something life-threatening or a threat to bodily integrity," says Sheela Raja, Ph.D., licensed clinical psychologist, and author of "Overcoming Trauma and PTSD." She goes on to say that divorce would not cause PTSD. However, there are still similarities in symptoms.

This means that in some cases, those who experience divorce could experience similar symptoms to those who have experienced military combat, natural disasters, rape, or other life-threatening events.﻿﻿

Post-Dissolution PTSD

What some researchers refer to as "post-dissolution PTSS" (post-traumatic stress symptoms) is characterized by the re-experiencing of symptoms, including intrusive thoughts or dreams about the dissolution and avoidance behaviors.

Other post-traumatic stress symptoms that may arise in the aftermath of a divorce or separation include:﻿﻿

Overly negative thoughts about oneself or the world

Exaggerated self-blame or blame of others

Decreased interest in activities

Feeling isolated

Irritability or aggression

Paranoia

Risky or destructive behavior

Difficulty concentrating

Difficulty sleeping.

According to psychotherapist Toni Coleman, "If a person goes through an acrimonious, drawn-out, expensive, time-consuming, and lifestyle altering divorce...it can lead to debilitating symptoms of anxiety in which PTSD takes root. These symptoms are the result of the divorce trauma being embedded in the person's subconscious mind and then experienced as recurrent fears and bad memories."

In other words, a person who has experienced a divorce can present "symptoms of illness." Coleman also goes on to say that these symptoms can come in the form of "flashbacks." For obvious reasons, this can make it difficult for a person to move on.

Conclusion

Certain risk factors appear to make some people more likely to develop a diagnosis of PTSD after a divorce or separation, such as in cases that involve intimate partner abuse, exposure to a serious threat of injury, or death. This level of trauma does not meet the severity criteria required for the diagnosis of PTSD.

A history of past trauma is also a risk factor for developing PTSD post-divorce. "In people with PTSD from past trauma," says psychiatrist Dr. Susan Edelman, "the breakup of a relationship can lead to worsening symptoms of post-traumatic stress and psychological well-being."

A Word From Verywell

While the ending of a relationship in itself does not meet the trauma criteria for a PTSD diagnosis as it is defined by the DSM, the effects can be just as devastating. Having a strong social support network is essential. Reaching out to family and friends, joining a support group or seeking out a therapist, and learning effective coping strategies are some ways to help alleviate distressful symptoms of post-divorce trauma, and ultimately lead to the path of recovery and healing.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Can Divorce or Marital Separation Lead to PTSD?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The loss of a significant relationship can be one of life's most difficult challenges. Divorce or separation, in particular, increases one's risk of distressful psychological symptoms.﻿﻿ According to some studies, it is also a potential risk factor for suicidal behavior.

# data[].attributes.body
A number of neglected children present as suffering from medical conditions, failure to thrive, or malnutrition, which in severe cases can be life-threatening. Observable signs include

dirty skin

offensive body odor

unwashed, uncombed hair

undersized, oversized, or unclean clothing; clothing inappropriate for the weather

frequent lack of supervision.

# data[].attributes.body
Children and families coming from conflict warzones and seeking refuge in a new country and culture are followed by trauma (Collard, 2018).

From deaths of immediate family members, desolation of their homes and communities, to separation of their loved ones who have not been able to leave the war torn countries from which they came, children of warzones suffer without really sharing their stories. Madi (name has been changed to protect privacy) has come from Syria on a boat, a bus, by foot, and by car. His mother was pregnant with his little brother on the harrowing journey. Madi is only 2 years old. He has lost his front teeth. When asked what happened, the mother explains with hand signals and noises “bang bang” and a motion of falling down. The mother and father are very protective, and understandably so. They often don’t let their children take the smallest of risks, from climbing a tree to using a zipline. The trauma of the parents must also have an affect on the children.

Sara Hommel is a director of  Save the Children’s Heart (Healing and Learning Through the Arts) programme (Collard, 2018).

# data[].attributes.body
There exist many manifestations of child neglect, including non-compliance with health care
recommendations, failure to seek appropriate health care, deprivation of food resulting in hunger, and the failure of a child physically to thrive. Other causes for concern include the exposure of children to drugs and inadequate protection from environmental dangers. In
addition, abandonment, inadequate supervision, poor hygiene and being deprived of an
education have all been considered as evidence of neglect.

# data[].attributes.body
Physical neglect includes:

the refusal to seek necessary medical care

child abandonment, or the desertion of a child without arranging for care or supervision

inadequate supervision

the expulsion of a child from the home

failing to provide for a child's safety or physical needs

inadequate nutrition

inadequate or inappropriate clothing and hygiene

driving with a child while intoxicated or leaving a young child in a car unattended

# data[].attributes.body
Educational neglect occurs when parents do not provide for the schooling needs of their children such as:

a child is mandatory school age but does not receive schooling

the refusal to obtain or allow recommended remedial education services

refusal to follow through with treatment for a diagnosed learning disorder

# data[].attributes.body
Emotional neglect includes:

inadequate nurturing and affection

spousal abuse in a child's presence

allowing a child to use drugs or alcohol

the refusal, or delay in providing, needed psychological care

encouraging or allowing maladaptive behavior such as chronic delinquency or assault

# data[].attributes.body
Medical neglect is the failure to provide for the appropriate healthcare of a child. Such a child may exhibit signs of poor health such as:

fatigue

infected cuts

constant itching or scratching of skin

# data[].attributes.body
Parents don't set out to neglect their children. But, due to various factors, some parents aren't able to adequately meet a child's needs. Sometimes neglect is completely unintentional. The following factors have been found to increase children’s risk of being neglected:

Environmental Factors: Poverty, lack of social support, neighborhood distress

Family Factors: Single-parent households, domestic violence, family stress

Parent Factors: Unemployment, low socioeconomic status, young maternal age, parenting stress, health issues, mental illness, substance abuse issues

Child Factors: Developmental delays

# data[].attributes.body
School personnel are advised to consider the possibility of neglect when a child:

Is frequently absent.

Steals or begs for food or money.

Lacks needed medical or dental care, immunizations, or glasses.

Is consistently dirty and has severe body odor.

Lacks sufficient clothing for the weather.

Abuses alcohol or other drugs.

States that there is no one at home to provide care.

# data[].attributes.body
Emotional and behavioural signs of bullying

Changes in sleep patterns

Changes in eating patterns

Frequent tears or anger

Mood swings

Feels ill in the morning

Becomes withdrawn or starts stammering

Becomes aggressive and unreasonable

Refuses to talk about what is wrong

Begins to target siblings

Continually 'loses' money or starts stealing.

Physical signs of bullying

Has unexplained bruises, cuts, scratches

Comes home with missing or damaged belongings or clothes

Comes home hungry.

School signs of bullying

Doesn't want to go to school

Changes their route to school or are frightened of walking to school

Doesn't want to go to school on the bus/tram/train

School grades begin to fall.

Other signs of bullying

Sometimes signs bullying can be far more hidden. They can include:

Often alone or excluded from friendship groups at school

A frequent target for teasing, mimicking or ridicule at school

Unable to speak up in class and appears insecure or frightened.

# data[].attributes.headline
Strategies from parents: How to stop bullying

# data[].attributes.subject
Strategies from parents: How to stop bullying

# data[].attributes.body
Listen

Encourage your child to tell you the whole story. Listen calmly and without interrupting, and reassure them that they've done the right thing by speaking up. Your child may need to tell the story more than once.

Talk

Have a conversation about what happened. Try not to let your very understandable emotions (anger, distress...) show. Your feelings can intensify the child's or make it worse for them and might even deter your child from talking to you another time.

Remind your child that bullying is never OK, and that whatever they are feeling – e.g. hurt, scared, sad, angry – is understandable and normal.

Ask your child what they would like to happen. Often all they want to know is how to stop the bullying. Children may feel that if the perpetrator is punished, it will be worse for them in the long run.

Find out what is happening

Note what, when and where the bullying occurred, who was involved, how often and if anybody else witnessed it. Don't offer to confront the young person or their parents yourself. This might make things worse for your child.

Contact your child's school

Bullying arises from social situations - family, school, clubs, and work - and if possible, cases of bullying are best dealt with where they occur. In children's lives, school is the most common location for bullying. It's therefore important you alert the school to the situation, as they may not be aware of it.

Don't assume the school will know about the situation, because your child may not have told them. The majority of children and teenagers do not disclose to teachers or parents. Schools are keen to prevent and stop bullying behaviour.

Here are some tips to guide your discussions with the school:

Make an appointment to speak to your child's teacher or coordinator.

Check your school's bullying/online bullying policy. This may be contained within the behaviour or wellbeing policy. It might be available on the school's website or printed in the school diary. Note what the policy promises to do to keep children safe from harm and respond to the situation.

Take along your notes about the situation or screen-shots, texts etc. It's often difficult to remember specific details.

Find out if the school is aware of the bullying.

Ask what is being done to ensure your child's safety.

Ask for a follow -up appointment to ensure the situation is being addressed. The school may ask you to attend a restorative conference. If so, they will explain to you what is involved.

If your child asks to stay home from school, explain it won't help - and may make things worse.

You can find more suggestions here.

Give Sensible Advice

Encourage your child not to get angry or aggressive in response to bullying, as this may make things worse. Help them explore other possibilities, including using neutral or (if appropriate) joking language (read about this technique called 'fogging'), acting bored or unimpressed, and identifying safe places, friendly groups of kids or caring staff members they can turn to.

Other useful advice includes:

Tell them that the behaviour was intentional and it won't just go away

Explain it's safer to avoid people, places or situations that could expose them to further bullying

If your child asks to stay home from school, explain that it won't help - and may make things worse

If possible, help to make opportunities for them to join other groups of young people - e.g. clubs at school or other groups outside of school time.

# data[].attributes.headline
Strategies from educators to Prevent Bullying in Your Classroom

# data[].attributes.subject
Strategies from educators to Prevent Bullying in Your Classroom

# data[].attributes.body
1,Talk About Bullying
Let your students know how people are affected by bullying. Work to instill empathy and emotional intelligence. Also, ensure your students know the consequences for bullying others at school. They should understand that bullying is not tolerated and will be addressed. It may even help to supplement your school's bullying policies with additional guidelines in your classroom that focus on respect and kindness.
2,Be Visible Throughout the Day
Make sure your students see you anywhere bullying might occur like the bathrooms, hallways, and even in the lunchroom. You also may want to make yourself visible near the buses in the afternoon and during recess if you can. Also, be sure your school has proper supervision in all the bullying hot spots. Remember, kids who bully others are opportunists. They know where the teachers are most of the time and will wait until the coast is clear to target another student. Make sure there are very few opportunities for students to bully others.
3, Become Familiar With Bullying Indicators
Be sure you are able to recognize the most common types of bullying as well as cyberbullying indicators. Also, be aware that boys and girls often bully differently. For instance, boys often resort to physical bullying and girls are more likely to use relational bullying like ostracizing another student. And finally, look for what is called "gateway indicators." These are initial behaviors that students display that are often gateways for more intentional types of bullying. Some possible gateway indicators include rolling eyes, laughing under their breath, making jokes, turning their back on others, and using sarcasm. If you see these behaviors, look a little closer. There may be subtle forms of bullying taking place already.

4,Teach Students to be Effective Bystander
Strive to empower the bystanders in your class. Encourage them to stand up against bullying behavior or to report it to you or another adult. Remind them that research has shown that bullying ends when one person takes a stand. Then provide safe and confidential ways that they can report bullying incidents.

5,Keep Your Ear to the Ground
Victims of bullying are often afraid or embarrassed to come forward. As a result, you may need to rely on other students to let you know when bullying is occurring. Identify your class leaders early in the school year and check in with them. Let them be your eyes and ears when you cannot be present. Also, be sure you make it safe for them to alert you of potential issues. No student wants to be considered a snitch. So, make sure you implement ways for them to get information to you without the rest of the students knowing who it came from.

6,Maintain Open Communication With Students
Strive to build a rapport with all your students. Get to know them as individuals. Greet each student every day and ask how things are going. Watch for signs that they might be experiencing bullying. Do your best to find out about their interests and goals. And if they are struggling, offer support or direct them to school resources where their specific needs can be met.
7,Increase Bullying Awareness Among Parents
Engage parents in your bullying prevention programs. Increase awareness through PTA/PTO meetings, conferences, newsletters, and social media. Encourage parents to support school rules and bullying intervention strategies. If a parent reports a bullying incident, be sure to investigate it right away. Try to partner with parents to reduce bullying incidents in your classroom.

8,Prevent Cliques in Your Classroom
One way to prevent cliques in your classroom is to assign students to groups when they have a group project. When you allow kids to pick their own groups, this opens the door to bullying opportunities. It also allows cliques to strengthen, and it creates an opportunity for kids to ostracize other students. But when you select the group, you are ensuring that your students learn to work with those outside their circle of friends. Pre-selected groups also give students the opportunity to learn how to work with different types of people.

9,Be an Advocate for Anti-Bullying
Ensure that your school has effective anti-bullying goals and policies. Talk with other staff members about developing a culture that holds students who bully accountable and doesn’t blame the victim. Some people mistakenly believe that victims of bullying bring it on themselves. But bullies must always own the bullying behavior. Encourage everyone to adopt this mindset.

10,Create a Sense of Community
Research indicates that fostering a sense of community in the classroom can lower the number of bullying incidents, improve school climate, and facilitate healing for anyone who has been impacted by bullying. When students feel connected to their school, their peers, and their teacher, they do better. Do what you can to create a sense of community among your students. Create a team atmosphere where everyone feels like they belong and the students learn to support one another.

11,Respond Quickly to Every Bullying Incident
When you spot bullying, address it right away. Avoid normalizing bullying with statements like “kids will be kids.” If you minimize bullying, you are sending a message that bullying is OK. When you do that, kids are less likely to feel safe in school and the bullying will likely escalate. Bullies expect people to keep silent about their actions. Surprise them and call them out. Bullying is no longer an effective tool for them if they are disciplined when they engage in it.

12,Speak With the Victim Privately
Create an environment where your students feel safe talking with you. Empathize with how they are feeling and provide ideas for overcoming bullying. Make a commitment to help the victim resolve the issue. Also, don't try to talk to the victim in front of the bully. The victimized student won't be as forthcoming or truthful about what happened with the bully present. Fear of retaliation often keeps victims silent. Make sure you schedule a safe time to talk with the victim when the bully will not be aware of the meeting.

13,Speak With the Bully Separately
When you meet with students that bully others, don't allow them to blame the victim. Instead, encourage them to own their behavior. Address the bullying behavior and administer the appropriate discipline. Then, give them ideas for behaving differently in the future. You may even require them to research bullying and write a report about it. The key is to teach kids who bully others how harmful their behavior is to other people.

14,Develop Appropriate Interventions
Both the victim and the bully need intervention and support. For instance, the victim may need to speak with ​a guidance counselor to regain self-esteem. The bully also may benefit from speaking with the guidance counselor to learn better ways of communicating. But, do not have the bully and victim get counseling together. Bullying is not the same as a conflict. It is an unbalanced situation where one student has more power than the other and uses that power to intimidate, humiliate, and wound the other student. Peer mediation or other types of group counseling are not effective in bullying situations.

15,Keep a Close Eye on the Situation
Keeping tabs on both the bully and the victim is an important step in making sure the bullying ends. Watch how they interact in your classroom. Keep tabs on them at lunch and pay attention to what happens at recess. Make a few surprise visits to the bus area if you don't have bus duty. Observing how your students interact with each will help you ensure there are no more bullying incidents.

16,Check in With Both the Victim and the Bully
Ask how things are going and if they’re having any problems. Give the victim tools for dealing with future bullying incidents and for regaining self-confidence. Encourage the bully to make good choices. Also, don’t hold a grudge against students who bully. Give them an opportunity to put the past in the past. With the proper support and encouragement, they can learn to treat others with respect and kindness.

17,Establish Your Classroom as a Safe Place
When you have a bully in your classroom, this impacts the entire class, not just the victim. For many students, the classroom can suddenly feel like an unsafe place—even if they were never targeted by the bully. Not only do they experience fear and emotional distress, but they also may have trouble concentrating. For this reason, you need to re-establish your classroom as a safe place. This may mean going back to what you did during the first days of school when you talked about the importance of respect and kindness.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Anti Bullying Animated Short Film Project

# data[].attributes.headline
A very touched video showing what is like to be bullied.

# data[].attributes.subject
A very touched video showing what is like to be bullied.

# data[].attributes.body
Types Of Bullying | National Centre Against Bullying. (n.d.). National Center Against Bullying. https://www.ncab.org.au/bullying-advice/bullying-for-parents/types-of-bullying/
15 Ideas for Creating a Bully-Free Classroom. (2019, December 12). Verywell Family. https://www.verywellfamily.com/ways-prevent-bullying-in-classroom-460756
Ways to Stop Bullying. (2013, January 16). [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ynTuA_tlZDE
Anti Bullying Animated Short Film Project. (2016, August 19). [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YyDJafzuUK4
What It’s Like To Be Bullied. (2016, March 11). [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hQ6Yxh-44qY

# data[].attributes.headline
Student loss and grief Statistics and Symptoms

# data[].attributes.subject
Student loss and grief Statistics and Symptoms

# data[].attributes.body
Losing a parent or sibling is expected as we age but what about those who lose a  caregiver or sibling at a young age. According to  the article written by Jenni Brennan, LICSW, 1 in 7 or 15% of children under the age of 20 will lose a parent/guardian or sibling.  (Brennan, 2019)
The symptoms of grief in a student are many times varied and contradictory from one student to  the next, just like it is in adults who are dealing with a loss. One student may talk without ceasing about the death of the loved one , another may not mention the person at all. Not wanting to hear about their loss or wanting to hear about the loss all the time.  (Athan, 2011)  The following link to a PDF gives you a complete list of the signs and symptoms, Non verbal, verbal, physical, and behavioral.

# data[].attributes.body
Our responses to children who have suffered a loss should come from the heart. We should acknowledge their loss and help their classmates acknowledge it also. Ignoring it or not allowing it to be discussed in the classroom can have negative affects on the student.

Allow the student to express their emotions. Younger students may need to have an emotion chart to show you how they feel. The link at the bottom of this section shows us some ideas for emotion charts.  (School Counseling, 2020)

When we notice harmful actions we must step in and stop the behavior. We need to report behavior such as self injury like cutting or suicidal expressions. If your school has a counselor available they should be your first contact. If no councilor is available calling the students guardian or remaining parent is the next step. Recommending the student be referred to Community Mental Health.

# data[].attributes.headline
Supporting the Grieving Student During the Pandemic

# data[].attributes.subject
Supporting the Grieving Student During the Pandemic

# data[].attributes.body
The Covid-19 Pandemic has forced us to teach and support our students in new and many times uncomfortable ways. This is no less so when we are supporting our students through a trauma. The following video details how to help our students who are grieving during this pandemic.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Supporting the Grieving Student During the Pandemic

# data[].attributes.body
1-5 Years Old

Bed-wetting

Thumb-sucking

Change in appetite/ eating habits

Irritability/ disobedience

Nervousness/ separation anxiety

5-11 Years Old

Clinginess to primary care givers

Asking to be fed or dressed

Crying/ whimpering

Headaches

Nightmares

Social withdrawal

Fear of going to school

11-14 Years Old

Competing for attention

Not doing chores or homework

Headaches

Skin problems

Sleep problems

Loss of interest in school or activities

Disruptive behavior

Resistance to authority

14-18 Years Old

Regression in established responsible behavior

Headaches

Sleep problems

Digestive problems

Complaints of vague physical aches or pains

Depression

Isolation

Antisocial behavior

# data[].attributes.body
Early childhood trauma occurs when a young child (here, birth to age 6) experiences an event that causes actual harm or poses a serious threat to the child’s emotional and physical well-being.Trauma is different from regular life stressors, because it causes a sense of intense fear, terror, and helplessness that is beyond the normal range of typical childhood experiences. According to the National Institute of Mental Health(NIMH), childhood trauma is defined as:   “The experience of an event by a child that is emotionally painful or distressful, which often results in lasting mental and physical effects.”
Common types of trauma during this developmental period include:
• abuse and neglect;
• serious, untreated parent mental illness or substance abuse;
• witnessing domestic violence;
• prolonged separation from or loss of a loved one; and
• incurring serious injuries or undergoing painful medical procedures.

# data[].attributes.body
The most common causes of childhood trauma include:

Accidents

Bullying/cyberbullying

Chaos or dysfunction in the house (such as domestic violence, parent with a mental illness, substance abuse or incarcerated)

Death of a loved one

Emotional abuse or neglect

Physical abuse or neglect

Separation from a parent or caregiver

Sexual abuse

Stress caused by poverty

Sudden and/or serious medical condition

Violence (at home, at school, or in the surrounding community)

War/terrorism

# data[].attributes.body
1. Becoming overwhelmed by fear

2. Becoming Passive-Agrressive

3. Over protecting yourself

4. Self-victimization

5. Preparing for problems

6. Forgetting big chunk of your life

7. Feeling incomplete

8. You get attracted unhealthy situations

9. Looking for external validation

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
9 Signs You're Dealing with Childhood Trauma

# data[].attributes.body
Psychological symptoms

Denial, shock, feeling
irritable, anger, guilt, shame,
low mood, depression,
hopelessness, helplessness,
confusion, concentration and
communication problems,
anxiety, fear, isolation,
numbness.

Physiological symptoms

Sleep problems, flashbacks,
heart racing, low energy, being
on edge and easily startled,
tension, aches, pains and loss of appetite.

Behavioural regression

Become more infant-like, clingy, fearful, thumb-suck, disengage from nursery/school, start bedwetting and imitate the traumatic events.

# data[].attributes.body
on brain development and health

on physical health

on cognitive function

affect behavior

affect emotional and mental health

affect relationships and social interactions

affect our sense of meaning

# data[].attributes.body
Children aged 0-2 exposed to trauma may：

Demonstrate poor verbal skills

Exhibit memory problems

Scream or cry excessively

Have poor appetite, low weight, or digestive problems

Children aged 3-6 exposed to trauma may

Have difficulties focusing or learning in school

Develop learning disabilities

Show poor skill development

Act out in social situations

Imitate the abusive/traumatic event

Be verbally abusive

Be unable to trust others or make friends

Believe they are to blame for the traumatic event

Lack self-confidence

Experience stomach aches or headaches

# data[].attributes.body
As recognition has grown about the prevalence and impact of trauma on young children, more age-appropriate treatment approaches have been developed and tested for this population. These interventions share many of the same core components. For example, they are generally relationship-based, and focus on healing and supporting the child-parent relationship. The following interventions are among those that have been developed and evaluated for young children:

Alternatives for Families - A Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Attachment, Self-Regulation, and Competence: A Comprehensive Framework

Child-Parent Psychotherapy

Parent-Child Care

Parent-Child Interaction Therapy

# data[].attributes.body
Poverty is a chronic trauma, as students' exposure is repeated and prolonged.

# data[].attributes.body
1. Trauma doesn’t discriminate.
2. Understand the source of trauma.
3. Trauma causes us to learn and process information differently.
4. Connect students and families with available resources.
5. Create a trauma-sensitive classroom culture.
6. Consistency is key.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Early childhood teachers face challenges when it comes to recognizing, understanding and dealing with trauma in their students.

Here are some useful strategies for educators to begin helping young children and their families overcome trauma.

1. Trauma doesn't discriminate.

Check your assumptions and biases when it comes to trauma, which may look different for children than for adults. It's not a given that only children from poor backgrounds experience trauma. Children from wealthy families are not immune to trauma, nor are impoverished children necessarily traumatized.

According to Lesley alumna and Codman Academy Public Charter School teacher Becca Mason, "Often trauma looks different from one child to the next."

2. Understand the source of trauma.

Trauma comes in all shapes, sizes and levels. It can stem from an offhand comment, physical abuse or a natural disaster. It affects children differently, depending on their stage of development and how adults respond to the trauma. The first step to helping your student is to gently get to the source of the trauma and understand where they are developmentally.

3. Trauma causes us to learn and process information differently.

Trauma can impact the brain's "fight or flight" response, causing children to remain in a constant, exhausting, heightened state of arousal. Over time, that heightened state becomes the default lens through which children process all information, which inhibits focus, attention and memory.

4. Connect students and families with available resources.

Part of the solution is to avoid assuming caregivers are to blame. They may not understand what is happening to their child, lack access to resources or see behavior from a different cultural vantage point. Engage with a child's family, help them tap into available resources, including teachers, administrators and clinical psychologists, and connect with psychologists in your school or district so they can establish relationships with and educate teachers and parents. Resources are often limited, so creative solutions for children and their families are key.

5. Create a trauma-sensitive classroom culture.

Children affected by trauma need space to process, so create safe spaces in your classroom for them to do that. Once a student is triggered by trauma, it may take up to 27 minutes to recover, and they need a place where it is OK to do that. Traumatized students may also need tools and manipulatives to help them relax and process their emotions, as well as practical ways to self-soothe and self-regulate. Create a culture of understanding so that other children don't view this as "special treatment."

"We don't give all students the same treatment, but everyone gets what they need to succeed. Once children understand that, they won't perceive a situation as unfair," according to Mason.

6. Consistency is key.

Trauma is unpredictable, and causes feelings of instability and vulnerability. It is therefore critical to give traumatized children predictability, routine and structure. This provides them with necessary boundaries, develops their sense of security, fosters proper responses and helps them understand who they can and should trust.

Young children can overcome trauma and live healthy lives. You are not helpless, and the situation is not hopeless.

Source:

"Trauma-Informed Early Childhood Classroom Practices and Community Relationships" (April 26, 2017). Lesley University Graduate School of Education's Innovations: Early Childhood Education Workshops, presented by Lesley University Professor of Education Lisa Fiore, director of Lesley's Child Homelessness Initiative; Lesley alumna Becca Mason, a teacher at the Codman Academy Public Charter School in Dorchester; and clinical psychologist Catherine Koverola, former dean of Lesley's Graduate School of Arts and Social Sciences and current provost at Cambridge College.

Helpful resources:

Siegel, D.J. (2015). The developing mind: How relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are, 2/e. New York: The Guilford Press.
The National Child Traumatic Stress Network
Lesley Institute for Trauma Sensitivity

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Strategies to Recognize and Respond to Childhood Trauma

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Early childhood teachers face challenges when it comes to recognizing, understanding and dealing with trauma in their students. Here are some useful strategies for educators to begin helping young children and their families overcome trauma. Check your assumptions and biases when it comes to trauma, which may look different for children than for adults.

# data[].attributes.body
Strengthen the early care and education workforce by increasing early care and education professionals’ capacity to provide trauma-informed care.

Expand initiatives that help early care and education programs connect families with community services.

Provide children who have experienced trauma with high-quality, stable early care and education and strong early learning supports.

# data[].attributes.body
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1ONkF8HxblTW9ucTtPZXG8FCsrGz5fnid/view?usp=sharing

# data[].attributes.body
Students who are at risk for chronic stress tend to--

Believe they have minimal control over stressors.

Have no idea how long or intense stressors will be.

Have few outlets to release frustration.

Interpret stressors as evidence of circumstances worsening of becoming more hopeless. There is a danger of developing learned helplessness.

(Jensen, 2009).

# data[].attributes.body
Children affected by poverty are less likely to have their crucial needs met relative to their more affluent peers. "These deficits may inhibit production of new brain cells, alter the path of maturation, and rework the healthy neural circuitry in children's brains, thereby undermining emotional and social development and predisposing them to emotional dysfunction" (Gunnar, Frenn, Wewerka, & Van Ryzin, 2009; Miller, Seifer, Stroud, Sheinkopf, & Dickstein, 2006).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
by Eric Jensen

In Chapter 1, we were introduced to history teacher Chris Hawkins. The family Mr. Hawkins grew up in was far from poor: his father was a colonel in the U.S. Air Force, and his mother was a store manager. He had no clue what growing up in poverty was like, and he was shocked to learn about what typically goes on (and doesn't go on) in the homes of his kids. He has learned that there's far more behind the apathetic or aggressive behaviors, commonly attributed to a lack of politeness or dismissed as "lower-class" issues, than he had assumed. What he's learned about his students has depressed and discouraged him. The mantra that gets him through the year is the thought that retirement is only six years away.

The Risk Factors of Poverty

There is no shortage of theories explaining behavior differences among children. The prevailing theory among psychologists and child development specialists is that behavior stems from a combination of genes and environment. Genes begin the process: behavioral geneticists commonly claim that DNA accounts for 30-50 percent of our behaviors (Saudino, 2005), an estimate that leaves 50-70 percent explained by environment.

This tidy division of influencing factors may be somewhat misleading, however. First, the effects of the nine months a child spends in utero are far from negligible, especially on IQ (Devlin, Daniels, & Roeder, 1997). Factors such as quality of prenatal care, exposure to toxins, and stress have a strong influence on the developing child. In addition, the relatively new field of epigenetics -the study of heritable changes in gene function that occur without a change in primary DNA sequence-blurs the line between nature and nurture. Environment affects the receptors on our cells, which send messages to genes, which turn various functional switches on or off. It's like this: like light switches, genes can be turned on or off. When they're switched on, they send signals that can affect the processes or structures in individual cells. For example, lifting weights tells the genes to "turn on" the signal to build muscle tissue. Genes can be either activated or shut off by a host of other environmental factors, such as stress and nutrition. These switches can either strengthen or impair aggression, immune function, learning, and memory (Rutter, Moffitt, & Caspi, 2006).

Recent evidence (Harris, 2006) suggests that the complex web of social relationships students experience-with peers, adults in the school, and family members-exerts a much greater influence on their behavior than researchers had previously assumed. This process starts with students' core relationships with parents or primary caregivers in their lives, which form a personality that is either secure and attached or insecure and unattached. Securely attached children typically behave better in school (Blair et al., 2008). Once students are in school, the dual factors of socialization and social status contribute significantly to behavior. The school socialization process typically pressures students to be like their peers or risk social rejection, whereas the quest for high social status drives students to attempt to differentiate themselves in some areas-sports, personal style, sense of humor, or street skills, for example.

Socioeconomic status forms a huge part of this equation. Children raised in poverty rarely choose to behave differently, but they are faced daily with overwhelming challenges that affluent children never have to confront, and their brains have adapted to suboptimal conditions in ways that undermine good school performance. Let's revisit the most significant risk factors affecting children raised in poverty, which I discussed in Chapter 1 (the word EACH is a handy mnemonic):

Combined, these factors present an extraordinary challenge to academic and social success. This reality does not mean that success in school or life is impossible. On the contrary, a better understanding of these challenges points to actions educators can take to help their less-advantaged students succeed.

Emotional and Social Challenges

Many low-SES children face emotional and social instability. Typically, the weak or anxious attachments formed by infants in poverty become the basis for full-blown insecurity during the early childhood years. Very young children require healthy learning and exploration for optimal brain development. Unfortunately, in impoverished families there tends to be a higher prevalence of such adverse factors as teen motherhood, depression, and inadequate health care, all of which lead to decreased sensitivity toward the infant (van Ijzendoorn et al., 2004) and, later, poor school performance and behavior on the child's part.

Theory and Research

Beginning at birth, the attachment formed between parent and child predicts the quality of future relationships with teachers and peers (Szewczyk-Sokolowski, Bost, & Wainwright, 2005) and plays a leading role in the development of such social functions as curiosity, arousal, emotional regulation, independence, and social competence (Sroufe, 2005). The brains of infants are hardwired for only six emotions: joy, anger, surprise, disgust, sadness, and fear (Ekman, 2003). To grow up emotionally healthy, children under 3 need

A strong, reliable primary caregiver who provides consistent and unconditional love, guidance, and support.

Safe, predictable, stable environments.

Ten to 20 hours each week of harmonious, reciprocal interactions. This process, known as attunement, is most crucial during the first 6-24 months of infants' lives and helps them develop a wider range of healthy emotions, including gratitude, forgiveness, and empathy.

Enrichment through personalized, increasingly complex activities.

Children raised in poverty are much less likely to have these crucial needs met than their more affluent peers are and, as a result, are subject to some grave consequences. Deficits in these areas inhibit the production of new brain cells, alter the path of maturation, and rework the healthy neural circuitry in children's brains, thereby undermining emotional and social development and predisposing them to emotional dysfunction (Gunnar, Frenn, Wewerka, & Van Ryzin, 2009; Miller, Seifer, Stroud, Sheinkopf, & Dickstein, 2006).

The need for human contact and warmth is well established. A study of infants in Irish foundling homes in the early 1900s found that of the 10,272 infants admitted to homes with minimal or absent maternal nurturing over a 25-year period, only 45 survived. Most of the survivors grew into pathologically unstable and socially problem-ridden adults (Joseph, 1999).

In many poor households, parental education is substandard, time is short, and warm emotions are at a premium-all factors that put the attunement process at risk (Feldman & Eidelman, 2009; Kearney, 1997; Segawa, 2008). Caregivers tend to be overworked, overstressed, and authoritarian with children, using the same harsh disciplinary strategies used by their own parents. They often lack warmth and sensitivity (Evans, 2004) and fail to form solid, healthy relationships with their children (Ahnert, Pinquart, & Lamb, 2006).

In addition, low-income caregivers are typically half as likely as higher-income parents are to be able to track down where their children are in the neighborhood (Evans, 2004), and frequently they do not know the names of their children's teachers or friends. One study found that only 36 percent of low-income parents were involved in three or more school activities on a regular basis, compared with 59 percent of parents above the poverty line (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2000).

Low-SES children are often left home to fend for themselves and their younger siblings while their caregivers work long hours; compared with their well-off peers, they spend less time playing outdoors and more time watching television and are less likely to participate in after-school activities (U.S. Census Bureau, 2000). Unfortunately, children won't get the model for how to develop proper emotions or respond appropriately to others from watching cartoons; they need warm, person-to-person interactions. The failure to form positive relationships with peers inflicts long-term socioemotional consequences (Szewczyk-Sokolowski et al., 2005).

The human brain "downloads" the environment indiscriminately in an attempt to understand and absorb the surrounding world, whether that world is positive or negative. When children gain a sense of mastery of their environments, they are more likely to develop feelings of self-worth, confidence, and independence, which play heavily into the formation of children's personalities (Sroufe, 2005) and ultimately predict their success and happiness in relationships and in life in general. Economic hardship makes it more difficult for caregivers to create the trusting environments that build children's secure attachments. Behavior research shows that children from impoverished homes develop psychiatric disturbances and maladaptive social functioning at a greater rate than their affluent counterparts do (McCoy, Firck, Loney, & Ellis, 1999). In addition, low-SES children are more likely to have social conduct problems, as rated by both teachers and peers over a period of four years (Dodge, Pettit, & Bates, 1994). Unfortunately, a study of negative emotionality and maternal support found that low-income parents were less able than were well-off parents to adjust their parenting to the demands of higher-needs children (Paulussen-Hoogeboom, Stams, Hermanns, & Peetsma, 2007).

Low-income parents are often overwhelmed by diminished self-esteem, depression, and a sense of powerlessness and inability to cope-feelings that may get passed along to their children in the form of insufficient nurturing, negativity, and a general failure to focus on children's needs. In a study of emotional problems of children of single mothers, Keegan-Eamon and Zuehl (2001) found that the stress of poverty increases depression rates among mothers, which results in an increased use of physical punishment. Children themselves are also susceptible to depression: research shows that poverty is a major predictor of teenage depression (Denny, Clark, Fleming, & Wall, 2004).

Effects on School Behavior and Performance

Strong, secure relationships help stabilize children's behavior and provide the core guidance needed to build lifelong social skills. Children who grow up with such relationships learn healthy, appropriate emotional responses to everyday situations. But children raised in poor households often fail to learn these responses, to the detriment of their school performance. For example, students with emotional dysregulation may get so easily frustrated that they give up on a task when success was just moments away. And social dysfunction may inhibit students' ability to work well in cooperative groups, quite possibly leading to their exclusion by group members who believe they aren't "doing their part" or "pulling their share of the load." This exclusion and the accompanying decrease in collaboration and exchange of information exacerbate at-risk students' already shaky academic performance and behavior.

Some teachers may interpret students' emotional and social deficits as a lack of respect or manners, but it is more accurate and helpful to understand that the students come to school with a narrower range of appropriate emotional responses than we expect. The truth is that many children simply don't have the repertoire of necessary responses. It is as though their brains' "emotional keyboards" play only a few notes (see Figure 2.1).

The proper way to deal with such a deficit is first to understand students' behavior and then to lay out clear behavioral expectations without sarcasm or resentment. Understand that children raised in poverty are more likely to display

These behaviors will likely puzzle, frustrate, or irritate teachers who have less experience teaching students raised in poverty, but it's important to avoid labeling, demeaning, or blaming students. It is much easier to condemn a student's behavior and demand that he or she change it than it is to help the student change it. Every proper response that you don't see at your school is one that you need to be teaching. Rather than telling kids to "be respectful," demonstrate appropriate emotional responses and the circumstances in which to use them, and allow students to practice applying them. To shift your own responses to inappropriate behavior, reframe your thinking: expect students to be impulsive, to blurt inappropriate language, and to act "disrespectful" until you teach them stronger social and emotional skills and until the social conditions at your school make it attractive not to do those things.

It's impossible to overemphasize this: every emotional response other than the six hardwired emotions of joy, anger, surprise, disgust, sadness, and fear must be taught. Cooperation, patience, embarrassment, empathy, gratitude, and forgiveness are crucial to a smoothly running complex social environment (like a classroom). When students lack these learned responses, teachers who expect humility or penitence may get a smirk instead, a response that may lead teachers to believe the student has an "attitude." It's the primary caregiver's job to teach the child when and how to display these emotional responses, but when students do not bring these necessary behaviors to school, the school must teach them.

What all students do bring to school are three strong "relational" forces that drive their school behaviors (Harris, 2006):

1. The drive for reliable relationships. Students want the safety of a primary safe and reliable relationship. Students would prefer parents, positive friends, and teachers, but they'd take an "iffy" friend if no one else were available. The relationships that teachers build with students form the single strongest access to student goals, socialization, motivation, and academic performance. For your school to foster high achievement, every student will need a reliable partner or mentor.

2. The strengthening of peer socialization. Socialization is the drive for acceptance that encourages students to imitate their peers and join groups, from clubs to cliques to gangs. Students want to belong somewhere. Evidence suggests that it is peers, not parents, who have the greatest influence on school-age students (Harris, 1998). If your school aims to improve student achievement, academic success must be culturally acceptable among your students.

3. The quest for importance and social status. This is the quest to feel special. Students compete for attention and social elevation by choosing roles that will distinguish them (e.g., athlete, comedian, storyteller, gang leader, scholar, or style maverick). Kids are very interested in what other kids do, whether others like them, and how they rate on the social scale (Harris, 2006). Every student will need to feel like the "status hunt" can just as well lead to better grades as better behaviors.

Each of these forces shapes behaviors in significant ways. Schools that succeed use a combination of formal and informal strategies to influence these three domains. Informally, teachers can incorporate classroom strategies that build relationships and strengthen peer acceptance and social skills in class. This is a fair warning to all administrators: do not dismiss the so-called "soft side" of students' lives, the social side. It runs their brains, their feelings, and their behaviors-and those three run cognition! There is a complex interplay between cognition and emotions. When students feel socialized and accepted, they perform better academically. However, pushing students harder and harder into performing well academically may conflict with social/relational success. You will hit a test score ceiling until you include students' emotional and social lives in your school "makeover." Accordingly, throughout the remainder of this book, I offer specific strategies that address all three of the relational forces.

Action Steps

Embody respect. You can't change what's in your students' bank account, but you can change what's in their emotional account. It may require a considerable shift in your thinking. It is fruitless simply to demand respect from students; many just don't have the context, background, or skills to show it. Instead,

Embed social skills. At every grade level, use a variety of classroom strategies that strengthen social and emotional skills. For example,

Teach basic but crucial meet-and-greet skills. Early in the year, when students introduce themselves to other classmates, teach students to face one another, make eye contact, smile, and shake hands.

Embed turn-taking skills in class, even at the secondary level. You can introduce and embed these skills using such strategies as learning stations, partner work, and cooperative learning.

Remind students to thank their classmates after completing collaborative activities.

Implement social-emotional skill-building programs in the early years. Programs like the PATHS program, Conscious Discipline, and Love and Logic embed social skills into a classroom management framework.

Be inclusive. Create a familial atmosphere by using inclusive and affiliative language. For example,

Always refer to the school as "our school" and the class as "our class"; avoid using a me-and-you model that reinforces power structures.

Acknowledge students who make it to class, and thank them for small things.

Celebrate effort as well as achievement; praise students for reaching milestones as well as for fulfilling end goals. Pack acknowledgments and celebrations into every single class.

Acute and Chronic Stressors

Stress can be defined as the physiological response to the perception of loss of control resulting from an adverse situation or person. Occasional or "roller-coaster" stress is healthy for all of us; it supports our immune function and helps develop resiliency. However, the acute and chronic stress that children raised in poverty experience leaves a devastating imprint on their lives. Acute stress refers to severe stress resulting from exposure to such trauma as abuse or violence, whereas chronic stress refers to high stress sustained over time. Low-SES children are more subject to both of these types of stress than are their more affluent peers, but chronic stress is more common and exerts a more relentless influence on children's day-today lives. Children living in poverty experience significantly greater chronic stress than do their more affluent counterparts (Almeida, Neupert, Banks, & Serido, 2005) (see Figure 2.2). This kind of stress exerts a devastating, insidious influence on children's physical, psychological, emotional, and cognitive functioning-areas that affect brain development, academic success, and social competence. Students subjected to such stress may lack crucial coping skills and experience significant behavioral and academic problems in school.

Theory and Research

The biology of stress is simple in some ways and complex in others. On a basic level, every one of the 30-50 trillion cells in your body is experiencing either healthy or unhealthy growth. Cells cannot grow and deteriorate at the same time. Ideally, the body is in homeostatic balance: a state in which the vital measures of human function-heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar, and so on-are in their optimal ranges. A stressor is anything that threatens to disrupt homeostasis-for example, criticism, neglect, social exclusion, lack of enrichment, malnutrition, drug use, exposure to toxins, abuse, or trauma. When cells aren't growing, they're in a "hunker down" mode that conserves resources for a threatened future. When billions or trillions of cells are under siege in this manner, you get problems.

Although the body is well adapted to deal with short-term threats to homeostasis, chronic or acute stressors challenge the body differently. Among low-income families, stressors may include living in overcrowded, substandard housing or unsafe neighborhoods; enduring community or domestic violence, separation or divorce, or the loss of family members; and experiencing financial strain, forced mobility, or material deprivation (Evans & English, 2002). The frequency and intensity of both stressful life events and daily hassles are greater among low-SES children (Attar, Guerra, & Tolan, 1994). For example, in any given year, more than half of all poor children deal with evictions, utility disconnections, overcrowding, or lack of a stove or refrigerator, compared with only 13 percent of well-off children (Lichter, 1997). In addition, such factors as lack of proper supervision, physical neglect or abuse, inadequate day care and schools, difficulties in forming healthy friendships, and vulnerability to depression combine to exert inordinate and debilitating stress upon the developing child.

More often than not, low-income parents are overstressed in trying to meet the daily needs of their families. The resulting depression and negativity often lead to insufficient nurturing, disengaged parenting, and a difficulty in focusing on the needs of children. Compared with middle-income children, low-SES children are exposed to higher levels of familial violence, disruption, and separation (Emery & Laumann-Billings, 1998). Lower levels of parental education and occupation also correlate with greater incidence of neighborhood crimes (Sampson, Raudenbush, & Earls, 1997). And compared with their well-off peers, 2- to 4-year-olds from low-income families interact with aggressive peers 40 percent more often in their neighborhoods and 25 percent more often in child care settings (Sinclair, Pettit, Harrist, Dodge, & Bates, 1994).

Abuse is a major stressor to children raised in poverty. Numerous studies (Gershoff, 2002; Slack, Holl, McDaniel, Yoo, & Bolger, 2004) document that caregivers' disciplinary strategies grow harsher as income decreases. Lower-income parents are, on average, more authoritarian with their children, tending to issue harsh demands and inflict physical punishment such as spanking (Bradley, Corwyn, Burchinal, McAdoo, & Coll, 2001; Bradley, Corwyn, McAdoo, & Coll, 2001). One study found that blue-collar parents were twice as likely to use physical punishment with their 7-year-olds as white-collar parents were (Evans, 2004). Hussey, Chang, and Kotch (2006) found that poor children were 1.52 times more likely to report physical neglect and 1.83 times more likely to report sexual abuse than were well-off children. Abuse occurs with much higher frequency when the parents use alcohol or drugs, experience an array of stressful life events (Emery & Laumann-Billings, 1998), or live in decrepit, crime-ridden neighborhoods with limited social support networks (Jack & Jordan, 1999).

The cost of these constant stressors is hard to quantify. Exposure to chronic or acute stress is hardwired into children's developing brains, creating a devastating, cumulative effect (Coplan et al., 1996). Compared with a healthy neuron, a stressed neuron generates a weaker signal, handles less blood flow, processes less oxygen, and extends fewer connective branches to nearby cells. The prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus, crucial for learning, cognition, and working memory, are the areas of the brain most affected by cortisol, the so-called "stress hormone." Experiments have demonstrated that exposure to chronic or acute stress actually shrinks neurons in the brain's frontal lobes-an area that includes the prefrontal cortex and is responsible for such functions as making judgments, planning, and regulating impulsivity (Cook & Wellman, 2004)-and can modify and impair the hippocampus in ways that reduce learning capacity (Vythilingam et al., 2002).

Unpredictable stressors severely impair the brain's capacity to learn and remember (Yang et al., 2003). Child abuse, for example, is highly disruptive to such developmental processes as the formation of healthy attachments, emotional regulation, and temperament formation, and leads to a wide array of social-emotional and psychological disturbances in adulthood (Emery & Laumann-Billings, 1998). Neurobiological studies have shown considerable alterations in the brain development of neglected or abused children. The production of "fight-or-flight" stress hormones in these children atrophies the areas that control emotional regulation, empathy, social functioning, and other skills imperative to healthy emotional development (Joseph, 1999).

Chronic stress not only diminishes the complexity of neurons in the frontal lobe and the hippocampus but also increases the complexity of neurons in the amygdala, the brain's emotion center (Conrad, 2006). This increased complexity may make the stressed brain's neurons far more sensitive to memory modulation than neurons in nonstressed brains. In chronically stressed kids, the combined effects on the hippocampus and the amygdala may be precisely what facilitates emotional memory (the aspect of memory that encompasses highly salient memories of events such as divorce, abuse, trauma, death, or abandonment) and reduces declarative memory (the aspect of memory that stores standard knowledge and learning).

Chronic, unmediated stress often results in a condition known as an allostatic load. Allostatic load is "carryover" stress. Instead of returning to a healthy baseline of homeostasis, the growing brain adapts to negative life experiences so that it becomes either hyper-responsive or hypo-responsive. Szanton, Gill, and Allen (2005) found higher rates of chronic stress and allostatic load among low-income populations than among high-income populations.

Effects on School Behavior and Performance

Kids coming to your school don't wear signs that say "Caution! Chronic Stressors Live Here." But stress has an insidious effect on learning and behavior, and you should recognize the symptoms in the classroom. Chronic stress

Is linked to over 50 percent of all absences (Johnston-Brooks, Lewis, Evans, & Whalen, 1998).

Impairs attention and concentration (Erickson, Drevets, & Schulkin, 2003).

Reduces cognition, creativity, and memory (Lupien, King, Meaney, & McEwen, 2001).

Diminishes social skills and social judgment (Wommack & Delville, 2004).

Reduces motivation, determination, and effort (Johnson, 1981).

Increases the likelihood of depression (Hammack, Robinson, Crawford, & Li, 2004).

Reduces neurogenesis (growth of new brain cells) (De Bellis et al., 2001).

A child who comes from a stressful home environment tends to channel that stress into disruptive behavior at school and be less able to develop a healthy social and academic life (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002). Impulsivity, for example, is a common disruptive classroom behavior among low-SES students. But it's actually an exaggerated response to stress that serves as a survival mechanism: in conditions of poverty, those most likely to survive are those who have an exaggerated stress response. Each risk factor in a student's life increases impulsivity and diminishes his or her capacity to defer gratification (see Figure 2.3) (Evans, 2003).

Students raised in poverty are especially subject to stressors that undermine school behavior and performance. For example, girls exposed to abuse tend to experience mood swings in school, while boys experience impairments in curiosity, learning, and memory (Zuena et al., 2008). And the stress resulting from transience-frequent short-distance, poverty-related moves (Schafft, 2006)-also impairs students' ability to succeed in school and engage in positive social interactions. Whereas middle-class families usually move for social or economic improvement, the moves of low-income households are typically not voluntary. In addition to increasing children's uncertainty about the future, these moves compound their stress load by disrupting their social interactions both within the community and in academic environments (Schafft, 2006).

Students who have to worry over safety concerns also tend to underperform academically (Pratt, Tallis, & Eysenck, 1997). Exposure to community violence-an unsafe home neighborhood or a dangerous path to school- contributes to lower academic performance (Schwartz & Gorman, 2003). In addition, stress resulting from bullying and school violence impairs test scores, diminishes attention spans, and increases absenteeism and tardiness (Hoffman, 1996). It is discouraging, but many high school students either stay home or skip classes due to fear of violence.

Socioeconomic status correlates positively with good parenting, which, research has found, improves academic achievement (DeGarmo, Forgatch, & Martinez, 1999). Unfortunately, the converse is also true: the chronic stress of poverty impairs parenting skills, and disengaged or negative parenting in turn impairs children's school performance. Parents who are struggling just to stay afloat tend to work extra hours, odd shifts, or multiple jobs and are less able to provide attention and affection and to devote their time, energy, and resources to their children. These deficits have been associated with higher levels of externalizing behaviors and poor academic performance on children's part (Hsuch & Yoshikawa, 2007).

Fishbein and colleagues (2006) found that adolescence, a period accompanied by dramatic brain changes, is a particularly vulnerable time for children to be exposed to chronic stress. They found that risky decision making (such as alcohol or drug use) and poor social competency correlated with adolescents' previous exposure to highly stressful life events.

In addition, stress adversely affects cognition. One randomized, doubleblind, placebo-controlled study tested the effects of oral doses of cortisol (the stress chemical) on subjects (Newcomer et al., 1999). Cortisol treatment at the higher dose produced reversible decreases in verbal declarative memory in otherwise healthy individuals (Newcomer et al., 1999).

Exposure to chronic or acute stress is debilitating. The most common adaptive behaviors include increased anxiety (as manifested in generalized anxiety disorders or posttraumatic stress disorder) and an increased sense of detachment and helplessness. Students from low-income families who experience disruptive or traumatic events or who lack a measure of connectedness-to family, to the community, or to a religious affiliation-demonstrate increased hopelessness over time (Bolland, Lian, & Formichella, 2005). Nearly half (47 percent) of low-SES African American adolescents reported clinically significant levels of depressive symptoms (Hammack et al., 2004). Low-SES students are more likely to give up or become passive and uninterested in school (Johnson, 1981). This giving-up process is known as learned helplessness. It's not genetic; it's an adaptive response to life conditions. And sadly, it frequently takes hold as early as 1st grade. Many kids with learned helplessness become fatalistic about their lives and are more likely to drop out of school or become pregnant while in their teens.

It is well documented that the effect of stressors is cumulative (Astone, Misra, & Lynch, 2007; Evans, 2004; Evans & English, 2002; Evans, Kim, Ting, Tesher, & Shannis, 2007; Geronimus, Hicken, Keene, & Bound, 2006; Lucey, 2007). Children who have had greater exposure to abuse, neglect, danger, loss, or other poverty-related experiences are more reactive to stressors. Each stressor builds on and exacerbates other stressors and slowly changes the student. It is the cumulative effect of all the stressors that often makes life miserable for poor students.

When researchers provided classes in appropriate coping skills and stress-relieving techniques, subjects demonstrated a decrease in hostility (Wadsworth, Raviv, Compas, & Connor-Smith, 2005) or depressive symptoms (Peden, Rayens, Hall, & Grant, 2005). Unfortunately, these interventions, along with stress-relieving recreational activities, are largely unavailable to those living in poverty. For example, neighborhood parks and recreational facilities tend to be scarcer, in hazardous areas, or in disrepair (Evans, 2004). Poor children are half as likely as well-off children are to be taken to museums, theaters, or the library, and they are less likely to go on vacations or on other fun or culturally enriching outings (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002).

Action Steps

Recognize the signs. Behavior that comes off as apathetic or rude may actually indicate feelings of hopelessness or despair. It is crucial for teachers to recognize the signs of chronic stress in students. Students who are at risk for a stress-related disorder tend to

Believe that they have minimal control over stressors.

Have no idea how long the stressors will last, or how intense they will remain.

Have few outlets through which they can release the frustration caused by the stressors.

Interpret stressors as evidence of circumstances worsening or becoming more hopeless.

Lack social support for the duress caused by the stressors.

Share with other staff members why it's so important to avoid criticizing student impulsivity and "me first" behaviors. Whenever you and your colleagues witness a behavior you consider inappropriate, ask yourselves whether the discipline process is positive and therefore increases the chances for better future behavior, or whether it's punitive and therefore reduces the chances for better future behavior.

Alter the environment. Change the school environment to mitigate stress and resolve potential compliance issues with students who do not want to change:

Reduce the parallels with prison. For example, consider eliminating bells and instead playing songs for class transitions.

Reduce homework stress by incorporating time for homework in class or right after class.

Use cooperative structures; avoid a top-down authoritarian approach.

Help students blow off steam by incorporating celebrations, role-plays, and physical activities (e.g., walks, relays, or games) into your classes.

Incorporate kinesthetic arts (e.g., drama or charades), creative projects (e.g., drawing or playing instruments), and hands-on activities (e.g., building or fixing) into your classes.

Empower students. Help students increase their perception of control over their environment by showing them how to better manage their own stress levels. Instead of telling students to act differently, take the time to teach them how to act differently by

Introducing conflict resolution skills. For example, teach students a multistep process for handling upsets, starting with step 1: "Take a deep breath and count to five."

Teaching students how to deal with anger and frustration (e.g., counting to 10 and taking slow, deep breaths).

Introducing responsibilities and the value of giving restitution. In schools that embrace restitution, students understand that if they disrupt class, they need to "make it right" by doing something positive for the class. For example, a student who throws objects in the classroom may be assigned a cleaning or beautification project for the room.

Teaching students to set goals to focus on what they want.

Role-modeling how to solve real-world problems. Share an actual or hypothetical situation, such as your car running out of gas. You could explain that you tried to stretch the tank of gas too far and reveal how you dealt with the problem (e.g., calling a friend to bring some gas). Such examples show students how to take responsibility for and resolve the challenges they face in life.

Giving students a weekly life problem to solve collectively.

Teaching social skills. For example, before each social interaction (e.g., pair-share or buddy teaching), ask students to make eye contact, shake hands, and give a greeting. At the end of each interaction, have students thank their partners.

Introducing stress reduction techniques, both physical (e.g., dance or yoga) and mental (e.g., guided periods of relaxation or meditation).

Cognitive Lags

Cognitive ability is highly complex. It can be measured in many different ways and is affected by numerous factors, not least of which is socioeconomic status. Socioeconomic status is strongly associated with a number of indices of children's cognitive ability, including IQ, achievement tests, grade retention rates, and literacy (Baydar, Brooks-Gunn, & Furstenberg, 1993; Brooks-Gunn, Guo, & Furstenberg, 1993; Liaw & Brooks-Gunn, 1994; Smith, Brooks-Gunn, & Klebanov, 1997). There is a gulf between poor and well-off children's performance on just about every measure of cognitive development, from the Bayley Infant Behavior Scales to standardized achievement tests. The correlations between socioeconomic status and cognitive ability and performance are typically quite significant (Gottfried, Gottfried, Bathurst, Guerin, & Parramore, 2003) and persist throughout the stages of development, from infancy through adolescence and into adulthood (see Figure 2.4). But these are data, not destiny. The good news is that brains are designed to change.

Theory and Research

To function at school, the brain uses an overarching "operating system" that comprises a collection of neurocognitive systems enabling students to pay attention, work hard, process and sequence content, and think critically (see Figure 2.5). Five key systems are

The prefrontal/executive system. This system, which engages the prefrontal cortex, includes our capacity to defer gratification, create plans, make decisions, and hold thoughts in mind. It also allows us to "reset" our brains' rules for how to behave. For example, we might have one set of rules for how to behave to our families and another set of rules for how to respond to strangers.

The left perisylvian/language system. This system, which engages the temporal and frontal areas of the left brain hemisphere, encompasses semantic, syntactic, and phonological aspects of language. It is the foundation for our reading, pronunciation, spelling, and writing skills.

The medial temporal/memory system. This system allows us to process explicit learning (text, spoken words, and pictures) and, if appropriate, store that learning. It includes our "indexing" structure (the hippocampus) and our emotional processor (the amygdala).

The parietal/spatial cognition system. This system underlies our ability to mentally represent and manipulate the spatial relations among objects and primarily engages the posterior parietal cortex. This brain area is especially important for organizing, sequencing, and visualizing information. It is essential for mathematics and music and for feeling a sense of organization.

The occipitotemporal/visual cognition system. This system is responsible for pattern recognition and visual mental imagery, translating mental images into more abstract representations of object shape and identity, and reciprocally translating visual memory knowledge into mental images (Gardini, Cornoldi, De Beni, & Venneri, 2008).

The value of understanding "where" in the brain vital processes occur cannot be overstated; there are significant contrasts in these key systems between the brains of lower-SES and higher-SES individuals.

With the advent of cognitive neuroscience, it has become possible to assess these systems more selectively. One study (Noble, Norman, & Farah, 2005) examined the neurocognitive performance of 30 low-SES and 30 well-off African American kindergartners in the Philadelphia public schools. The children were tested on a battery of tasks adapted from the cognitive neuroscience literature, designed to assess the functioning of the aforementioned key neurocognitive systems. This was one of the first studies that showed both global and specific brain differences between lower-income and higher-income children. Another study (Farah et al., 2006) assessed middle schoolers' working memory and cognitive control and also found significant disparities between lower-income and higher-income students in the five neurocognitive areas. I'm often asked, "Has anyone actually scanned the brains of low-SES children and contrasted them with those of higher-SES children?" Yes, it has been done. And when the data are compiled and viewed by effect size, the areas of difference become dramatic (see Figure 2.6).

In another study (Noble, McCandliss, & Farah, 2007), 150 healthy, socioeconomically diverse 1st graders were administered tasks tapping language skills, visual-spatial skills, memory, working memory, cognitive control, and reward processing. Socioeconomic status accounted for more than 30 percent of the variance in the left perisylvian/language system and a smaller but significant portion of the variance in most other systems.

One possible explanation of the strong association between socioeconomic status and language is that the perisylvian brain regions involved in language processing undergo a more protracted course of maturation in vivo (i.e., once the child is born) than any other neural region (Sowell et al., 2003). It is possible that a longer period of development leaves the language system more susceptible to environmental influences (Noble et al., 2005).

For example, we have discovered that the quantity, quality, and context of parents' speech matter a great deal (Hoff, 2003). Children's vocabulary competence is influenced by the mother's socio-demographic characteristics, personal characteristics, vocabulary, and knowledge of child development (Bornstein, Haynes, & Painter, 1998). By the time most children start school, they will have been exposed to 5 million words and should know about 13,000 of them. By high school, they should know about 60,000 to 100,000 words (Huttenlocher, 1998). But that doesn't often happen in low-income homes. Weizman and Snow (2001) found that low-income caregivers speak in shorter, more grammatically simple sentences. There is less back-and-forth- fewer questions asked and fewer explanations given. As a result, children raised in poverty experience a more limited range of language capabilities. Figures 2.7 and 2.8 illustrate how parents' speech affects their children's vocabulary.

At the preschool level, inattention from care providers has a huge impact on the child's developing language skills and future IQ scores. A six-year study by Hart and Risley (1995) that followed the outcomes of children selected from different socioeconomic backgrounds found that by age 3, the children of professional parents were adding words to their vocabularies at about twice the rate of children in welfare families. Both the quantity and the quality of phrases directed at the children by caregivers correlated directly with income levels. They found that a pattern of slow vocabulary growth helped put in place a slower cognitive pattern by the time children turned 3. In fact, IQ tests performed later in childhood showed the welfare students' scores trailing behind those of the more affluent children by up to 29 percent. Parents of low socioeconomic status are also less likely to tailor their conversations to evoke thoughtful and reasoned responses from their children.

Going hand in hand with language acquisition, reading is one of the most important factors affecting the development of a child's brain. Reading skills are not hardwired into the human brain; every subskill of reading, including (but not limited to) phonological awareness, fluency, vocabulary, phonics, and comprehension, must be explicitly taught. This teaching requires attention, focus, and motivation from the primary caregiver. Again, the time and expertise to make this happen are unfortunately in short supply among poor families. Evidence suggests that poverty adversely alters the trajectory of the developing reading brain (Noble, Wolmetz, Ochs, Farah, & McCandliss, 2006).

Even when low-income parents do everything they can for their children, their limited resources put kids at a huge disadvantage. The growing human brain desperately needs coherent, novel, challenging input, or it will scale back its growth trajectory. When a child is neglected, the brain does not grow as much (De Bellis, 2005; Grassi-Oliveira, Ashy, & Stein, 2008). Unfortunately, low-SES children overall receive less cognitive stimulation than middle-income children do. For example, they are less likely to be read to by parents: Coley (2002) found that only 36 percent of low-income parents read to their kindergarten-age children each day, compared with 62 percent of upper-income parents. In addition, low-SES children are less likely to be coached in learning skills or helped with homework, and they are half as likely as their well-off peers to be taken to museums (Bradley, Corwyn, Burchinal et al., 2001; Bradley, Corwyn, McAdoo et al., 2001) and on other culturally enriching outings. They also have fewer play areas in their homes; have less access to computers and the Internet (and use them in less sophisticated ways); own fewer books, toys, and other recreational or learning materials; spend more time watching television; and are less likely to have friends over to play (Evans, 2004). Low-income parents' financial limitations often exclude their kids from healthy after-school activities, such as music, athletics, dance, or drama (Bracey, 2006).

Effects on School Behavior and Performance

Many children raised in poverty enter school a step behind their well-off peers. The cognitive stimulation parents provide in the early childhood years is crucial, and as we have seen, poor children receive less of it than their well-off peers do. These deficits have been linked to underdeveloped cognitive, social, and emotional competence in later childhood and have been shown to be increasingly important influences on vocabulary growth, IQ, and social skills (Bradley, Corwyn, Burchinal et al., 2001; Bradley, Corwyn, McAdoo et al., 2001). Standardized intelligence tests show a correlation between poverty and lower cognitive achievement, and low-SES kids often earn below-average scores in reading, math, and science and demonstrate poor writing skills. Although the effects of poverty are not automatic or fixed, they often set in motion a vicious and stubborn cycle of low expectations. Poor academic performance often leads to diminished expectations, which spread across the board and undermine children's overall self-esteem.

The dramatic socioeconomic divide in education doesn't help matters. High-poverty, high-minority schools receive significantly less state and local money than do more prosperous schools, and students in such schools are more likely to be taught by teachers who are inexperienced or teaching outside their specialties (Jerald, 2001) (see Figure 2.9). This gap is most evident in the subjects of math and reading.

Constantino (2005) examined six communities in the greater Los Angeles, California, area and found that children in high-income communities had access to significantly more books than children in low-income communities did. In fact, she found that in some affluent communities, children had more books in their homes than low-SES children had in all school sources combined. Milne and Plourde (2006) identified six 2nd graders who came from low-income households but demonstrated high achievement and found that these children's parents provided educational materials, implemented and engaged in structured reading and study time, limited television viewing, and emphasized the importance of education. The researchers concluded that many of the factors of low socioeconomic status that negatively affect student academic success could be overcome by better educating parents about these essential needs.

The composite of academic skills needed for school success is actually a short list. I have introduced these skills as chunks scattered throughout this chapter. In Chapter 3, I list them together as an aggregate of subskills I call the fundamental "operating system" for academic success.

Action Steps

Build core skills. When students underperform academically, teachers can use assessments as an initial roadmap to ascertain the range and depth of skill building they need. Of course, assessments don't measure every skill that students need to succeed in school. Those core skills include

Attention and focus skills.

Short- and long-term memory.

Sequencing and processing skills.

Problem-solving skills.

Perseverance and ability to apply skills in the long term.

Social skills.

Hopefulness and self-esteem.

Once you determine which skills your students most need to hone, create a plan, find a program, and allocate the resources. Later in this book, I address the logistics of implementing an intervention program. Some of the most important skills teachers should foster are social skills and problem-solving skills. When schools teach kids the social skills to resist peer pressure, for example, students stay in school longer, do better academically, and get in less trouble (Wright, Nichols, Graber, Brooks-Gunn, & Botvin, 2004). It is also essential to explicitly teach and model problem-solving skills and provide feedback to students. Here's an example of an established problem-solving process you can post in the classroom:

1. Identify and define the problem.

2. Brainstorm solutions.

3. Evaluate each solution with a checklist or rubric.

4. Implement the selected solution.

5. Follow up and debrief on the results to learn.

In addition to posting a model, you can create simple case studies with real-world problems for students to solve. For example, "You are leaving a shopping mall with friends late at night. Your friend is supposed to do the driving. But as far as you can tell, he looks pretty wasted. You have to get home soon or you'll get in trouble. What do you do?"

Pinpoint assessments. Helping to improve students' cognitive abilities and academic performance takes more than just knowing that a student is behind in a given area. For example, with reading skills, you'll want to find out if the student's difficulty is rooted in

Quality assessment is essential, but follow-through is even more important. Pinpointed assessments are crucial to determine areas of strength and weakness. For example, the Woodcock-Johnson III Diagnostic Reading Battery can reveal specific areas that need targeted practice.

Provide hope and support. Any student who feels "less than" cognitively is likely not only to struggle academically, but also to be susceptible to such secondary issues as acting out, getting bullied or becoming a bully, having lower self-esteem, or having feelings of depression or helplessness. Ensure that teachers build supportive relationships, provide positive guidance, foster hope and optimism, and take time for affirmation and celebration.

Although the cognitive deficits in children from low-income families can seem daunting, the strategies available today are far more targeted and effective than ever before. Kids from all over the United States can succeed with the right interventions. I discuss these further in Chapters 4 and 5.

Recruit and train the best staff you can. You cannot afford to let disadvantaged kids receive substandard teaching. A Boston Public Schools (1998) study of the effects of teachers found that in one academic year, the top third of teachers produced as much as six times the learning growth as the bottom third of teachers did. Tenth graders taught by the least effective teachers made almost no gains in reading and even lost ground in math. To find superior teachers, start asking around the district and at conferences, post ads for teachers who love kids and love challenges, and ask the existing good teachers at your school, "How do we keep you here?" Recruiting great teachers is never easy, but it is possible if you know how to appeal to them. Top teachers crave challenge and workplace flexibility and look for highly supportive administrators. They continually strive to upgrade their skills and knowledge by participating in staff development, attending out-of-town conferences, and seeking out printed materials or DVDs. Appeal to their values and specify what you can offer.

Health and Safety Issues

As we have seen, low-SES children are often subject to such health and safety issues as malnutrition, environmental hazards, and insufficient health care. Health and achievement overlap: every cell in our body needs a healthy environment to function optimally. When a body's cells are besieged daily by stressors, they slow their growth trajectory and contract. Kids raised in poverty have more cells in their body "under siege" than do kids from middle- or upper-income families. The consequent adaptations that these kids' immune systems make diminish their ability to concentrate, learn, and behave appropriately.

Theory and Research

Stanford neuroscientist and stress expert Robert Sapolsky (2005) found that the lower a child's socioeconomic status is, the lower his or her overall health. Substandard housing in low-income neighborhoods leaves children exposed to everything from greater pedestrian risks (heavier traffic on narrower streets) to environmental hazards (exposure to radon and carbon monoxide) (Evans, 2004). Poor housing quality may cause respiratory morbidity and childhood injuries (Matte & Jacobs, 2000) and may elevate psychological distress in children (Evans, Wells, & Moch, 2003). Poor children are more likely to live in old and inadequately maintained housing and to be exposed to lead in peeling paint (Sargent et al., 1995)-a factor associated with decreased IQ (Schwartz, 1994). And, as with other risk factors, these negative environmental effects synergize with and build on one another (Evans & Kantrowitz, 2002).

The lower parents' income is, the more likely it is that children will be born premature, low in birth weight, or with disabilities (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002). Expectant mothers living in poverty are more likely to live or work in hazardous environments; to be exposed to pesticides (Moses et al., 1993); and to smoke, drink alcohol, or use drugs during pregnancy, all factors linked to prenatal issues and birth defects (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002) and adverse cognitive outcomes in children (Chasnoff et al., 1998).

Children from low-income families have generally poorer physical health than do their more affluent peers. In particular, there is a higher incidence of such conditions as asthma (Gottlieb, Beiser, & O'Connor, 1995), respiratory infections (Simoes, 2003), tuberculosis (Rogers & Ginzberg, 1993), ear infections and hearing loss (Menyuk, 1980), and obesity (Wang & Zhang, 2006). Contributing factors include poor nutrition (Bridgman & Phillips, 1998), unhealthy environmental conditions, and inability to obtain appropriate health care. Children with no health insurance may receive little or no treatment for illnesses and are far more likely to die from injuries or infections than are well-off children (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002). In addition, early health conditions may have significant long-term consequences, even if children's socioeconomic status improves later in life (McLoyd, 1998). Further, Broadman (2004) found that a significant portion of health differentials across neighborhoods (high- and low-income) could be explained by the disparate levels of stress across these neighborhoods.

Effects on School Behavior and Performance

The greater incidence of health issues among lower-income students leads to increased

School absences.

Duration of school absences.

Tardiness rates.

Incidents of illness during class.

Rates of undiagnosed and/or untreated health problems or disabilities.

Each of these issues can occur among middle- and upper-income students, but they are both more common and more severe among students living in poverty. As a result, low-SES kids are often missing key classroom content and skills. Teachers may see students as uncaring or uninterested, when the real issue is that they're not in class enough to keep up.

Action Steps

Increase health-related services. Lower-income students face a daunting array of health issues. Successful schools understand these challenges and provide wide-ranging support and accommodations. Such support may include

There are serious limitations on what schools can and should do about student health. But all of us understand that when we don't feel right, it's hard to listen, concentrate, and learn. Successful schools find ways to ensure that students have a fighting chance to get and stay healthy.

Develop an enrichment counterattack. A compelling body of research (Dobrossy & Dunnett, 2004; Green, Melo, Christensen, Ngo, & Skene, 2006; Guilarte, Toscano, McGlothan, & Weaver, 2003; Nithianantharajah & Hannan, 2006) suggests that early exposure to toxins, maternal stress, trauma, alcohol, and other negatives can be ameliorated with environmental enrichment. The better the school environment is, the less the child's early risk factors will impair his or her academic success. An enrichment school

The whole point of school ought to be to enrich the life of every student. Enrichment does not mean "more" or "faster" schooling. It means rich, balanced, sustained, positive, and contrasting learning environments. That's what will change students' lives over the long haul (see Figure 2.10).

Beating the Odds

This chapter has painted a bleak picture of children raised in poverty. Certainly not all children raised in poverty experience the brain and behavioral changes described in this chapter, but we have seen that an aggregation of disadvantages creates a difficult web of negatives. Poverty penetrates deeper into the body, brain, and soul than many of us realize.

A childhood spent in poverty often sets the stage for a lifetime of setbacks. Secure attachments and stable environments, so vitally important to the social and emotional development of young children, are often denied to our neediest kids. These children experience more stress due to loneliness, aggression, isolation, and deviance in their peer relationships, and they are more likely to describe feeling deprived, embarrassed, picked on, or bullied. As a result, they more often face future struggles in marital and other relationships.

However, research (Hill, Bromell, Tyson, & Flint, 2007) suggests that although the first five years of a child's life are very important, there is tremendous opportunity during the school years for significant transformation. Low-SES children's behavior is an adaptive response to a chronic condition of poverty, but a brain that is susceptible to adverse environmental effects is equally susceptible to positive, enriching effects. You'll learn more about how brains can change for the better in Chapter 3.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How Poverty Affects Behavior and Academic Performance

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
by Eric Jensen In Chapter 1, we were introduced to history teacher Chris Hawkins. The family Mr. Hawkins grew up in was far from poor: his father was a colonel in the U.S. Air Force, and his mother was a store manager.

# data[].attributes.body
Studies have found no difference in suicidal thoughts or destructive actions by race, but students in poverty were significantly more likely to think of or actively try to kill themselves or to self-harm without intending suicide.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
By Sarah D. Sparks and Alex Harwin
Educators trying to halt the skyrocketing number of young people killing themselves need to intervene far earlier than they might think: A new study finds children as young as 9 and 10 report suicidal thoughts and self-harm.

Suicide among young people has reached a 30-year high, according to data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Suicide rates for teens ages 15 to 19 jumped by 76 percent from 2007 to 2017, but suicide rates for younger adolescents, ages 10 to 14, nearly tripled during that time. And the CDC has found 10 to 15 percent of middle and high school students consider killing themselves at some point.

But in a new study, published Friday in JAMA Network Open, brain researchers Deanna Barch and Diana Whalen of the Washington University in St. Louis found some tweens harbored those destructive thoughts years before.

Of more than 11,800 children ages 9-10 participating in the longitudinal Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development study, Barch and Whalen found 2.4 percent to 6.2 percent of the children reported thinking about or planning suicide. A little more than 1 percent of the children actually attempted to kill themselves, but nearly 1 in 10 reported "non-suicidal self-injury" such as cutting, pinching, and burning.

An even more chilling finding: More than 3 out of 4 times a child had suicidal thoughts or destructive actions, her caregivers had no idea.

"I think there has been a belief that we don't need to ask kids this age about suicidal thoughts or ideation if they're distressed because, you know, well, kids don't experience that yet," said Barch, a psychiatry professor and chair of the department of psychological and brain sciences at Washington University.

"It is certainly the case that the rates for children are lower than they sadly will be when they're adolescents. But they're non-trivial by any means," she said. "And to me, the take-home message here is that, if you have kids that seem to be having mental health problems or seeming really distressed, [you] should be regularly asking about suicidal ideation."

That's as important for teacher and principals as for parents, as unlike adults, who tend to commit suicide during summer months, children are most likely to kill themselves during the school year.
If you are in crisis, please call the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline at 1-800-273-TALK (8255), or contact the Crisis Text Line by texting TALK to 741741
Three common misconceptions may lead parents and teachers to overlook warning signs that a younger student may be experiencing suicidal thoughts:

Misconception: Younger Students Don't Understand What Suicide Is

Adults can mistakenly believe that elementary-age children don't comprehend the permanance of death well enough to really consider suicide in the same way a teenager or adult would. But in prior research, Whalen found even early elementary children who are depressed or suicidal have a more accurate understanding of death than children who are psychologically healthy. "I don't think it's that they say, 'I want to kill myself,' but they don't really get what that means. I think they do," Barch said.

Misconception: Younger Students Don't Have the Same Kinds of Problems as Suicidal Teenagers

Tweens and teens gave similar reasons for feeling suicidal or wanting to harm themselves, Barch found.

"Kids may be having suicidal thoughts or even acting on them because they're having conflict with their family or friends, they're being bullied," Barch said. "The specifics are going to be developmentally different: The kind of conflict or difficult family situation you have when you're 9 or 10 might look different than when you're 15 or 16. Difficulties with your friends when you're 9 or 10 might look different than when you're 15 or 16. But it is still, I think, a reflection of kids having significant distress, depression, feeling like they're in really difficult life circumstances."

The study found children with a lot of family conflict were significantly more likely to have thoughts of suicide or to harm themselves.

Misconception: Children Have to Be Depressed to Consider Suicide or Self-Harm

Children in the study who reported suicidal thoughts or harmful behaviors were more likely to have a family history of depression or suicide, or to have depression or anxiety problems themselves.

But as Barch noted above, children frequently reported thinking about suicide in the context of stressful or sad situations. "Suicide can happen in the context of things other than full-blown depression. We also see kids who are experiencing distress because of anxiety, or because of peer or family or other environmental things who don't meet the criteria for depression," she said. "We shouldn't assume that if a child doesn't appear depressed, that that means there's no possible way they could be having suicidal ideation."

The study found no difference in suicidal thoughts or destructive actions by race, but students in poverty were significantly more likely to think of or actively try to kill themselves or to self-harm without intending suicide.

Among younger students, there were no differences in actual suicide attempts between boys and girls, but boys were significantly more likely than girls to think about and plan suicide as well as to cut, burn, or otherwise harm themselves. That was a surprise, Barch said, because gender differences flip after puberty, with adolescent girls more likely to self-harm and consider or attempt suicide.

Earlier this month the CDC released a report finding the national suicide rate for adults has increased by 1.4 percent between 2017 and 2018, but the 2018 data for children and teens has not yet been released. The ABCD study will continue to track the students over time, to try to identify factors that may predict which students will recover from suicidal thoughts or develop them over time.

In the end, the findings suggest educators and parents should take more time to listen to students and ask follow-up questions. "Kids are under a lot of pressure. Parents are under a lot of pressure as well. Society has put a lot of pressure to achieve more," said Susan Tellone, the clinical director of the Society for the Prevention of Teen Suicide.

"If a child comes to you, you don't shut down that conversation," Tellone said. "You use three words. You say 'Tell me more.'"
For more on how educators can help prevent child and adolescent suicides, see: Image: Getty Related:
Do you have a question about education research, or just want to know what the evidence says about that pesky instructional problem? Let me know! Drop me a line at [email protected], or

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Children as Young as 9 and 10 Think About Killing Themselves. Adults Around Them Have No Clue.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
By Sarah D. Sparks and Alex Harwin Educators trying to halt the skyrocketing number of young people killing themselves need to intervene far earlier than they might think: A new study finds children as young as 9 and 10 report suicidal thoughts and self-harm.

# data[].attributes.headline
Response Strategies: Make Students Feel Safe, Nurtured, and Supported

# data[].attributes.subject
Response Strategies: Make Students Feel Safe, Nurtured, and Supported

# data[].attributes.body
Have a mental health professional at school. Educate both students and teachers about ACEs and foster social emotional learning.

Teach mindfulness (peace corners, calming environments and smells, etc).

Set up regular check-ins with students.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A trauma-informed approach ensures that students feel safe, supported, and nurtured-to improve their chances of academic success.

# data[].attributes.body
A helpful technique that teaches students that intelligence is not fixed and it can be developed is referred to as a growth-mindset. Focus on growth and change, encouraging students to believe in themselves and their capacity to reach their goals.

# data[].attributes.headline
Response Strategies: Breaking Poverty Barriers

# data[].attributes.subject
Response Strategies: Breaking Poverty Barriers

# data[].attributes.body
Strengths Perspective Approach: Every individual has strengths. Empower students and families by focusing on what is good about them, what they do know and what skills they have now.

Look for the strengths and skills of students and families. Tell them what you believe is good about them.

Ask students and families for their help. Find ways they can contribute, feel helpful and be included.

Give students and families opportunities to shine.

Tell students you are happy to see them; make them feel wanted and valued.

Practice showing empathy instead of sympathy.

Resiliency Theory: People can develop resiliency when they are surrounded by others who tell them what is good about them.

Treat students like they are special. Show them what is unique about them. This builds resiliency

Asset Theory: The more assets a student has, both internal (conflict resolution skills, sense of purpose, etc.) and external (adult relationships, caring school climate, etc.), the more likely they will succeed.

Learn what assets your students and families have and what services or opportunities they need to move forward. Connect them to resources.

Build partnerships in your community so you know where to find resources.

Help people navigate the middle-class world such as paperwork, asking the right questions, taking steps, etc.

Social Capital Theory:  People increase their chances for success when they know the right people and have meaningful connections with those who can help. People in poverty greatly benefit from having trusting relationships with people who have benefited from education.

Introduce students to others who have benefited from education.

Tell students about opportunities (programs, events, etc.) that you know will put them in a place to build relationships with people who are educated.

Faulty Attribution Theory:  When we attribute motives to someone else’s behavior without discovering the “why” behind their actions.

Withhold judgement of behavior.

Understand people are doing the best they can with the information and perspectives they possess.

Remind yourself that your experiences and worldview may be different from your students.

Attempt to find out the “why” behind behavior.

# data[].attributes.body
Praise school success rather than what students' own.

Provide access to computers, magazines/newspapers, and books.

Don't make comments about clothes or belongings.

Take time to (re)explain rationale for rules and procedures.

Have shared supplies in the classroom.

Do not require costly activities.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Millions of school-age students in America live in poverty. You don't have to teach in a blighted urban area or a depressed rural region to teach students who are from a poor family.

The lives of poor students are often very different from those of their more affluent peers. They cannot look forward to an abundance of presents on their birthday. Back-to-school shopping is not an exciting time of new clothes and school supplies. Even small outlays of money are significant to students living in poverty; a locker fee, a soft drink for a class party, or a fee for a field trip may be out of their reach. In addition, because they do not wear the same fashionable clothes as their peers, poor students are often the targets of ridicule.

Economically disadvantaged students have a very difficult time with succeeding in school. One of the most unfortunate results of their economic struggles is that students who live in poverty often drop out of school, choosing a low-paying job to pay for the luxuries they have been denied instead of an education.

Despite the bleak outlook for many of these students, you can do a great deal to make school a meaningful haven for them. You can help your students who live in poverty by implementing some of these suggestions:

* When you suspect that their peers are taunting disadvantaged students, act quickly to stop the harassment.

* Students who live in poverty have not been exposed to broadening experiences such as family vacations, trips to museums, or even eating in restaurants. Spend time adding to their worldly experience if you want poor students to connect their book learning with real-life situations.

* Listen to your disadvantaged students. They need a strong relationship with a trustworthy adult in order to succeed.

* Work to boost the self-esteem of students who live in poverty by praising their school success instead of what they own.

* Provide access to computers, magazines, newspapers, and books so low-income students can see and work with printed materials. School may be the only place where they are exposed to print media.

* Keep your expectations for poor students high. Poverty does not mean ignorance.

* Don't make comments about your students' clothes or belongings unless they are in violation of the dress code.

* Students who live in poverty may not always know the correct behaviors for school situations. At home, they may function under a different set of social rules. Take time to explain the rationale for rules and procedures in your classroom.

* Be careful about the school supplies you expect students to purchase. Keep your requirements as simple as you can for all students.

* Arrange a bank of shared supplies for your students to borrow when they are temporarily out of materials for class.

* Do not require costly activities. For example, if you require students to pay for a field trip, some of them will not be able to go.

* If you notice that a student does not have lunch money, check to make sure that a free lunch is an option for that child.

* Be very sensitive to the potential for embarrassment in even small requests for or comments about money that you make. For example, if you jokingly remark, "There's no such thing as a free lunch," you could embarrass one of your low-income students.

* Make it clear that you value all of your students for their character and not for their possessions

Adapted from First-Year Teacher's Survival Guide.

For more information on how to help your economically disadvantaged students, visit aha!Process (www.ahaprocess.com). aha!Process is an organization that was founded by Dr. Ruby Payne, Ph.D., a leading expert on the effects of generational poverty on students. Her book A Framework for Understanding Poverty, published in 1996 by aha!Process, is significant because it explains how the silent culture clash between students and teachers in classrooms has a harmful effect on students.

Julia G. Thompson. "What You Can Do for Students Living in Poverty". http://teaching.monster.com/counselors/articles/8164-what-you-can-do-for-students-living-in-poverty

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What You Can Do for Students Living in Poverty

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Millions of school-age students in America live in poverty. You don't have to teach in a blighted urban area or a depressed rural region to teach students who are from a poor family. The lives of poor students are often very different from those of their more affluent peers.

# data[].attributes.body
How and why divorce is considered a traumatic event

Trauma typically has the following characteristics:
1. It is an "uncontrollable event"
2. The event is a "rare or infrequent occurrence"
3. In some cases, the event may not be a routine occurrence (domestic violence for example), "but is nonetheless beyond the scope of human experience"
4. The "trauma is usually unpredictable"
5. As a person attempts to process the event, they are changed

Thus divorce then can be considered a traumatic event for a child as the child may experience several of the above listed characteristics of trauma.

For example, the divorce of parent is "beyond" the "control" of the child and, perhaps, "unpredictable" for the child. In addition, divorce is not an "ordinary process" and its duration may take months to years,  and within that time period, and after, the child is changed (behaviorally changed).

One should also be aware that "should the divorce process occur at a point where the child's attachment style is not fully developed, it stands to reason that the likelihood of secure attachment developing is reduced."

Source: McKay, D. (2020). "The trauma of divorce: Reducing the impact of separation on children." American Academy of Experts in Traumatic Stress. https://www.aaets.org/traumatic-stress-library/the-trauma-of-divorce-reducing-the-impact-of-separation-on-children

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Trauma of Divorce: Reducing the Impact of Separation on Children

Dean McKay, Ph.D., B.C.E.T.S., F.A.A.E.T.S.

___________________________

Any member of the American Academy of Experts in Traumatic Stress would concur that trauma may be defined broadly to include not only physical stress, such as combat involvement, auto accidents, natural disaster, torture, but also vicarious sources of trauma, such as observing others being traumatized, as in witnessing a major accident. These are the types of trauma that we most often consider when discussing the iatrogenic effects of overwhelming experiences. What has been largely ignored in the literature is an explicit consideration of divorce as traumatic. Yet the psychological ramifications of the divorce process are considerable, and one cannot overlook the potential traumatizing effects of divorce on the children involved.

First, let's reconsider how to define trauma. There are some key elements. First, it is usually an uncontrollable event. The nature of the event is beyond the scope of ordinary human experience; that is, the event is a rare or infrequent occurrence. In some instances, the event may not be rare, but is nonetheless beyond the scope of human experience, as noted in a review two issues ago of a book which described how refugee camp survivors experience trauma routinely. Moreover, trauma is usually unpredictable. Further, in an effort to process the event, the person is changed.

These are among the defining aspects of trauma, and several theorists have suggested ways in which we process this information. For example, several issues ago, I indicated that one may consider the etiology of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) from a behavioral perspective using the framework offered by Lang (1977) and Foa and Kozak (1986). These theories are equally useful for all classifications of traumatic events. Briefly, these theories suggest that in the immediate aftermath of a traumatic event, an individual copes with the environment by purposely "forgetting" the material, and slowly re-introduces the information when a state of equilibrium is established (Lang, 1977). Further, since re-introducing the material is often disquieting, there are some individuals who are at greater risk for developing a traumatic reaction (Jones & Barlow, 1990). Risk factors include biological elements and elevated levels of anxiety sensitivity (Reiss, 1991; Taylor, 1995), a psychological condition in which changes in bodily functions are perceived as potentially harmful and items present in the environment are then the source of avoidance. The links to trauma here are the situations in which the traumatic information is re-introduced (as in Lang's theory); then those situations are likely to be avoided in the future when one also has elevated levels of anxiety sensitivity. Foa and Kozak (1986) expanded Lang's theory to include mechanisms at work during treatment, and suggested that fear structures, such as those present in anxiety states following trauma, are hierarchically arranged.

Perhaps it would be instructive to provide an example which illustrates our model. Consider the situation in which there is an only child who is under the (false) impression that her parents are getting along well together. In fact, she has believed this to be the case for as long as she was capable of being aware of interpersonal interactions. Suddenly one day she is informed that her parents are going to be divorced. Then, once the situation is out in the open, the parents feel unburdened of maintaining the charade of being agreeable and begin fighting in their daughter¹s presence. This would fit the description of trauma, and one would not be surprised if this child experienced symptoms of stress. First, the incident was sudden and not predictable. Second, other incongruent stressors followed - the parents fighting. In this scenario, the professionals likely to see this child are not psychologists but law guardians and school guidance counselors. These people are also in a prime position for preventative interventions, details of which are offered shortly.

In light of this background definition and illustrative example, there are other specific features that make the trauma of divorce unique. Specifically, there are several issues to be considered from developmental psychology which interface with the divorce process. First, we will consider links to the definition. For the children (and in some instances, the adults), the process is beyond their control. Further, most would agree that it is not an ordinary process, but one which is atypical. The whole procedure may take months or even two to three years to complete. For example, a recent custody evaluation for which I was consulted had been in progress for two and a half years, with all members of the family residing in the same home. The more appropriate analogy here would be to compare this situation to one with ongoing trauma. The divorce process is unpredictable. This is true from the beginning of litigation‹when children often have little understanding of what is occurring, and changes happen rapidly and episodically‹to the final decision, after several court dates where the whole procedure is expected to end, it finally terminates, and most involved are surprised. Finally, the people involved are changed as a result of the process. This is true of the divorce process, where later adult development is usually strongly affected by divorce processes during childhood. In addition to these issues that are directly related to the divorce process in children, there are aspects to consider as they relate to developmental factors in the litigation process.
Attachment Problems
According to Ainsworth, et al. (1978) and others who have followed (i.e., Fonagy et al., 1996; Main, 1996), children develop what are referred to as attachment styles that are predictive of later psychopathological states. Essentially, attachment styles are broadly defined as falling into three patterns: secure, anxious or insecure, and avoidant. Each attachment style may be demonstrated in relation to the child's interaction with a parent or caregiver. Each style is best illustrated by an example. Imagine a child is in the supermarket with a parent. Securely attached children may wander a finite distance away from the caregiver, usually within visual range, without experiencing anxiety or discomfort. Should that distance be too far, however, the child generally attempts to find the parent. Anxious or insecurely attached children may not wander away from the parent, and the environment may be perceived as hostile, even if the distance from the caregiver is within visual range. By contrast, the avoidant child may wander from the parent and experience no concern whatsoever about distance.

These attachment styles have been found to be predictive of later difficulties in interpersonal relations. For example, Allen, Hauser, and Borman-Spurrell (1996) found that children identified as avoidant or insecure in childhood experience interpersonal difficulties in adolescence. Securely attached children perform best with interpersonal relations. This analysis has some implications for the divorce process. Since attachment is a developmental process, this implies that caregivers have some input into the manner in which children develop these styles. For example, inconsistent parental attention, either in the form of discipline, rewards, or availability, has been shown to be related to the development of attachment difficulties (Fonagy et al., 1996). Contrariwise, secure attachment has been found to act as a protective factor from later psychopathology (Fonagy, et al., 1996).

Divorce is a time of tremendous upheaval in families. Given this disruption, should the divorce process occur at a point where the child's attachment style is not fully developed, it stands to reason that the likelihood of secure attachment developing is reduced. The process whereby this may be problematic is illustrated in figure 2.

In addition to the formative aspects, attachment styles change over time. Let's consider the example given before. Here, the young girl believes her parents got along well and is likely to be a securely attached child. However, one could imagine a change in demeanor after learning that her parents were getting divorced. In fact, a shift in attachment is expected‹in this case, insecure attachment is most likely to result. The child is jolted from her false belief that her parents are not a distressed couple (and that therefore she has nothing with which to be concerned). The sudden and unpredicted information to the contrary would shake her faith in the likelihood of a positive outcome, despite reassurances. Contingencies and other environmental issues

Long the stronghold of behavioral theorists, the environmental contingencies play a pivotal role in the development of normal or abnormal adjustment. In particular, reinforcement history is a large contributor to the manner in which one copes with later problems (Skinner, 1953). Sadly, reinforcement history has either been ignored (Salzinger, 1996), improperly examined as something else (such as learned helplessness, Salzinger, 1994), or seen as unmeasurable phenomena (as in the case of constructs explicated in psychodynamic theory). If we use learning history as the basis of discussion, Skinner (1953) made it clear that consistent administration of contingencies (rewards, punishers) was the best method for maintaining normal functioning. During times of divorce, it has been well documented that the environment becomes anything but consistent (Ackerman, 1995), and may even be disruptive (Ackerman, 1995; Bricklin, 1995). For example, since it is in the best interests of the child that both parents work together in providing rewards and discipline, during divorce this process of cooperation frequently breaks down. Therefore, in the absence of consistent environmental contingencies, later problems in adjustment become more likely.

Again, in order to bring this into clearer focus, let's consider the young girl whose parents are getting divorced. The contingencies which were previously operating suggest that this child received frequent positive reinforcement both directly from her parents and indirectly by observing them behaving in an agreeable fashion. However, once it was announced that a divorce would soon take place, she probably did not receive the same level of reinforcement as previously, and her observations of her parents together were aversive instead of positive. Now, as well as being traumatized, this little girl was also likely to be depressed (Costello, 1978).
The Divorce Process
At this point, it appears well established that we may properly conceptualize divorce as being a form of trauma (uncontrollable, unusual and perhaps persistent, and resulting in long term behavioral change) with special implications for children (depending on attachment style and consistency of environmental contingencies). What are the specific aspects of divorce that create the trauma? And further, what may be done to alleviate or minimize the impact? Finally, what palliative measures may be taken when trauma has been clearly induced as a function of divorce? The balance of this paper is devoted to attempting to provide some working answers to these questions. Specific features of divorce that lead to trauma

In divorce proceedings, the most difficult aspect for children (as well as parents) to overcome is the issue of which parent is going to maintain custody. This thorny issue is the single area where mental health professionals (often psychologists) are called upon for expert testimony. The scenarios which lead to the intervention of a psychologist are multi-faceted, but most common is the situation in which the parents cannot agree upon custody determination. Usually, each parent wants to retain sole custody of the child(ren), with the other getting some level of visitation privileges. However, in some instances, parents may agree to some aspects of custody, but pre-existing conditions (such as mental illness) preclude immediate determination of custody. Here again, psychologists are called upon to test the relevant parties for competence and some determination is then made by the courts for custody and visitation arrangements.

It is at this point that one may view the effects of the divorce process in bold relief. Usually by the time all parties agree to engage in a custody evaluation, the divorce process has been well established and the negative effects have taken hold. Since the parents are not in agreement about either custody outright, or some idiosyncratic aspects of custody/visitation, then it is safe to assume that the participants are in conflict about most other aspects, and are not likely to readily agree to terms such as who pays what percentage to the evaluator; which psychologist should conduct the evaluation; and scheduling of appointments. Essentially, the conflict that goes into scheduling meetings with professionals only serves to exacerbate an already established dysfunctional process that is not well understood by the children involved.

Suppose that the girl described so far is informed about her parents' divorce at age seven. Further, the child is informed that she is going to live with only one of these parents and is asked to provide some preference. This may be further defined as traumatic. It is uncontrollable (the child may feel hopeless or helpless; authority figures are clearly requesting a choice be made, when either choice may result in aversive consequences), unusual (generally children may express preferences for both parents simultaneously), and unpredictable (a child may be posed this question for the first time in the law guardian¹s office, not in the confines of a mental health practitioner¹s office). Therefore, by the time the child reaches the psychologist, it is too late. The damage is done and what remains is an attempt to remedy the traumatic sequelae. It would be useful to know how this process may be shunted off before excessive damage is incurred. This, in fact, is consistent with the position adopted in the American Academy of Experts in Traumatic Stress: a multidisciplinary approach is necessary, and further, some professionals known for dealing with particular aspects of trauma are not in the best position to prevent its onset.

Further traumatizing is the process itself. At early stages of development, children become aware that events surrounding the custody decision are intended to determine with whom the child is going to reside. Common reactions children have in the aftermath of custody decisions (with or without the evaluation of a professional) are guilt for the parent who did not gain custody (Franke, 1983). This is the reaction of "If I had been a better child, my parents would still live together." Although Franke (1983) suggests that this reaction is most common in early school-age children, it has been observed across the age range (Gottman & Fainsilber-Katz, 1989). Other emotional stages have been proposed by Franke (1983) such as ages where sadness, anger, false maturity, and denial predominate. However, researchers have found support for each of these states at all age ranges (Barber & Eccles, 1992; Forehand et al., 1991; Shybunko, 1989). Finally, regardless of attachment style, level of conflict between parents, and consistency of environment, Hetherington (1979) indicates that it is unusual for children to experience divorce without some degree of adjustment difficulties.

If it is the case that adjustment problems are normative, then the issue facing other disciplines is how to prevent these reactions from remaining or worsening, resulting in long-term adjustment problems. Some practical guidelines may be offered that are not unlike those suggested to those initiating custody evaluations. First, provide a clear rationale for what is happening. Since traumatic events are by definition poorly processed, this assists in the integration of distressing information. Provide the information in a structured manner. In other words, do not "wing it." It is important to be well-prepared for questions which may arise during the information-dispensing period, since this further aids in the processing of information. Finally, indicate alternatives. This provides a sense of control that can mitigate the otherwise traumatic effects of the divorce process.
Minimizing the Impact
At this point it is clear that children involved in custody litigation are caught in the middle. If the parties involved are genuinely working in the best interests of their children, then law guardians and individual legal counselors are in an excellent position to provide guidance to the parents about how to minimize the impact of the proceedings. Ackerman (1995) notes that often a child who is conflicted (e.g., wanting to be with both parents, feeling one parent is pressuring him or her) adjusts to the process more poorly. Therefore, parents may be guarded against establishing an arrangement where one parent tries to exercise undue influence over the child regarding decisions about the other parent.

At this point, it seems that the manner in which a law guardian or individual law counselor handles a case is of paramount importance. It is important to note that at this time, the professional who may render an evaluation has not been even contacted! In the absence of any direct mental health services, the lawyer in contact with the family is really the best person to prevent the worsening of trauma to the children. Although only case examples, two recent custody evaluations I was involved in illustrate this point well. In one case, the law guardian was knowledgeable about the psychological effects of divorce, and was able to provide an environment where information was dispensed gradually and in a meaningful way. Further, he encouraged the parties to maintain, to the best of their abilities, normal parenting styles during the process. There were two children involved in the process and although they were clearly struggling with the divorce process, their adjustment could be referred to as adequate. By contrast, another law guardian I worked with had little knowledge of the psychological impact and did not advise his clients accordingly; when the three children were being evaluated, they were experiencing considerable distress. Further, the case was considered onerous by this lawyer, whereas in the first case the lawyer perceived the case fairly positively. So the manner in which it is handled may also reduce stress in handling the case.
Repairing the Damage
Invariably, a number of children experience long-term negative consequences from the divorce process. As the proceedings draw to a close, one may observe "phantom recovery": the child appears to be settling down and ostensibly seems adjusted. This may not actually be the case. In keeping with our theory (illustrated earlier by Lang, 1977), following the termination of a traumatic event, there is often a period of relative adjustment and calm. This, however, lays the groundwork for later difficulties where the fear structures are forming and becoming entrenched. When attempts at processing the fear structures follow, traumatic reactions reliably occur. In order that we may circumvent these problems, it is important for children to discuss their concerns following the divorce in an environment that facilitates exposure in a fashion that is not traumatizing. For example, if the child were to discuss the features of the divorce that were difficult, then it would become less likely that future difficulties would arise since the fear structure has been weakened by repetition, which allows for processing of the information. Hetherington (1979) suggests that interventions are generally indicated for children following a divorce, since it is expected that they will experience difficulties. The mental health worker's job at this point is not to pathologize the difficulties, but to assist in the adjustment process in order to prevent psychopathology.

Divorce is a complex event that is most difficult for children in later adjustment. This paper was intended to provide an overview of what factors influence adjustment difficulties in the divorce process and how the variety of professionals involved in such cases may best reduce the harmful impact of divorce. Characterized as traumatic, divorce reactions apparently follow the same course as other traumatizing events. By relying on a network of professionals such as members of AAETS, the divorce process can be made a less traumatizing event for all parties involved.
References
Ackerman, M.J. (1995). Clinician¹s guide to child custody evaluations. NY: Wiley.

Ainsworth, M.D.S., Blehar, M.C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Allen, J.P., Hauser, S.T., & Borman-Spurrell, E. (1996). Attachment theory as a framework for understanding sequelae of severe adolescent psychopathology: An 11-year follow-up study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 254-263.

Barber, B.L. & Eccles, J.S. (1992). Long term influence of divorce in single parenting and adolescent families and work related values, behaviors, and aspirations. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 108-126.

Bricklin, B. (1995). The custody evaluation handbook: Research-based solutions and applications. NY: Brunner-Mazel.

Costello, C.G. (1978). A critical review of Seligman¹s laboratory experiments on learned helplessness and depression in humans. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87, 21-31.

Foa, E.B. & Kozak, M. (1986). Emotional processing of fear: Exposure to corrective information. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 20-35. Fonagy, P., Leigh, T., Steele, M., Steele, H., Kennedy, R., Mattoon, G., Target, M., & Gerber, A. (1996). The relation of attachment status, psychiatric classification, and response to psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 22-31.

Forehand, R., Wierson, M., McCombs, A., Thomas, R., Fauber, L.A., Kempton, T., & Long, N. (1991). A short-term longitudinal examination of young adolescent functioning following divorce: The role of family factors. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 97-111.

Franke, L. (1983). Growing up divorced. NY: Linden Press/Simon & Schuster.

Gottman, J.M. & Fainsilber-Katz, L. (1989). Effects of marital discord on young children's peer interaction and health. Developmental Psychology, 25, 373-381.

Hetherington, E.M. (1979). Divorce: A child's perspective. American Psychologist, 34, 851-858.

Jones, J.C. & Barlow, D.H. (1990). The etiology of posttraumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 10, 299-328.

Lang, P.J. (1977). Imagery in therapy: An information processing analysis of fear. Behavior Therapy, 8, 862-886.

Main, M. (1996). Introduction to the special series on attachment and psychopathology. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 1-3.

Reiss, S. (1991). Expectancy model of fear, anxiety, and panic. Clinical Psychology Review, 11, 141-153.

Salzinger, K. (1994). Measurement of reinforcement history: A neglected area in psychology. Master psychologist invited paper at the annual meeting of the Association for Behavior Analysis. Washington, DC.

Salzinger, K. (1996). Reinforcement history: A concept underutilized in behavior analysts. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 27, 199-207.

Shybunko, D.E. (1989). Effects of post-divorce relationship on child development. In Children of divorce: Developmental and clinical issues (pp. 299-313). NY: Haworth Press.

Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and human behavior. NY: Appleton-Century Crofts.

Taylor, S. (1995). Issues in the conceptualization and measurement of anxiety sensitivity. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 9, 163-174.
Published by the American Academy of Experts in Traumatic Stress - 2020

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Trauma of Divorce: Reducing the Impact of Separation on Children

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Trauma of Divorce: Reducing the Impact of Separation on Children Dean McKay, Ph.D., B.C.E.T.S., F.A.A.E.T.S. ___________________________ Any member of the American Academy of Experts in Traumatic Stress would concur that trauma may be defined broadly to include not only physical stress, such as combat involvement, auto accidents, natural disaster, torture, but also vicarious sources of trauma, such as observing others being traumatized, as in witnessing a major accident.

# data[].attributes.body
The Effects of Divorce on Preschoolers

1. "Preschoolers most often react to their parents’ break-up with fear and guilt."
2. "They’re confused: young children are not able to understand what is going on and why."
3. "Young children often worry about who will take care of them, if there will be enough food or money, where they’ll live, and so on."

Behavioral Observations of Preschoolers

1. "Parents [and teachers] will often see children go back to early behaviors: for example, the child may want a security blanket again, or they may have problems using the toilet.
2. "They may cry, cling, or disobey."
3. "They may have night fears or fears at separation."
4. "Children may imagine strange things about why one parent is gone."
5. "Children often think they caused the break-up."
6. "If a parent is very upset, a preschooler may hide his own feelings so he won’t upset the parent."

How to Help Preschoolers through Your Divorce
Although the below is for parents, if a teacher is aware that a child is going through a parental divorce, they can speak with the parents regarding the need for the following:

1. "Young children need to be told clearly and often that their parents will take care of them, and that both Mom and Dad still love them."
2. "They need to be told that they are still a family, no matter where each family member lives."
3. "Parents need to explain in a simple way why the break-up happened; this will help the children know that the problems are between Mom and Dad and that the break-up is not their fault."
4. "They need a chance to talk about their fears."
5. "Both parents should spend lots of time with their children."
6. "Parents should avoid conﬂict in front of the children."
7. "When violence has occurred, the safety of the children must be insured."
8. "Showing respect for the other parent can undo the damage to children who have seen violence."

The Effects of Divorce on Children Ages 6–8
1. Children in this age range often respond with grief ("crying and sobbing; this happens with boys more than with girls").
2. "They also feel a deep yearning for the absent parent."
3. "Since they don’t see the absent parent often, they usually won’t express the anger they feel toward him or her. They will express their anger toward the custodial parent, and they may blame him/her for the absence of the other parent."
4. "When contact with the absent parent is reduced, children at this age often believe that parent has stopped loving them", which is emotional trauma.

How to Help Young Children [ages 6-8] through Your Divorce
Although the below is for parents, if a teacher is aware that a child is going through a parental divorce, they can speak with the parents regarding the need for the following:
1. Children "should not feel pressure to take sides, so never criticize the other parent in front of the children."
2. "They need to know that both parents still love them."
3. "Children must be able to spend time with the absent parent."

The Effects of Divorce on Preteens (ages 9–12)
1. "Most of these children can understand some of the reasons for the break-up."
2. "They will seriously and bravely try to make the best of it."
3. "These children will often hide the distress they are feeling."
4. "They may say they see their nonresident parent enough – when in fact they miss him or her terribly."
5. "They may be afraid to ask for more time with their other parent because they know this will upset the resident parent."

Things to keep in mind

1. "About 25% of children at this age will take sides in the parents’ battle, most often siding with the mother."
2. "Although they are better able than their younger brothers and sisters to see both sides, they still tend to see things in black-and-white terms", will may lead to labelling "one parent as 'the good guy' and the other parent as the 'villain.' "
3. "Children at this age are likely to feel intense anger, and unlike their younger siblings, they are very aware of their anger."
4. "A badly shaken sense of self is also common at this age."
5. "Children may have many health complaints or problems, including infections, headaches, stomachaches, asthma, etc."
6. "Children may not have as many friends as before, and they may fear that their peers will reject them."
7. "These children are more likely to become friends with other 'rejected' classmates. These new friends may have emotional or behavioral problems, which can lead to more serious problems: failing school, breaking laws, or engaging in risky sex, drug, or alcohol abuse."

How to Help Preteens through Your Divorce
Although the below is for parents, if a teacher is aware that a child is going through a parental divorce, they can speak with the parents regarding the need for the following:
1. "Children at this age need to be able to talk to each parent about the break-up and about life after the break-up; to express their concerns, fears, and complaints."
2. "Parents should offer love and support to their preteens, and they need to acknowledge their children’s anger."
3. "Often, the children yearn for the parents to get back together. If this is not going to happen ... children should be told clearly and with no doubt; creating false hope does not help the children."
4. "Parents must control their anger towards each other. If their anger becomes violent, parents must disengage, and they should avoid contact until they learn control."
5. "Parents should minimize conﬂict in front of their children ... Children learn social skills by watching conﬂicts get resolved; if parents can negotiate and compromise, they model good social skills.

6. "Parents must allow the children to love the other parent. Encourage children to call or write letters, and help the children give the other parent gifts on special days ..."
7. "Say good things about the other parent in front of the children: praise your ex’s good qualities."
8. "Avoid making children 'choose sides.' "

Source: Gordon, D. and Arbuthnot, J. (2019, June 7). "The effects of divorce on children." Divorce Magazine. https://www.divorcemag.com/articles/effects-of-divorce-on-children

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
When parents split up, the family changes - and these changes can be very painful for the children. Most parents wonder what the break-up will do to their children, asking themselves hard questions such as:

Will the children understand what's going on?

How will they react to each parent as the family changes?

Will they be OK with a new step-parent?

Will they be OK if there are step-siblings?

Will their grades in school suffer?

Will they draw away from their friends?

Will they suffer some emotional harm forever?

Does the children's age make a difference?

Is it different for boys than for girls?

For most divorcing parents, the important thing is that their children survive the process relatively unscathed. They want their children to grow up to be healthy adults - and many children do, of course. Some are even better off in many ways; for some children, a break-up is better than staying in an unhappy family. A separation can also be better than being in a high-conflict home where parents argue constantly.

The Effects of Divorce on Children

Here are the typical effects of divorce on children - from preschoolers to pre-adolescents - as well as some advice on how parents can help their children through the divorce process.

The Effects of Divorce on Preschoolers

Preschoolers most often react to their parents' break-up with fear and guilt. They're confused: young children are not able to understand what is going on and why. They think that if Dad can leave their life, Mom can too. They may think that if parents can stop loving each other, they can also stop loving them. Young children often worry about who will take care of them, if there will be enough food or money, where they'll live, and so on. There really is no age where children are not upset by stress in a bad relationship.

Parents will often see children go back to early behaviors: for example, the child may want a security blanket again, or they may have problems using the toilet. There may be an increase in wanting to masturbate. They may cry, cling, or disobey. They may have night fears or fears at separation. Children may imagine strange things about why one parent is gone. Children often think they caused the break-up; they may think Dad or Mom would not have gone if they had behaved better. If a parent is very upset, a preschooler may hide his own feelings so he won't upset the parent.

How to Help Preschoolers through Your Divorce

Young children need to be told clearly and often that their parents will take care of them, and that both Mom and Dad still love them. They need to be told that they are still a family, no matter where each family member lives. Parents need to explain in a simple way why the break-up happened; this will help the children know that the problems are between Mom and Dad and that the break-up is not their fault. They need a chance to talk about their fears. Each parent should frequently set aside time to talk to the preschoolers about how they feel. Both parents should spend lots of time with their children.

Parents should also avoid conﬂict in front of the children. Young children will listen to their parents' arguing and may think they are to blame. When violence has occurred, the safety of the children must be insured; a violent parent can help repair the harm by setting a good example of anger control. Showing respect for the other parent can undo the damage to children who have seen violence.

Preschoolers need to spend good one-on-one time with each parent. Most of them are very sad not to be with the absent parent more - for children under three, one week of being away is too long. Their sense of time is much shorter than that of older children.

The Effects of Divorce on Children Ages 6-8

Children aged six to eight years old respond most often with grief. They express their grief through crying and sobbing; this happens with boys more than with girls. They also feel a deep yearning for the absent parent. The children will miss that parent intensely, even if their relationship with the parent was not good before the break-up. Since they don't see the absent parent often, they usually won't express the anger they feel toward him or her. They will express their anger toward the custodial parent, and they may blame him/her for the absence of the other parent. When contact with the absent parent is reduced, children at this age often believe that parent has stopped loving them. This reaction causes emotional trauma.

Young children often hope Mom and Dad will get back together. They may feel that it is their job to take care of and comfort their parents, and many will try to solve the problems between their parents. It is not healthy for young children to reverse roles with their parents.

Research tells us that children are affected when they see their parents ﬁghting. It affects their ideas about how people solve problems with each other. Children do not get used to the ﬁghting - instead, the ﬁghting wears them down. Physical ﬁghting is especially damaging: children will copy their parents and hit other children.

When parents try to get the child to take sides, there can be a "tug of war" on the emotions of a child. Some parents may tell their children that the other parent is bad, or that the other parent caused the problems. Each parent may really believe this simple view. Children caught in the middle are the most likely to lose this war.
How to Help Young Children through Your Divorce
All children need protection from the hurts and anger of parents. They should not feel pressure to take sides, so never criticize the other parent in front of the children. They need to know that both parents still love them. They will be taken care of even if Mom and Dad do not live together. Children must be able to spend time with the absent parent. They need to know it is okay to love that parent. Young children are not sure their parents still love them - so they need more love and support now.
The Effects of Divorce on Preteens (ages 9-12)
The effects of divorce on children aged nine to twelve years old are not the same as younger children. This age group is more advanced in their thinking, and they are able to see many points of view in the matter. Most of these children can understand some of the reasons for the break-up. They will seriously and bravely try to make the best of it.

These children will often hide the distress they are feeling. They may say they see their nonresident parent enough - when in fact they miss him or her terribly. They may be afraid to ask for more time with their other parent because they know this will upset the resident parent.

About 25% of children at this age will take sides in the parents' battle, most often siding with the mother. Although they are better able than their younger brothers and sisters to see both sides, they still tend to see things in black-and-white terms. This results in a need to label one parent as "the good guy" and the other parent as the "villain."

Children at this age are likely to feel intense anger, and unlike their younger siblings, they are very aware of their anger. Anger is normal in the break-up of a family. A badly shaken sense of self is also common at this age. Children may have many health complaints or problems, including infections, headaches, stomachaches, asthma, etc. The stress the children are going through aggravates these problems. Doctors report that children from split homes come to their ofﬁces far more often than other children.

Family break-ups can also lead to problems with peers. Children may not have as many friends as before, and they may fear that their peers will reject them. These children are more likely to become friends with other "rejected" classmates. These new friends may have emotional or behavioral problems, which can lead to more serious problems: failing school, breaking laws, or engaging in risky sex, drug, or alcohol abuse.

Preteens have developed new thinking skills, which allow them to understand cause-and-effect relationships, but they still lack a larger view of how things work. They are likely to feel very let down, and they may "act out" by trying to hurt one or both of their parents using the power they think they have. They might say mean or unkind things, or accuse parents of changing or having moral lapses. They may refuse to spend time with the parent they now see as guilty.

Parents should not accept this: in a gentle way, make your preteens aware that you expect them to be civil and polite to both parents. Concrete examples may help. Remind them that even though Aunt Mary is bossy or Grandma is strict, the children must still go on family visits, during which they are expected to be polite. And even though they may not like a certain teacher, they must still show respect to him/her.

They can be given some control over minor aspects of their time with the other parent. For example, they could choose to take along a friend or suggest activities. Or, they could choose to call the other parent now and then, etc.

How to Help Preteens through Your Divorce

Children at this age need to be able to talk to each parent about the break-up and about life after the break-up - to express their concerns, fears, and complaints. And they can understand a little about how the parents feel. It is okay to say that Mom and Dad do not agree about everything, but tell them that Mom and Dad do agree about the children.

Parents should offer love and support to their preteens, and they need to acknowledge their children's anger. Often, the children yearn for the parents to get back together. If this is not going to happen (and it usually isn't), children should be told clearly and with no doubt; creating false hope does not help the children.

Parents must control their anger towards each other. If their anger becomes violent, parents must disengage, and they should avoid contact until they learn control. Parents should minimize conﬂict in front of their children - this is very important if the conﬂict is unresolved or is spiteful. Children learn social skills by watching conﬂicts get resolved; if parents can negotiate and compromise, they model good social skills. This can lessen the effect of the conﬂict.

Parents must allow the children to love the other parent. Encourage children to call or write letters, and help the children give the other parent gifts on special days (birthdays, Christmas, Father's Day, etc.).

Say good things about the other parent in front of the children: praise your ex's good qualities. In spite of your anger and sadness, at one time you saw enough good qualities to want to marry or move in with this person; surely some of those qualities are still there!

Avoid making children "choose sides." Most parents are not aware how often they do this, and many truly believe they never do this. Trying to get children to side with you damages their relationship with the other parent, which leads to more stress and causes anger toward both parents.
We're thrilled to tell you that this article has won "Best Article on Children and Divorce" in the Best Family Blog Awards (announced November 28, 2018)! This article has been edited and adapted with permission from What About the Children? A Simple Guide For Divorced/Separated And Divorcing Parents (CDE, eighth edition, 2011) by Donald A. Gordon (Ph.D.) and Jack Arbuthnot (Ph.D.). Based in Athens, OH, the Center for Divorce Education (CDE) is a non-proﬁt corporation founded in 1987 by a consortium of attorneys and psychologists. The CDE is dedicated to advocating for children and helping parents to minimize the harmful effects that divorce and separation has on children. More information and skills to improve relationships with the co-parent and children is available at: online.divorce-education.com
The Best Family Blog Awards is an annual event hosted by Family Living Today that recognizes the best content from the family living from this past year. The Best Family Blog Awards shine a spotlight on the family living and informative blogs and articles being produced by thought leaders and industry experts.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Effects of Divorce on Children | WINNER: Best Article on Children and Divorce in 2018

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
When parents split up, the family changes - and these changes can be very painful for the children. Here are the most common effects of divorce on children.

# data[].attributes.headline
The Effects of Divorce on Children Includes Emotional Trauma

# data[].attributes.subject
The Effects of Divorce on Children Includes Emotional Trauma

# data[].attributes.body
Academic Impacts of Divorce on Math and Reading
A study by Hyun Sik Kim at the University of Wisconsin, Madison revealed the following regarding the academic effects of divorce on children:
1. Children of Divorce Had Lower Math Scores
"The study found that children of divorce scored 12% lower than children from non-divorced families."
2.  Reading skills for these children did not fall behind.

Why would math scores suffer, but not reading skills?
"The study of mathematics is a cumulative skill. If a child were to fall behind in one area of math, he or she would have a difficult time keeping up with the next math skill. Learning to read, on the other hand, is a fluid process. This means that when a child is struggling with reading, it is easier for him to catch up to the rest of his peers."

Internalized Problems

"The study found that internalized problems were much more prevalent than externalized problems. Internalized problems include anxiety, loneliness, sadness, and low self-esteem. Externalized problems, such as arguing, fighting, or showing anger, were less apparent."

Source: Brashear, T. (2019, February 12). "The effects of divorce on children includes emotional trauma." Divorce Magazine. https://www.divorcemag.com/articles/effects-of-divorce-on-children-2

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
There are many different effects of divorce on children. Their social skills can suffer, and they can also begin struggling in school. If you are getting divorced, you should monitor your child's performance in school. You should also watch for signs of sadness, anxiety, loneliness, and more.

Dealing with the loss of one parent can be a difficult experience for a child. When one parent decides to walk out, it can leave a large hole that the remaining parent may find difficult to fill. It takes love, gentleness, and patience to help a child move through this loss and transition into their new life. Parents need to understand what a child may be feeling, and how to help with any issues that happen along the way.

The effects of divorce on children include emotional trauma.

When one parent decides not to, or cannot, be in a child's life any longer, it can leave many unanswered questions. Usually, a child will internalize this loss and make it about himself. A child may begin questioning if he is to blame for the parent leaving. This kind of loss can cause a child to question his own self-worth, and worry that the remaining parent will also leave. This is one of the many different effects of divorce on children.

Parents need to be aware that their child is thinking these types of thoughts, even if the child is not verbalizing them. Reassurance that the child is still loved and is not to blame for the loss is crucial. A parent should talk to the child about the reasons the parent left. Parents should also give their child a chance to share their own concerns and worries in a judgment-free way.

The effects of divorce on children extend into their school and social life as well. A new study reports that children of divorce are more likely to lag behind peers in math. They may also struggle with anxiety, loneliness, low self-esteem, and sadness. Hyun Sik Kim, a Ph.D. candidate in sociology at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, published these findings in the June 2011 issue of the American Sociological Review. The study found that while children experienced no problems during the pre-divorce periods, issues with academics and social situations started as soon as the divorce process began.
The Study
Kim analyzed data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Class of 1998-1999 for his research. He chose 142 children from divorced families and compared them with students from families which were intact. All of the 142 children had parents who divorced when the kids were between the first grade and the third grade. Kim reviewed the children's school records before their parents' divorces, during their parents' divorces, and afterward.
Children of Divorce Had Lower Math Scores
Using results from standardized math tests, the study found that children of divorce scored 12% lower than children from non-divorced families. On the other hand, the study found that reading skills for these children did not fall behind.

Why would math scores suffer, but not reading skills? The study of mathematics is a cumulative skill. If a child were to fall behind in one area of math, he or she would have a difficult time keeping up with the next math skill. Learning to read, on the other hand, is a fluid process. This means that when a child is struggling with reading, it is easier for him to catch up to the rest of his peers.

Over time, the math scores did not change. They did not get better, but they did not get progressively worse.
The Disruption of Divorce
Kim noted that the children of divorce had no discernable difficulties with educational skills or social skills during the pre-divorce period. Children began to develop problems once the divorce process had begun. This might have been due to the common characteristics of divorce that often affect children:

Living in two homes instead of one stable household

Moving to a new neighborhood or a new region of the country

Loss of long-time friends and extended family

Economic hardship due to a lowered family income

Internalized Problems
The study found that internalized problems were much more prevalent than externalized problems. Internalized problems include anxiety, loneliness, sadness, and low self-esteem. Externalized problems, such as arguing, fighting, or showing anger, were less apparent.
What Can Parents Do?
It is important that parents understand the effects of divorce on children as they go through the divorce process. It is also important for one or both parents to meet with (or send emails to) the child's teacher to make sure the child is not falling behind in math. Without adding pressure on the child, it might be good to send him or her to a math summer camp or to pay an older neighbor or child to engage in some friendly tutoring.

While it is common for children of divorce to feel sad and have problems keeping or making friends after a divorce, parents must go out of their way to help the situation and understand the effects of divorce on children. If the child seems truly unhappy, finding a good child psychologist may be the best option.
Teresa Brashear grew up in Los Angeles and graduated from California State University. She is a mom, HR manager at an IT company, and a successful writer at ResumeBros.com. She loves to spend time working in her garden, learning French and Chinese, and playing volleyball.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Effects of Divorce on Children: Grades, Anxiety, and More

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
There are many different effects of divorce on children. Their social skills can suffer, and they can also begin struggling in school. If you are getting divorced, you should monitor your child's performance in school. You should also watch for signs of sadness, anxiety, loneliness, and more.

# data[].attributes.headline
How teachers can help support children during their parents’ divorce

# data[].attributes.subject
How teachers can help support children during their parents’ divorce

# data[].attributes.body
Useful and effective actions teachers can take to support children during their parents' divorce included:
1. "Developing an understanding of children’s reactions to their parents and divorce by reflecting on their observations and conversations with children."
2. "Developing an understanding of the type and effect of parents’ stress."
3. "Having private conversations with children, asking if they are OK, being a good listener, letting children talk, and providing reassurance."
4. "Arranging one-on-one time with a teacher aide to provide emotional support or to help them settle into the day."
5. "Being available for children and parents to speak to."
6. "Creating a safe, friendly environment where children feel free to talk."
7. "Developing friendships with children and families so they can feel safe and secure to talk to them."
8. "Communicating with parents about how their child is going emotionally, socially and academically at school."
9. "Referring children to the student welfare coordinator when necessary for additional support."
10. "Talking about catastrophic scales to help children put their problems into perspective on a scale from zero to ten where zero is no problem and ten is the worst problem ever."
11. "Being consistent with school routines, rules and expectations."
12. "Making sure the child is included in supportive friendship groups, both in the classroom and playground."
13. "Making activities and communication inclusive."
14. "Having flexible expectations with the child’s school work."
15. "Arranging tutoring for the child with the teacher, other parents, peers, and teacher aides."
16. "Getting financial support through the school welfare budget or community organisations for resources, food and to help pay for school excursions and camps."
17. "Providing encouragement for children to make good decisions and to manage their own behaviour."

Source: Mahony, L. (2018, September 27). "How teachers can help support children during their parents’ divorce." The conversation. https://theconversation.com/how-teachers-can-help-support-children-during-their-parents-divorce-102900

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Almost one in two marriages in Australia end in divorce. It's estimated that in Australia, one in five children under the age of 18 have a parent living elsewhere. This represents around one million Australian children.

For many children, their parents' separation and divorce is a stressful time. Children have different experiences and reactions and bring these into their classrooms. Children's social and emotional well-being, and learning can be affected for many years. At this time, it may be difficult for parents to provide the support their children need as they deal with their own stress.

Read more: How will my divorce affect my kids?

Teachers and schools can help children make positive adjustments. Teachers see these children the most each day apart from their parents. They're in an ideal position to provide support when needed. But they may not know how to help in these situations. Our study provides some helpful strategies that have proven to be successful for teachers.

Negative impacts of divorce

Much is known about the short-term and long-term effects of separation and divorce on children's social and emotional well-being and learning. But there is little known about these children's experiences at school. There is even less known about how their teachers work with them.

Related studies have shown having a support network that includes children's teachers can promote resilience.

Another study found children talked to their teacher so their teachers were aware of their situation. Teachers could then offer support if needed.

Other studies showed children felt secure when the daycare and school environment was friendly, structured and predictable. While these studies provide some awareness, little is known about teachers and their interactions with these children to promote well-being and learning. This provided the motivation for our study.

Our study

Grounded theory research design was applied in this study. Grounded theory is a useful methodology to use when little is known about the topic. It explores the perspective of participants - this could be through interview, focus groups, journalling or observation, although many researchers rely on interviews.

Read more: How to tell your child you're getting divorced

In our study, teachers from multiple government schools in regional Victoria were interviewed. During the interviews, teachers talked about their experiences with children in their class whose parents were separated or divorced.

Useful strategies for teachers

Our study showed teachers were firstly concerned with children's social and emotional well-being. They believed when children felt safe and secure they could learn. Importantly, the support teachers in our study provided varied depending on the different needs of children and their families, as it should.

Useful and effective actions teachers in our study took included:

developing an understanding of children's reactions to their parents and divorce by reflecting on their observations and conversations with children

developing an understanding of the type and effect of parents' stress

having private conversations with children, asking if they are OK, being a good listener, letting children talk, and providing reassurance

arranging one-on-one time with a teacher aide to provide emotional support or to help them settle into the day

being available for children and parents to speak to

creating a safe, friendly environment where children feel free to talk

developing friendships with children and families so they can feel safe and secure to talk to them

communicating with parents about how their child is going emotionally, socially and academically at school

referring children to the student welfare coordinator when necessary for additional support

talking about catastrophic scales to help children put their problems into perspective on a scale from zero to ten where zero is no problem and ten is the worst problem ever

being consistent with school routines, rules and expectations

making sure the child is included in supportive friendship groups, both in the classroom and playground

making activities and communication inclusive - for example, not always saying "tell mum" but instead saying "tell the person who packs your lunch" or "does your homework with you"

having flexible expectations with the child's school work

arranging tutoring for the child with the teacher, other parents, peers, and teacher aides

getting financial support through the school welfare budget or community organisations for resources, food and to help pay for school excursions and camps

providing encouragement for children to make good decisions and to manage their own behaviour.

Read more: How to co-parent after divorce

Teachers can buffer the stress of divorce or separation and help children adjust to their changed family arrangement. The strategies for teachers identified in this study can help teachers support children and families through these unsettled times.

The actions teachers take are important in increasing the bonding between children, families and teachers. Teachers must consider the uniqueness of children and their family situation as they promote resilience and coping skills, encourage a realistic and positive outlook, and decide which of these strategies to use.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How teachers can help support children during their parents' divorce

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Almost one in two marriages in Australia end in divorce. It's estimated that in Australia, one in five children under the age of 18 have a parent living elsewhere. This represents around one million Australian children. For many children, their parents' separation and divorce is a stressful time.

# data[].attributes.headline
BUILDING RELATIONSHIPS WITH STUDENTS WHO HAVE EXPERIENCED TRAUMA

# data[].attributes.subject
BUILDING RELATIONSHIPS WITH STUDENTS WHO HAVE EXPERIENCED TRAUMA

# data[].attributes.body
Teachers need to ask more questions of themselves such as:

What is driving the behavior?

What else is really going on?

What does this child need?

How can I change my perspective?

What is this behavior communicating right now?

What could be triggering this behavior?

What negative beliefs does the child have about himself?

In what ways are my expectations triggering him?

Where is the child in his brain?

Strategies When Talking with a
Youth who has Experienced Trauma

A child who has experienced trauma may have many questions or choose not to talk about the event at all. Either way, a teacher may be the trusted adult in which the child confides. If the child asks questions, the teacher should try to answer them. If the teacher doesn’t know how to answer a question, admit that to the child. A child should never be forced to talk about his traumatic experience before he is ready. When the child is ready, he may choose different outlets such as writing, drawing, or playing with toys. As the child is sharing the experience, the teacher should avoid telling the child how he should feel. Teachers should expect strong emotions from the child; assure the child that it is okay to feel upset (Mental Health First Aid USA, 2016).

Strategies to Help with Regulation

"Teaching a child about self-regulation is important."

1. "Be present with the child. Listen to what he is saying and validate his feelings. Use reflective listening and clarifying statements to help the child talk through his feelings."

2. "Integrate the upstairs and downstairs brain by asking for facts such as “What is 4 times 5?”.  Ask open-ended “What would you do”-type questions. This strategy keeps the child from thinking so emotional (downstairs brain) and using his upstairs brain to answer the questions."

3. "Have the child mimic your breathing pattern. This strategy can help the child focus on breathing until he is ready to talk."

4. "Help the child find appropriate regulating strategies. When the child feels he will have an outburst, teach him how to regulate on his own. As part of the student-teacher relationship, the teacher will need to know the child’s interests and help him decide what will work for him. For example, he may need to walk the halls, read a book, or go to a safe place in the room designated for him. Whatever it is, the teacher should communicate the child’s decision [on how he will self-regulate] to others in the building."

5. "Integrate self-help strategies throughout the school day. Some effective free websites to assist with this are:"

1.  Stop, Breathe, and Think: https://www.stopbreathethink.com

2. Calm: https://www.calm.com

3. Insight Timer: https://insighttimer.com/

4. Mindshift: https://www.facebook.com/MindShift.KQED/

5. Smiling Mind: https://www.smilingmind.com.au/

6. Super Stretch Yoga: https://adventuresofsuperstretch.com/

7. Go Noodle: https://www.gonoodle.com

Source: Cowley, B.J. (2018, September, 28). "Building relationships with students who have experienced trauma." Seen. https://www.seenmagazine.us/Articles/Article-Detail/ArticleId/7240/Building-Relationships-with-Students-who-have-Experienced-Trauma

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
09/28/2018 | By Dr. Billie Jo Cowley

Let's talk!

What is trauma? How may trauma affect my student's academic performance? What can I do as a teacher to help students who have experienced trauma? What are ACEs and how do they affect my students? These are commonly asked questions by teachers and professionals working with school-aged children.

In their study, Felitti and Anda describe how Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) such as abuse, divorce, parental incarceration, homelessness, bullying, or death of a loved one have significant impact on child development and academic success.

"Trauma is an exceptional experience in which powerful and dangerous events overwhelm a person's capacity to cope" (Rice & Groves, 2005). In their study, Felitti and Anda describe how Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) such as abuse, divorce, parental incarceration, homelessness, bullying, or death of a loved one have significant impact on child development and academic success. In an average classroom of 25 students, two students will have three or more ACEs; three students will have two ACEs; five students will have one ACE; and 14 students will have no known ACEs (Souers & Hall, 2018). Trauma is one of the most powerful risk factors in developing a mental health illness. Even though an individual may have experienced trauma, it doesn't mean a mental health prognosis will occur; it just increases the chances. Trauma that has occurred in early childhood may not be apparent until adolescence. Adolescent behavior can be misconstrued as defiant or disrespectful rather than a response to an event that triggered fear or physical reaction to the traumatic event that occurred. A child may not recall the traumatic event. However, the child's body has the power to store the trauma. The experiences are often stored in the body, not in the mind.
The Brain
Brain research correlates to how students who experienced trauma respond to triggers. The neocortex, also known as the rational brain, helps control the ability to think, reason, use higher order thinking skills, make decisions and maintain flexibility (Forbes, 2012). The neocortex is the outer layer of the brain and sometimes referred to as the "upstairs brain" (Souers & Hall, 2018). When this part of the brain is regulated, the child can focus on learning. In contrast, the limbic system, or "downstairs brain" (Souers & Hall, 2018), regulates mood, memory, attention, and hormone control. This part of the brain houses the child's survival mode and "is concerned with self-preservation, fear, and protective responses related to defense such as fight or flight" (Forbes, 2012, p. 24). Learning cannot happen when a child is functioning in the "downstairs brain." The last part of the brain, reptilian, includes the brain stem and cerebellum. This part of the brain also is concerned with self-preservation and is ready to respond at all times during the day. "Mental health issues such as obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, and panic disorder have roots in this part of the brain" (Forbes, 2012, p. 25). Knowing where the child is in their brain helps the teacher know how to respond accordingly.
Student-Teacher Relationship
Educators can create a trauma-sensitive learning environment to help students who have experienced trauma. Building a positive student-teacher relationship should be the first priority in the classroom (Forbes, 2012). This relationship provides security and safety for the child, who can then focus on his academics. Academic achievement happens when the child is calm and secure. A child doesn't care how much you know until he knows how much you care. Being genuine, knowing yourself, and asking the right questions are key to building a healthy and safe student-teacher relationship. Rather than asking, "I wonder what's wrong with that person?" rephrase the question to "I wonder what happened to the student that caused them to behave that way?" Some teachers tend to respond to negative behaviors such as classroom outburst, verbal defiance, or anger by resorting to traditional discipline measures that are not effective for students who have experienced trauma. Time-outs, seclusion rooms and staying in from recess have a direct impact on the child's safety; therefore, these techniques are ineffective.

Teachers need to ask more questions
of themselves such as:

What is driving the behavior?

What else is really going on?

What does this child need?

How can I change my perspective?

What is this behavior communicating right now?

What could be triggering this behavior?

What negative beliefs does the child have about himself?

In what ways are my expectations triggering him?

Where is the child in his brain? (Forbes, 2012)

Teachers need to stay true to who they are when trying to build relationships with students who have experienced trauma.

Strategies When Talking with a
Youth who has Experienced Trauma

A child who has experienced trauma may have many questions or choose not to talk about the event at all. Either way, a teacher may be the trusted adult in which the child confides. If the child asks questions, the teacher should try to answer them. If the teacher doesn't know how to answer a question, admit that to the child. A child should never be forced to talk about his traumatic experience before he is ready. When the child is ready, he may choose different outlets such as writing, drawing, or playing with toys. As the child is sharing the experience, the teacher should avoid telling the child how he should feel. Teachers should expect strong emotions from the child; assure the child that it is okay to feel upset (Mental Health First Aid USA, 2016).
Strategies to Help with Regulation
Self-regulation happens when a person recognizes he is operating in the emotional "downstairs brain" and needs to regulate back to the "upstairs brain." Many adults are able to recognize when they are about to "blow their tops." When they feel this way, some go for a walk, take deep breaths, read, or exercise. Teaching a child about self-regulation is important. If the child is in the "downstairs brain", the teacher can help teach the child how to regulate so he gets back to the "upstairs brain." There are many regulating strategies to use to assist the child.

1. Be present with the child. Listen to what he is saying and validate his feelings. Use reflective listening and clarifying statements to help the child talk through his feelings.

2. Integrate the upstairs and downstairs brain by asking for facts such as "What is 4 times 5?". Ask open-ended "What would you do"-type questions. This strategy keeps the child from thinking so emotional (downstairs brain) and using his upstairs brain to answer the questions.

3. Have the child mimic your breathing pattern. This strategy can help the child focus on breathing until he is ready to talk.

4. Help the child find appropriate regulating strategies. When the child feels he will have an outburst, teach him how to regulate on his own. As part of the student-teacher relationship, the teacher will need to know the child's interests and help him decide what will work for him. For example, he may need to walk the halls, read a book, or go to a safe place in the room designated for him. Whatever it is, the teacher should communicate the child's decision [on how he will self-regulate] to others in the building.

5. Integrate self-help strategies throughout the school day. Some effective free websites to assist with this are: Stop, Breathe, and Think: https://www.stopbreathethink.com/; Calm: Some effective free websites to assist with this are: Stop, Breathe, and Think: https://www.stopbreathethink.com/; Calm: https://www.calm.com/; Insight Timer: Some effective free websites to assist with this are: Stop, Breathe, and Think: https://www.stopbreathethink.com/; Calm: https://www.calm.com/; Insight Timer: https://insighttimer.com/; Mindshift: Some effective free websites to assist with this are: Stop, Breathe, and Think: https://www.stopbreathethink.com/; Calm: https://www.calm.com/; Insight Timer: https://insighttimer.com/; Mindshift: https://www.facebook.com/MindShift.KQED/; Smiling Mind: Some effective free websites to assist with this are: Stop, Breathe, and Think: https://www.stopbreathethink.com/; Calm: https://www.calm.com/; Insight Timer: https://insighttimer.com/; Mindshift: https://www.facebook.com/MindShift.KQED/; Smiling Mind: https://www.smilingmind.com.au/; Super Stretch Yoga: Some effective free websites to assist with this are: Stop, Breathe, and Think: https://www.stopbreathethink.com/; Calm: https://www.calm.com/; Insight Timer: https://insighttimer.com/; Mindshift: https://www.facebook.com/MindShift.KQED/; Smiling Mind: https://www.smilingmind.com.au/; Super Stretch Yoga: https://adventuresofsuperstretch.com/; and Go Noodle: Some effective free websites to assist with this are: Stop, Breathe, and Think: https://www.stopbreathethink.com/; Calm: https://www.calm.com/; Insight Timer: https://insighttimer.com/; Mindshift: https://www.facebook.com/MindShift.KQED/; Smiling Mind: https://www.smilingmind.com.au/; Super Stretch Yoga: https://adventuresofsuperstretch.com/; and Go Noodle: https://www.gonoodle.com/.

Conclusion
Students today are entering the classroom with many different experiences. Some of these experiences have been very positive, whereas, others have left a negative impact on the child's development. As teachers, recognizing and responding to students' trauma or adverse childhood experiences that affect the child's behavior will be more effective than the traditional reactive approach to negative behavior. Building positive relationships with students is the key to help with social and emotional development.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Building Relationships with Students who have Experienced Trauma

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
What is trauma? How may trauma affect my student's academic performance? What can I do as a teacher to help students who have experienced trauma? What are ACEs and how do they affect my students? These are commonly asked questions by teachers and pr...

# data[].attributes.headline
Military family-related stressors(e.g., deployment, parental loss or injury)

# data[].attributes.subject
Military family-related stressors(e.g., deployment, parental loss or injury)

# data[].attributes.body
U.S. military personnel. Children of military families often experience multiple stressors before and dur- ing their parent’s deployment and when they come home. Without appropriate mental health support systems, children of military personnel may be at a significant disadvantage compared with their peers in non-military families.

# data[].attributes.headline
impact of deployments on Children’s Mental health

# data[].attributes.subject
impact of deployments on Children’s Mental health

# data[].attributes.body
Children in military families experience high rates of mental health, trauma and related problems.

Military life can be a source of psychological stress for children. Multiple deployments, frequent moves and having a parent injured or die is a reality for many children in military families.

Wartime parental deployments can be one of the most stressful events of a child’s life.

♦  Changes reported included changes in school performance, lashing out in anger, worrying, hiding emotions, disrespecting parents and authority figures, feeling a sense of loss, and symptoms consistent with depression.
♦  High levels of sadness were seen in children in all age groups.

♦ Depression was seen in about one in four children.

♦ Academic problems occurred in one in five children.

♦ Thirty-seven percent of children with a deployed parent reported that they seriously worry about what could happen to their deployed caretaker.

♦ Parents reported that one in five children coped poorly or very poorly to deployment separation.

♦ Media coverage of the war posed a significant source of stress for children and makes it much more difficult for children to cope with a parent’s deployment.

Length of deployment was associated with mental health problems including depression, acting out, and externalizing behaviors.

# data[].attributes.headline
Resilience and importance of support systems

# data[].attributes.subject
Resilience and importance of support systems

# data[].attributes.body
Emerging evidence indicates that most children are resilient to the effects of a parental deployment and that children in military families have shown themselves to be adaptive and resilient despite the challenges of parental deployments.

Family supports can mitigate the children’s negative experiences with a parental deployment. Support systems also have the ability to support the remain- ing parent’s mental well-being, thus improving outcomes for children.

Many children report that through family support services they had friends to talk to, and children who felt supported showed increased resiliency.

Enhanced family resources, including family sup- port, represents an important factor in reducing the likelihood that families will leave the military due to long separations experienced as a result of long or multiple deployments.

Overall, research indicates that families who get or feel supported by their communities, the military or religious organizations experience less deployment- related stress.

# data[].attributes.body
Sogomonyan, F., & Cooper, J. (2010). Trauma Faced by Children of Military Families What Every Policymaker Should Know. http://nccp.org/publications/pdf/text_938.pdf

‌
Peterson, S. (2018, January 25). Military and Veteran Families. The National Child Traumatic Stress Network. https://www.nctsn.org/what-is-child-trauma/populations-at-risk/military-and-veteran-families

‌
Cook, C., Slater-Williams, A., & Harrison, L. (2012). Article 6 Secondary PTSD in Children of Service Members: Strategies for Helping Professionals. https://www.counseling.org/resources/library/VISTAS/vistas12/Article_6.pdf

‌

# data[].attributes.body
Disasters can refer to natural disasters (earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, volcanoes, tornadoes, tsunamis, drought, etc.,) or technological disasters (oil spills, industrial fires, accidents including nuclear and hazardous materials, etc.,). Disasters affect over 200 million people worldwide every year, and 94% of children living in the United States live in areas that are "at risk" of natural disasters. Therefore, the potential affect that disasters can have on children is widespread. Not only can the event itself be quite traumatic for children, but it can lead to homelessness, poverty, misplacement, physical harm and loss of loved ones (NCTSN, n.d.). Furthermore, climate change is likely to increase the intensity and frequency of these natural disasters (Kousky, 2016). Therefore, it is essential that children who have been through a natural or technological disaster are supported as they work to process and recover from the trauma.

# data[].attributes.body
(HEART) is part of Save the Children and provides an outlet for students to safely express and process emotions that deal with war trauma

# data[].attributes.headline
Safe Space for War Trauma Boys in eastern Lebanon

# data[].attributes.subject
Safe Space for War Trauma Boys in eastern Lebanon

# data[].attributes.body
http://smh-assist.ca/

Settlement Services Ontario

http://settlement.org/

UN Refugee Agency Canada

http://www.unhcr.ca/how-you-can-help/teachers/

Government of Alberta

http://teachingrefugees.com/

# data[].attributes.body
Mohammed, 24, works at Nabad Association for Development as a counselor for refugee boys. He says that the main goals are “to learn trust, confidence, anger and stress management. To let go of sadness and fear” (Hamad, 2016).

# data[].attributes.headline
Help Children to be Prepared for a Disaster (Jay, 2020)

# data[].attributes.subject
Help Children to be Prepared for a Disaster (Jay, 2020)

# data[].attributes.body
Helping to ensure that children are prepared BEFORE a disaster hits can give them a sense of control. There are several child-friendly ways to help children feel prepared:

Have a disaster supply rely race

Read books that have a safety theme

Make a weather forecast video

Invite a special guest to come speak to the children about disaster preparation

Do the Prep Step Dance

# data[].attributes.headline
How to Help Children after a Disaster (Halstead, 2017)

# data[].attributes.subject
How to Help Children after a Disaster (Halstead, 2017)

# data[].attributes.body
Let the child talk about their experience and listen sensitively.

Let the children be involved in the cleanup (in a safe way). For example, they could help sort and fold clothes to be donated to victims, make hand-made cards for those affected, or help to raise money) (Hamaker, 2017).

Reassure them of their safety

Monitor "adult" conversations around them to make sure nothing is being said that might add to their anxiety/ uncertainty

Be calm and positive about the future

Try not to critisize changes in behavior. Instead try to talk to them about how they are feeling and what they are thinking

Teach children about natural disasters- the causes and how to be prepared for one if it happens

Create and stick to a routine to help them feel safe

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
People wait to get evacuated in Sukadana village, near Mount Agung, a volcano on the highest alert level, in Bali, Indonesia. Reuters

In any culture, children hit by a natural disaster will see family members undergo huge amounts of stress and worry. They may be forced to live in temporary accommodation, and experience many changes to their usual routines and social circles. And on top of all this, many treasured possessions - including family pets - may be lost or damaged forever.

For many children, this can result in high levels of anxiety and emotional trauma. This can inevitably lead to changes in a child's behaviour, and may include things such as temper tantrums, insomnia, a loss of appetite and social withdrawal.

With any type of disaster - be it flooding, an earthquake, an avalanche, or a tsunami - it is essential that families and those in regular contact with children offer support and a place to heal in the aftermath of these terrible events.

1. Encourage children to talk

Children who have been victims of flooding often say that their families and schools didn't listen to their experiences, worries or problems. They also say that they didn't want to burden their family and teachers with these worries.

Even if your child seems fine, let them know that their feelings are important to you and let their voice be heard. When children do get a chance to speak about their own feelings and experiences they often recover much more quickly.

It's important parents try to spend time with their children in this period - playing games and enjoying each other's company. Parents should also talk to their children's teachers and keep them up to date and aware of their child's experiences.

2. Involve kids in the cleanup

My PhD research looks specifically at flooding, and community responses during and after floods. Previous research on flooding shows that children who are involved in the cleanup and recovery process, have a much better sense of the situation and experience less trauma. This doesn't have to be big tasks - just whatever you think your child is capable of.

Help doesn't have to stay within the family home either, by involving your child within the community cleanup, they can cancel out the negative feelings associated with the flood and instead replace them with positive feelings of community spirit and worthiness.

PA

3. Know that they might struggle

Monitor your child's behaviour and keep a close eye on them to check if they are acting differently. Try not to criticise your child for any changes in behaviour and instead talk to them about their feelings and thoughts about what has happened.

It's also important to monitor your own behaviour and the adult conversations that take place around your child. Remember you are your child's guide through this and so your ability to stay calm and cope will affect your child's ability to manage too. Try not to say anything that might scare your child. You can be a role model by acknowledging that the situation isn't great right now, but the future is positive and bright.

Let them know that they are safe and you love them. Reassure them not only of their safety, but of their friend's safety too - you might say something like "your friend's families will be taking care of them just like your family are taking care of you".

4. Give kids the facts

If it's happened once, there is every chance it could happen again. You may need to educate yourself a bit first, but teach your child about the causes of natural disasters such as flooding. This should include the dos and don'ts during a flood, as well as the ways you can protect yourselves as a family in the future. Perhaps you could work together to develop a household plan should something like this happen again.

Reuters

5. Try to create a routine and stick to it

Try to maintain as much routine in your child's life as possible. This might be hard if you have to move to temporary accommodation or if their school closes, but by maintaining the aspects of routine that you can control - like meal and bed times - you can provide a higher sense of reassurance. This will help reduce any anxiety your child might be feeling. It will also help with any boredom they might face - caused by loss of toys or school closure. In this way, try to keep your child in touch with friends, particularly if their school shuts or if they (or a friend) moves away.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How to help children recover from the trauma of disaster

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In any culture, children hit by a natural disaster will see family members undergo huge amounts of stress and worry. They may be forced to live in temporary accommodation, and experience many changes to their usual routines and social circles. And on top of all this, many treasured possessions - including family pets - may be lost or damaged forever.

# data[].attributes.body
Community violence is exposure to intentional acts of interpersonal violence committed in public areas by individuals who are not intimately related to the victim. Common types of community violence that affect youth include individual and group conflicts (e.g., bullying, fights among gangs and other groups, shootings in public areas such as schools and communities, civil wars in foreign countries or “war-like” conditions in US cities, spontaneous or terrorist attacks). Although people can anticipate some types of traumatic events, community violence can happen suddenly and without warning. Consequently, youth and families who live with community violence often have heightened fears that harm could come at any time and experience the world as unsafe and terrifying. In addition, although some types of trauma are accidental, community violence is an intentional attempt to hurt one or more people and includes homicides, sexual assaults, robberies, and weapons attacks (e.g., bats, knives, guns).

# data[].attributes.body
Feelings of anxiety, fear, and worry about safety of self and others

Fears about another violent event

Changes in behavior:
o Increased activity level
o Decreased concentration and attention
o Increased irritability
o Withdrawal
o Angry outbursts
o Aggression

Increased physical complaints (e.g., headaches, stomachaches, aches and pains)

Changes in school performance

Repeated talking or thinking about the incident

Increased sensitivity to sounds (e.g., screaming, sirens)

Changes in sleep

Changes in appetite

Lack of interest in usual activities, including interest in playing with friends

Increased chance of high-risk behaviors in adolescents (e.g., drinking, substance abuse, self-injurious behaviors)

# data[].attributes.headline
Helping students after community violence

# data[].attributes.subject
Helping students after community violence

# data[].attributes.body
For teachers:

Communicate with others. Make sure that you, with your group of teachers, schedule ongoing times totalk together in order to give each other support.

Give yourself a break.

Make sure you take good physical care of yourself, including eating and sleeping well. It is sometimes difficult to teach when you are undergoing your own course of recovery. Even though you may feel very
committed to the students, take special time with your own family members or friends.

Taking Care of Your Students:

Modify lesson plans

Communicate with students

Know your students' experiences

Share information with others

Provide structure

Encourage your students

Set limits on anger

Reduce reminders

Identify sleep problems

Be patient

Promote prosocial activities

# data[].attributes.headline
Strategies for Supporting Students with Refugee Backgrounds (Ontario, 2016)

# data[].attributes.subject
Strategies for Supporting Students with Refugee Backgrounds (Ontario, 2016)

# data[].attributes.body
Ontario supports refugee students with some of the following tips:

Decrease whole-group time; increase small-group instruction.

Use visuals – visual schedules, word banks with diagrams or pictures, picture books, photographs of landforms, illustrated science vocabulary, historical photographs, etc. If you have a Smart Board, tablets or computers in the room, you may wish to leave them open to a web browser so that you can put images up quickly if needed.

Get students to Invest in their learning - Invite parents in for an orientation to the school. Once you have an understanding of your newcomer families, plan targeted sessions to help them understand the school system and their partnership in the education of their children.

Help them get the confidence they need to express their opinion

Choose materials that will engage students. Link learning to their personal stories and experiences.

Create a safe environment so that a student feels their story is valued and important.

# data[].attributes.body
The abandonment of a parent at an early age can be an extremely traumatic event in a student’s
life, and can cause significant feelings of confusion, hopelessness, worthlessness and depression.  The stress of the event can be intensified when the abandonment is voluntary.  Children depend on their parents for everything from providing food and shelter to providing a sense of safety, self-worth and identity, and when such a huge part of a student’s life is suddenly taken away, especially by the parent’s own voluntary choice, the result can be devastating and the student
may respond in a number of ways.  Some responses to parental abandonment can include:

Depression and anxiety

Lack of confidence and low self-esteem

Feelings of worthlessness

Withdrawing from peers

Inability to regulate emotions

Suicidal thoughts

Trust issues and relationship problems

# data[].attributes.headline
Physical Abandonment vs. Emotional Abandonment 

# data[].attributes.subject
Physical Abandonment vs. Emotional Abandonment 

# data[].attributes.body
Parental abandonment can take other forms besides a parent physically leaving a child or family.  Emotional abandonment happens when a parent is physically present but emotionally distant or unavailable to the child.  There can be various reasons for this, including external stressors, illness, unresolved resentment, or simply a lack of interest in being involved in the child’s life.  Although the parent is technically present, the effects of emotional abandonment can be just as severe as a physical abandonment.

# data[].attributes.headline
How to Help a Child Who Has Suffered Parental Abandonment 

# data[].attributes.subject
How to Help a Child Who Has Suffered Parental Abandonment 

# data[].attributes.body
“Children with abandonment issues may have difficulty expressing their emotions: Children who have experienced parental abandonment may also have difficulty sharing their feelings.  They tend to keep their emotions bottled up and lack the trust necessary to share their true selves with others. As your child's other parent, you can help by:

Affirming that you love your child unconditionally, even when he's angry, sad, or frustrated.

Writing a letter to your child to express how proud you are.

Being trustworthy when your child shares his or her feelings with you.

Providing regular opportunities to connect with your child, creating an atmosphere where he or she will be free to open up when the time is right. (Wolf, 2020)".

# data[].attributes.body
Lancer, D. L. (2018, October 8). What is Emotional Abandonment? psychcentral.com. https://psychcentral.com/lib/what-is-emotional-abandonment/

Pam, N. P. (2016, January 10). Psychological Effects of Child Abandonment. psychologydictionary.org. https://psychologydictionary.org/article/psychological-effects-of-child-abandonment/

Parents and Children: The Imprint of Parental Abandonment. (2017, July 12). exploringyourmind.Com. https://exploringyourmind.com/parents-children-imprint-parental-abandonment/

The Risk of Being a Present But Absent Mother or Father. (2017, March 15). exploringyourmind.com. https://exploringyourmind.com/risk-present-absent-mother-father/

Wolf, J. W. (2020, May 10). Child Abandonment Issues Following the Loss of a Parent. www.verywellfamily.com. https://www.verywellfamily.com/how-to-help-a-child-cope-with-abandonment-2997768

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Why All Schools Should Be Trauma-Informed | Dr. Mary Crnobori | TEDxVanderbiltUniversity

# data[].attributes.body
Athan, L. (2011). Signs of Grief in Children and Teens. Retrieved 2020, from https://www.fcps.net/cms/lib/KY01807169/Centricity/Domain/2316/grief/signs.pdf

Brennan, J., LICSW. (2019, May 19). 10 Ways to support children's grief in the classroom. Retrieved August 25, 2020, from https://medium.com/age-of-awareness/10-ways-to-support-childrens-grief-in-the-classroom-74f76540a944Supporting

Grieving Students: What to Say, Mandy, Kira, Jlillis January 6, Jlillis, Jlillis January 20, & *, N. (2016, May 3).

Peterson, S. (2018, May 25). Traumatic Grief. Retrieved August 26, 2020, from https://www.nctsn.org/what-is-child-trauma/trauma-types/traumatic-grief

School Counseling, W. (2020). PORTABLE CALM CORNER: Self-Regulation Coping Skills & Mindfulness Activities. Retrieved August 25, 2020, from https://www.teacherspayteachers.com/Product/PORTABLE-CALM-CORNER-Self-Regulation-Coping-Skills-Mindfulness-Activities-4348911

Supporting Grieving Students: What to Say, What NOT to Say. Retrieved August 25, 2020, from https://blog.brookespublishing.com/supporting-grieving-students-what-to-say-what-not-to-say/

# data[].attributes.headline
Post Disaster Interventions for Children (SAMHSA, 2018)

# data[].attributes.subject
Post Disaster Interventions for Children (SAMHSA, 2018)

# data[].attributes.body
Psychological First Aid for Schools (PFA-S)
Healing After Trauma Skills (HATS)
Support for Students Exposed to Trauma (SSET)
Child and Family Traumatic Stress Intervention (CFTSI)
Skills for Psychological Recovery (SPR)

# data[].attributes.headline
Establish social and emotional safety in your classroom.

# data[].attributes.subject
Establish social and emotional safety in your classroom.

# data[].attributes.body
Strategies

Classroom contracts

Explicit anti-bullying or community-building curricula

Timely interventions in conflicts and hurtful exchanges

Teaching and modeling of empathy and active listening skills

# data[].attributes.headline
Create a behavior-management plan that focuses on positive reinforcement.

# data[].attributes.subject
Create a behavior-management plan that focuses on positive reinforcement.

# data[].attributes.body
Strategies

Implement student-generated agreements and contracts

Adopt “zero indifference” (NOT zero-tolerance) policies

Seek out training in restorative justice techniques

Explore stress-management strategies to diffuse tense situations and help students process feelings in the moment

Give students opportunities to demonstrate their strengths

# data[].attributes.headline
Increase your self-awareness and trauma competency

# data[].attributes.subject
Increase your self-awareness and trauma competency

# data[].attributes.body
Strategies

Seek professional development on working with specific identity groups

Share support resources with other educators

Connect with community organizations

Engage in ongoing self-assessment and reflection on your trauma responsiveness

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Responding to Trauma in Your Classroom

Bad Behavior or Reacting to Trauma?

Think of a student who challenges you. Have you observed any of these behaviors in that student?

Excessive anger

Unusual startle reactions

Loss of appetite

Extreme fatigue

Physical or verbal aggression

Regular tardiness or absence from class

Perfectionistic, controlling or anxious behavior

Difficulty concentrating

Frequent headaches or stomachaches

Low self-confidence

Irritability

Clinginess

Trouble making friends

Self-harm or suicidal ideation

Hoarding

Risky behaviors (including drug or alcohol abuse or sexual acting out)

Panic attacks

Extreme self-reliance

Running away

Defiance

Alienation from peers

If you've observed even some of these behaviors (or other troubling symptoms), you may have a student who is directly or indirectly experiencing trauma. Trauma can be defined as the reaction to a shocking or painful event or series of negative events. Some traumas require immediate intervention and court-mandated reporting; others go by unmarked. Regardless of whether or not you are aware of the details, there are things you can do to mitigate the effects of trauma for individual students and for all students in your classroom.
Source: Mental Health Connection of Tarrant County
What Causes Trauma?

Trauma affects the ways individuals feel, think and behave. It influences self-perception as well as beliefs about other people and the world.

Though this list is not exhaustive, traumatic experiences can include:

Medical crises

Accidents or injuries (like a house fire or car collision that threatens the student's safety)

Bullying or harassment

Family separation (due to incarceration, deployment, divorce, foster placement or death)

Natural disaster

Abuse (emotional, physical or sexual)

Neglect

Observation of domestic, community or school violence

Substance abuse

Mental illness

Terrorism and war

Instability due to being unhoused

Poverty

Overt discrimination or constant microaggressions

Refugee or undocumented status

More students may suffer trauma-or suffer more trauma-than you can see or know. Trauma is difficult to assess and identify; it's also specific to the individual. An event that may traumatize one person may not traumatize another person. Moreover, the same event may lead to different trauma symptoms in different people.
Source: The National Child Traumatic Stress Network
Responding to Trauma

Proactively applying trauma-informed classroom strategies benefits all students. Students respond positively when educators get to know their individual circumstances, affirm their identities and cultivate empathy in the classroom. Here are some ideas to consider incorporating in your teaching practice:

Establish social and emotional safety in your classroom.

Social and emotional safety is the cornerstone of positive classroom outcomes. Research shows that students need to feel both physically and emotionally safe to learn. Students experiencing trauma, including bias, bullying and social isolation, are more likely to feel unsafe.
Strategies

Classroom contracts

Explicit anti-bullying or community-building curricula

Timely interventions in conflicts and hurtful exchanges

Teaching and modeling of empathy and active listening skills

Create a behavior-management plan that focuses on positive reinforcement.

Discipline and behavior management are central to classroom culture and often present unique challenges for students responding to traumatic events or experiences. Foster compassion for and among your students. Focus on praising students for appropriate classroom behavior, not on punishment.
Strategies

Implement student-generated agreements and contracts

Adopt "zero indifference" (NOT zero-tolerance) policies

Seek out training in restorative justice techniques

Explore stress-management strategies to diffuse tense situations and help students process feelings in the moment

Give students opportunities to demonstrate their strengths

Increase your self-awareness and trauma competency.

Increase your knowledge about trauma and how it may manifest for your students. Remember, students respond to trauma in different ways, and their responses may be influenced by cultural traditions, religious beliefs or familial relationships. Connect with students and their families to identify resources and services that can inform how best to support students who experience trauma.
Strategies

Seek professional development on working with specific identity groups

Share support resources with other educators

Connect with community organizations

Engage in ongoing self-assessment and reflection on your trauma responsiveness

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Trauma can have significant and lasting effects on students. This PD Café will help you learn how to recognize the signs of trauma, better understand the causes of trauma, and take steps to establish social and emotional safety in your classroom.

# data[].attributes.body
Even if a child is removed from a bad situation, the consequences of neglect can last for a long time. Here are a few of the consequences a child who is neglected may experience:

Health and Development Problems: Malnourishment may impair brain development. A lack of adequate immunizations and medical problems could lead to a variety of health conditions.

Cognitive Impairments: A lack of appropriate stimulation could lead to ongoing intellectual problems. Children with a history of neglect may have academic problems or delayed or impaired language development.

Emotional Problems: Neglect can lead to attachment issues, self-esteem problems, and difficulty trusting others.

Social and Behavioral Problems: Children who are neglected may struggle to develop healthy relationships and they may experience behavior disorders or disinhibited social engagement disorder.

# data[].attributes.headline
Consequences of Neglect on Young Children

# data[].attributes.subject
Consequences of Neglect on Young Children

# data[].attributes.body
1. Attachment and Interpersonal Relationship Problems
Patterns of child-caregiver attachment are extremely important for a child's early emotional and social development. For children with an insecure attachment, the parent/caregiver, who should be the primary source of safety, protection and comfort, becomes a source of danger or harm. Without the security and support from a primary caregiver, babies and infants may find it difficult to trust others when in distress, which may lead to persistent experiences of anxiety or anger.

2. Learning and developmental problems
Strong associations have been made between child neglect and learning difficulties and/or poor academic achievement. Abuse and neglect in the early years of life can seriously affect the developmental capacities of infants, especially in the critical areas of speech and language. Prospective research studies have consistently shown that neglected children have lower educational achievement than other groups of children. A more recent longitudinal study of maltreated children in the United States found that chronicity of negligence affected maths scores negatively and reading scores negatively but higher intelligence and daily living skills.

3. Mental Health Problems
Neglected children are also often found to be experiencing other disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant and conduct disorders.

4. Behavioral Problems
The earlier children are maltreated the more likely they are to develop behavior problems in adolescence.  Researchers have often associated neglect with internalizing behaviors like being withdrawn, sad, isolated and depressed, and externalizing behaviors such as being aggressive or hyperactive throughout childhood and adolescence.

# data[].attributes.body
1. Mental Health Problems
Mental health problems, such as depression and anxiety disorders, have consistently been linked with child abuse and neglect, particularly for adolescents. Eating disorders, including anorexia and binge-purge behavior (bulimia), may also be associated with child  neglect.

2. Alcohol and other drug use
The psychological effects of child  neglect may lead to alcohol and drug abuse problems in adolescence and adulthood. Evidence suggests that all types of child maltreatment and neglect are significantly related to higher levels of substance use such as tobacco, alcohol and illicit drugs.

3. Behavioral Problems
The earlier children are maltreated the more likely they are to develop behavior problems in adolescence.  Researchers have often associated neglect with internalizing behaviors like being withdrawn, sad, isolated and depressed, and externalizing behaviors such as being aggressive or hyperactive throughout childhood and adolescence.

4. Aggression, violence and criminal activity
Children exposed to neglect are at increased risk of inflicting pain on others and developing aggressive and violent behaviors in adolescence. Research suggests that physical abuse and exposure to family violence are the most consistent predictors of youth violence. A National Institute of Justice study in the United States predicted that neglected children were 11 times more likely to be arrested for criminal behavior in adolescence.

5. Teenage Pregnancy
Adverse consequences of teenage pregnancy and risky sexual activity may also be associated with experiences of abuse and neglect.  A study by Fergusson and colleagues (1997) found that young women (18 years of age) exposed to child sexual abuse and neglect had significantly higher rates of teenage pregnancy, increased rates of sexually transmitted diseases, and higher rates of multiple sexual partnerships and appeared to be more vulnerable to further sexual assault and rape.

# data[].attributes.body
1. Australian Institute of Family Studies. (2014, January 27). Effects of child abuse and neglect for children and adolescents. Child Family Community Australia. https://aifs.gov.au/cfca/publications/effects-child-abuse-and-neglect-children-and-adolescents

2. Holland, K. (2019, November 25). Childhood Emotional Neglect: How It Can Impact You Now and Later. Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/health/mental-health/childhood-emotional-neglect

3. Morin, A. (2020, February 9). How to Recognize, Report, and Manage Child Neglect. Verywell Family. https://www.verywellfamily.com/what-is-child-neglect-4151259

4. Psychology Today. (n.d.). "Child Neglect". https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/conditions/child-neglect

5. attached below

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Concussion management and return to learn

# data[].attributes.headline
What to look for as a teaching professional

# data[].attributes.subject
What to look for as a teaching professional

# data[].attributes.body
Symptoms: Understanding the symptoms of concussions is the first step teaching professionals must take in order to differentiate lessons for their students who have suffered from them.

Increased problems paying attention or concentrating

Increased problems remembering or learning new information

Longer time needed to complete tasks or assignments

Difficulty organizing tasks or shifting between tasks

Inappropriate or impulsive behavior during class

Greater irritability

Less ability to cope with stress

More emotional than usual

Fatigue

Difficulties handling a stimulating school environment (lights, noise, etc.)

Physical symptoms (headache, nausea, dizziness)

# data[].attributes.body
"A concussion is a serious injury to the brain resulting from the rapid acceleration or deceleration of brain tissue within the skull. Rapid movement causes brain tissue to change shape, which can stretch and damage brain cells. This damage also causes chemical and metabolic changes within the brain cells, making it more difficult for cells to function and communicate. CDC estimates 3.8 million concussions occur each year Concussion Legacy Foundation, 2020)."

# data[].attributes.body
Here are some of the most common concerns for schoolage children:

Loss

As their parents date, develop serious relationships, and eventually decide to remarry, children may be reminded of their original family and of the life they once had with their mother and father. Now, however, with the prospect of this new marriage, they must confront the reality that their parents really are never going to reconcile and that they will never again have their original family back. This can be a source of great sadness.

Children who have built a particularly close relationship with their own mother or father during a period of single parenthood must now learn to share that parent with a new spouse and perhaps with stepsiblings. It may help to have the children get together to get to know each other for an event or two.

Some children may show signs of increased attachment to the parent who is getting married. For instance, a child might not want to leave a parent's side in certain social situations or may express jealousy when the parent shows attention to the new spouse and his or her children. Your child might even verbalize some of her hurt and anger ("I don't think he's the right guy for you, Mom").

Some children wonder to themselves, "Where do I belong?" As they see their parent starting a new family, they may feel more like an outsider than part of the new family structure. With time, however, ​most children adjust to their new family circumstances. As they get to know their stepparent and stepsiblings better, their level of acceptance will grow too.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What happens when you have a concussion? - Clifford Robbins

# data[].attributes.body
Each year thousands of children, kindergarten through grade 12 suffer from concussions caused by a variety of reasons including; sports injuries, car collisions and playground accidents amongst others. Educators struggle to recognize their students struggle to acclimate back into the classroom as the symptoms aren't easily noticeable. An article written by the CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention titled Returning to School After a Concussion: A Fact Sheet for School Professionals states, “While some research shows that the young brain can be resilient, it may also be more susceptible to the chemical changes that occur in the brain after a concussion. These changes can lead to a set of symptoms affecting the student’s cognitive, physical, emotional, and sleep functions (CDC, 2020).”

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
This is PCS: Returning to School with Post-Concussion Syndrome

# data[].attributes.body
Concentration

Allow student extra time for assignments, tests and projects

Focus

Help students keep and accurate list of tasks in their organizer so they can effectively allocate their time

Schedule and Environment

Differentiate learning by breaking down assignment into smaller more achievable portions and allow students to complete lessons or assignment in quiet rooms

Assessment

Give students options on how they can demonstrate knowledge of the subject.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Maggie Scarf on What Issues Children Represent in Remarriages

# data[].attributes.body
Feelings

Many children feel that if they like and show love towards their new stepparent, they will be disrespecting their other parent—the one whom this new stepparent, to some extent, is replacing in their home. Some children may worry that if their parent remarries—thus bringing a new father/mother figure into the home—they will lose the love and attention of their other father or mother.

Your child may feel awkward having to get used to two fathers or two mothers. Particularly in the beginning, allow him or her to view your new spouse in the most comfortable way—perhaps as a second father or sometimes just as Mommy's husband. Say something like, "Your stepfather is different from your daddy, and no one will ever replace your own daddy."

Expect your child to make some comparisons between his or her real parent and stepparent, in both positive and negative ways. He or she might blurt out statements like, "You're not as nice as my daddy." Comparisons are normal during this adjustment period. Eventually, your child will stop making them. However, some children may have more problems and may need to get help from a mental health professional.

If possible, father and stepfather, or mother and stepmother, should make contact with each other to begin working toward being more at ease with talking about your child. This can begin with a phone call just to say hello and to share thoughts about the child. Both parties might decide to have lunch or some other informal meeting. Although these two adults may run into each other at special events, such as birthdays and graduations, these occasions may not be the best times to do much talking. The more comfortable these two individuals become with each other, the more reassured the child will feel that he or she does not have to choose between the love of the parent and developing a relationship with the stepparent. It will show the child that the adults are pulling together on his or her behalf and all care and have his or her interests at heart.

Do not expect your child to solve his or her loyalty struggles if you have not resolved most of your own issues with your exspouse. When remarriages occur, the issue of child custody often comes up again. For example, if a noncustodial father marries a woman with children, he may return to court, requesting that his own child now live with him ("I have a wife at home now and I can take care of my child"). In the midst of an ongoing custody battle, the children often find it harder to deal with their own loyalty struggles.

# data[].attributes.body
Frustration

“Establish a cooperative relationship with the student, engaging him/her in any decisions regarding schedule changes or task priority setting (CDC, 2020).”

Disruptive behaviour

Formulate a behaviour management plan that involves appropriate faculty and parents

“Acknowledge and empathize with the student’s sense of frustration, anger or emotional outburst: “I know it must be hard dealing with some things right now 9CDC, 2020).”

“Remove a student from a problem situation, but avoid characterizing it as a punishment and keep it as brief as possible (CDC, 2020).”

# data[].attributes.body
CDC. 2020. “Returning to School After a Concussion: A Fact Sheet for School Professionals.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/headsup/pdfs/schools/tbi_returning_to_school-a.pdf

Concussion Legacy Foundation. 2020. "Concussion Resources." Retrieved from https://concussionfoundation.org/concussion-resources?gclid=Cj0KCQjw1qL6BRCmARIsADV9Jta0VkiTYBrKRET3jxQ5lpQsuT4uI-1rkF6ZkjjVEJGyhJwGry6AiVcaAu6PEALw_wcB

# data[].attributes.body
Halstead, F. (2017, November 30). How to help children recover from the trauma of disaster. https://theconversation.com/how-to-help-children-recover-from-the-trauma-of-disaster-88090

Hamaker, S. (2017, September 8). Even kids can have a role in helping after natural disasters. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/parenting/wp/2017/09/08/even-kids-can-have-a-role-in-assisting-in-natural-disasters/

Jay, E.F. (2020). Savvy tips for helping children prepare for crises and respond to disasters. https://resilienteducator.com/classroom-resources/help-children-prepare-respond-disasters/

Kousky, C. (2016). Impacts of natural disasters on children. The Future of Children, 26(1), 73-92. doi:10.1353/foc.2016.0004

SAMHSA (2018, September). Disasters technical assistance center supplemental research bulletin: Behavioral health conditions in children and youth exposed to natural disasters. https://www.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/srb-childrenyouth-8-22-18.pdf

The National Child Traumatic Stress Network (n.d.). The impact of natural and technological disasters on children, families, and communities. https://docs.google.com/document/d/1tfnE5WQcIAjw9oPf03VwzM8AsiYyuPHuGBQsBHr5CHg/edit?usp=sharing