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The rapid development of faster and less expensive methods of sequencing was a side effect of the Human Genome Project

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Once the structure of DNA and its relationship to amino acid sequence was understood, biologists sought to “decode” genes by learning their base sequences.

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complementary pairing can also occur between two RNA molecules or between parts of the
same molecule.

In RNA, thymine is replaced by uracil (U) so
A and U pair

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Only certain bases in DNA pair up and form hydrogen bonds: adenine (A) always with thymine (T), and guanine (G) always with cytosine (C)

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The backbones run in opposite 5¢ → 3¢ directions from each other, an arrangement referred to as

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DNA molecules have two polynucleotides spiraling around an imaginary axis

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Adjacent nucleotides are joined by a phosphodiester linkage, which consists of a phosphate group that links the sugars of two nucleotides

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(adenine and guanine) have a six-membered ring fused to a five-membered ring

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(cytosine, thymine, and uracil)
have a single six-membered ring

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Each polynucleotide is made of monomers called

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Nucleic acids are polymers called

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DNA directs synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA) and, through mRNA, controls protein synthesis

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The mRNA molecule interacts with the cell’s protein-synthesizing machinery to direct production of a polypeptide

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DNA provides directions for its own replication

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This loss of a protein’s native structure is
called

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results when two or more polypeptide chains form one macromolecule

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the overall shape of a polypeptide, results from interactions between
R groups, rather than interactions between backbone constituents

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result from hydrogen bonds between repeating constituents of the polypeptide backbone

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Primary structure is like the order of letters in a long word.

Primary structure is determined by inherited genetic information.

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results when a protein consists of multiple polypeptide chains

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§is determined by interactions among various side chains (R groups)

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consists of coils and folds in the polypeptide chain

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is its unique sequence of amino acids

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Amino acids are linked by covalent bonds called

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are organic molecules with amino and carboxyl groups

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are unbranched polymers built from these amino acids

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speed up reactions

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Enzymatic-accelerates chemical reactions
Defensive-protection against disease
Storage-storage of amino acids
Transport-transport of substances
Hormonal-coordination of organisms activity
Receptor-response of cell to chemical stimuli
Contractile and motor-movement
Structural-support

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Some proteins speed up chemical reactions

Other protein functions include defense, storage, transport, cellular communication, movement, or structural support

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is a component in animal cell membranes and a precursor from which other steroids are synthesized

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are lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings

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At the surface of a cell, phospholipids are also arranged in a bilayer, with the hydrophobic tails pointing toward the interior

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The two fatty acid tails are hydrophobic, but the phosphate group and its attachments form a hydrophilic head.

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two fatty acids and a phosphate group are attached to glycerol

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omega-3 fatty acids, which are required for normal growth and are thought to provide protection against cardiovascular disease

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Hydrogenating vegetable oils also creates unsaturated fats with trans double bonds

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is the process of converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats by adding hydrogen

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have one or more double bonds

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have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible and no double bonds

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In a fat, three fatty acids are joined to glycerol
by an ester linkage

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consists of a carboxyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton

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are constructed from two types of smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty acids

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fats, phospholipids, and steroids

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because they consist mostly of hydrocarbons, which form nonpolar covalent bonds

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is found in the exoskeleton of arthropods and also provides structural support for the cell walls of many fungi

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is a major component of the tough wall of plant cells

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is a storage polysaccharide in animals

and is stored mainly in liver and muscle cells

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The simplest form of starch is amylose

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a storage polysaccharide of plants, consists entirely of glucose monomers

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architecture and function are determined by its sugar monomers and the positions of its glycosidic linkages

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is formed when a dehydration reaction joins two monosaccharides

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Major fuel for cells and raw building material

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location of carbonyl group and the number of carbons in the carbon skeleton

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have molecular formulas that are multiple of CH2O

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Glucose is the most common mononsaccharies

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Genes consist of DNA, a nucleic acid made of monomers called nucleotides

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are the one class of large biological molecules that does not include true polymers

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simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharides