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Actively participate in their own autonomous learning process
• Control various aspects of their learning for accomplishing specific goals
• Regulate their cognitive and affective states
• Form positive beliefs about themselves
• Use strategies to move from conscious knowledge to automatic procedural knowledge
• Select appropriate strategies for widely differing purposes and contexts
• Make the connection between strategy use and learning outcomes

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The S2R model, also known as the Strategy, Second Language Learning, and Reference model, is a theoretical framework proposed by Rebecca Oxford in 2011. It aims to provide a comprehensive view of language learning strategy use, highlighting the role of reference sources in the strategy process. The S2R model suggests that learners use strategies in conjunction with reference sources, including internal and external resources, to make meaning of language input and output.

The S2R model consists of three main components:

1. Strategies: These are the various methods that learners use to acquire and use language, including cognitive, metacognitive, affective, and social strategies.

2. Second Language Learning: This component encompasses the processes involved in learning a second language, such as input processing, output production, and interaction with others.

3. Reference sources: These are the sources of information that learners use to help them make sense of language input and output, including the learner's own knowledge and experiences, the target language and culture, and various types of learning resources.

According to the S2R model, effective language learning requires the integration of all three components, as learners use strategies in conjunction with reference sources to make meaning of language input and output. The model emphasizes the importance of learner autonomy and the active role that learners play in their own language learning, as well as the need for educators to provide guidance and support for learners in developing their strategic competence.

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Cross-Cultural Issues:

The effectiveness of strategy use and instruction cross-culturally is a theoretical issue.

Studies conducted in many countries suggest that strategy instruction and autonomous learning are viable avenues to success.

Cross-cultural factors may either facilitate or interfere with strategy use among learners.

Measuring Strategy Use:

The measurement of strategy use is a controversial issue in research and pedagogy.

Oxford's Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) is a widely used questionnaire that identifies strategies.

The SILL presents a possible strategy and responders must indicate on a five-point scale how frequently they use it.

Self-report questionnaires may not always be accurate.

Other methods of identifying styles and strategies include self-reports through interviews, written diaries and journals, think-aloud protocols, student portfolios, and inventories that focus on learning the four skills.

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The Effectiveness of Strategy Instruction

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The Effectiveness of Strategy Instruction

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Incorporating strategies into the classroom learning process has been found to be useful for learners.

There are three basic forms of strategy training:
1. Textbook-embedded instruction with strategic suggestions for both students and teachers
2. Autonomous self-help strategy training provided by student manuals
3. Strategies-based advice, hints, and tips incorporated into a teacher’s planned or impromptu classroom procedures.

All three forms of strategy training have been proven to be effective for learners in various contexts.

The effectiveness of these forms of strategy training has been supported by research studies conducted by experts in the field.

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The study of language learning strategies has been working towards a theory of strategies, with Oxford's three meta-strategies as one possible framework.

Identifying Types of Strategy

Studies separate language learning strategies into those for acquiring receptive (listening and reading) and communicative (speaking and writing) skills.

Learning (input) strategies for listening and reading include monitoring, elaboration, inferencing, selective attention, advance organizers, prediction, and note-taking.

Reading strategies also include bottom-up and top-down processing, predicting, guessing from context, brainstorming, and summarizing.

Communication (output) strategies involve conscious plans to solve communicative problems, such as compensatory strategies when lacking linguistic resources.

Communication strategies can be viewed positively as part of a learner's overall strategic competence, including self-regulatory strategies and subconscious or implicit strategies.

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Successful language learners are aware of their learning style and use effective strategies to learn and communicate.

Teachers can help learners become more aware of their learning style and strategies by providing opportunities for reflection and feedback.

Becoming aware of learning style and strategies is important for authentic use of language outside of the classroom.

Successful language learners take self-motivated efforts to extend their learning beyond the classroom.

Teachers can encourage learners to become more autonomous learners by helping them see the benefits of raising their awareness of learning style and strategies.

The classroom is a starting point for learners to begin their language learning journey, but it's essential to devote time outside of class to practice meaningful language use.

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The SAC (Strategies Checklist) is a practical tool that helps students identify their own language learning strategies without coaching.

The SAC highlights ten major characteristics of good language learners, such as lowering inhibitions, building self-confidence, and setting personal goals.

Many language textbooks include strategy awareness modules, and teachers can also use short, simple manuals or engage in their own SBI (Strategy-Based Instruction).

Teachers can incorporate strategies into their lessons, such as communicative games, rapid reading, fluency exercises, and error analysis.

Teachers can also use various techniques to build strategic techniques in the language classroom, such as playing guessing games, doing role plays, praising students for trying, and encouraging students to set their own goals.

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The effective implementation of SBI in language classrooms involves several steps and considerations.

The first objective is identifying learners’ styles and linking them with potential strategies.

Incorporating SBI in communicative language courses and classrooms is another important step.

Providing extra-class assistance for learners is also important.

One way to identify learners' styles is by administering a simple checklist to students.

The Styles Awareness Checklist (SAC) is an example of a scaled questionnaire that can help students become familiar with their learning styles.

The SAC focuses on styles rather than strategies at this point.

By identifying their learning styles, students can better understand how they prefer to learn and can be more successful in developing strategies that work for them.

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Learner strategy training, learning strategy instruction, and strategies-based instruction are terms used to describe the application of strategies to classroom learning.

Teaching learners how to learn is crucial for creating an effective language classroom.

Learner strategies are the key to learner autonomy, and facilitating that autonomy through explicit instruction is important.

Teachers can establish an atmosphere for the realization of successful strategies by drawing on an understanding of what makes learners successful and unsuccessful.

Students may have preconceived notions of what "ought" to go on in the classroom, so teachers cannot always expect instant success in teaching strategies.

Students benefit from SBI if they understand the strategy, perceive it to be effective, and do not consider its implementation to be overly difficult.

Therefore, teaching students technical know-how about how to tackle a language is a wise effort.

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Language learners who have a "knack" for gaining communicative control of a second language often have special insights into compensatory strategies.

Compensatory strategies are designed to make up for gaps in one's ability and can spell the difference between a person who "survives" in a language and one who does not.

Avoidance is a tactic for preventing a pitfall, and syntactic, phonological, and lexical avoidance are common tactics in successful learners.

Psychological elements involved in avoidance include face-saving and maintaining communicative interaction.

Other compensatory strategies include circumlocution, approximation, word coinage, nonverbal signals, prefabricated patterns, code-switching, and appeal to authority. (FOR EXAMPLES REFER PG 129 TABLE 5.6)

Memorized chunks of language, known as prefabricated patterns, are often found in pocket bilingual phrase books.

Code-switching is the use of a first or third language within a stream of speech in the second language.

Learners in the early stages of acquisition might code-switch to use their native language to fill in missing knowledge.

Another common compensatory strategy is a direct appeal for help, often termed appeal to authority. Learners may, if stuck for a particular word or phrase, directly ask a proficient speaker or teacher for the correct form, or consult a dictionary.

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The third of Oxford’s categories contains what others have called communication strategies  or socioaffective strategies,  both of which refer to the learner’s tactics for generating and maintaining interactive communication within a cultural context. Oxford’s sociocultural-interactive (S-I) strategies “help the learner interact and communicate (despite knowledge gaps) and deal [effectively] with culture.

The S-I strategies are interacting to learn, overcoming knowledge gaps, guessing intelligently, generating conversation and activating sociocultural schemata (EXAMPLES FOR THESE STRATEGIES IN TEXTBOOK PG  127)

The three classifications of meta-strategies outlined above only begin to capture the complexity of the L2 learner’s potential strategic investment in
learning the target language.

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Krashen's hypothesis includes five components:

1. The acquisition-learning hypothesis: Krashen argued that there are two ways of developing language ability - language acquisition (unconscious process) and language learning (conscious process). Acquisition is more important than learning in achieving fluency in a second language.

2. The input hypothesis: Krashen posited that language acquisition occurs when learners are exposed to input that is just beyond their current level of competence (i+1). This means that the input should be comprehensible, but also challenging enough to push the learner's linguistic boundaries.

3. The monitor hypothesis: Krashen proposed that language learning can act as a monitor or editor of language output, helping learners to correct errors in their speech or writing. However, the monitor should not be used too much, as it can impede fluency.

4. The natural order hypothesis: Krashen suggested that learners acquire grammatical structures in a predictable order, regardless of their first language or the instructional order in which they are presented.

5. The affective filter hypothesis: Krashen believed that language acquisition is affected by affective factors such as motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety. A low affective filter allows learners to take risks and make mistakes, which can aid language acquisition.

The implications of Krashen's hypothesis for second language learning include:

Input should be comprehensible and slightly challenging for learners to achieve maximum language acquisition.

Affective factors such as motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety can impact language acquisition and should be taken into consideration in language instruction.

Learners should be given ample opportunities to acquire language through exposure and interaction, rather than being forced to learn through explicit instruction and memorization.

Teachers should encourage learners to take risks and make mistakes, rather than focusing on correction and error-free output.

Instruction should follow a natural order of grammar acquisition, rather than following a predetermined syllabus or sequence.

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The second of Oxford’s meta-strategies is a set of affective strategies that help the learner to employ beneficial emotional energy, form positive attitudes toward the learning process, and generate and maintain motivation.

The affective strategies are activating supportive
emotions, minimizing negative emotions, generating motivation and building positive attitudes. (EXAMPLES FOR THESE STRATEGIES IN TEXTBOOK PG 127)

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The first of Oxford's three meta-strategies is cognitive strategies.

Cognitive strategies help the learner to construct, transform, and apply L2 knowledge.

Cognitive strategies include a number of subcategories, each of which has specific tactics.

The subcategories of cognitive strategies include planning, organizing, monitoring, evaluating, using senses, activating knowledge, contextualization, and going beyond the data.

Examples of tactics within the planning subcategory include previewing, reviewing, setting schedules, and rehearsing linguistic components.

Examples of tactics within the organizing subcategory include attending to specific aspects of language input, reordering, and classifying or labeling items in the language.

Examples of tactics within the monitoring subcategory include correcting speech for accuracy, imitating language models, and self-checking.

Examples of tactics within the evaluating subcategory include checking the outcomes of one's own language learning against an internal measure of completeness and accuracy.

Examples of tactics within the using senses subcategory include creating visualizations and pictures to remember, noticing phonological sounds, and acting out a word or sentence.

Examples of tactics within the activating knowledge subcategory include using the first language for comparison/contrast, applying rules by deduction, and using translation to remember a new word.

Examples of tactics within the contextualization subcategory include placing a word or phrase in a meaningful language sequence and relating new information to other concepts in memory.

Examples of tactics within the going beyond the data subcategory include guessing meanings of new items and predicting words or forms from the context.

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Styles refer to general characteristics that differentiate one individual from another, while strategies refer to specific actions taken to solve a given problem in learning.

Research on second language acquisition (SLA) has identified a variety of types and specific strategies or tactics that learners use.

Examples of general categories of strategies in SLA research include learning vs. communication, metacognitive, memory, direct vs. indirect, cognitive, affective, socio-affective, sociocultural-interactive, input vs. output, skill-oriented, avoidance, compensatory, and self-regulated.

The proliferation of typologies is part of the historical growth of research on SLA as the intricacies of learners' strategic investment in L2 learning were uncovered.

Oxford's typology includes three broad categories of meta-strategies for self-regulation: cognitive, affective, and sociocultural-interactive strategies.

These three categories encompass an extensive range of work by Chamot, Cohen, Dörnyei, O’Malley, Oxford, Rubin, and others in SLA research.

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Self-regulation is the autonomous process of developing awareness, setting goals, monitoring performance, using effective strategies, and holding positive beliefs about oneself.

Strategic self-regulation (S2R) is a concept developed by Rebecca Oxford that includes the self-stimulated application by a learner of cognitive, affective, and sociocultural-interactive strategies.

The S2R model includes practical suggestions for teachers and learners to develop autonomy, awareness, and action.

Learners need to act on their learning once they become aware of their predispositions, styles, and strengths and weaknesses.

Learners who are intolerant of ambiguity and employ analytical, linear thinking can benefit from an awareness of those proclivities and from taking appropriate strategic action.

Strategically self-regulated learners actively participate in their own autonomous learning process, control various aspects of their learning for accomplishing specific goals, regulate their cognitive and affective states, form positive beliefs about themselves, use strategies to move from conscious knowledge to automatic procedural knowledge, select appropriate strategies for widely differing purposes and contexts, and make the connection between strategy use and learning outcomes.

The concepts of good language learners are still relevant, and we are still attending to what they do to achieve success, even though the terminology and definitions have become more sophisticated over time.

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Community Language Learning (CLL) was a language teaching method inspired by Carl Rogers's philosophy of education.

In the CLL method, the teacher takes on a counseling role and creates a supportive learning community to lower students' anxiety.

Students are encouraged to try anything they want and inductively emit any language forms they want to, with the teacher using translation to aid refinement and comprehension.

Learners are encouraged but not forced to respond to one another, with the teacher guiding them when needed.

The aim of CLL is to move learners toward autonomy, preparing them for when they no longer have a teacher to guide them.

CLL had weaknesses such as trial by error and almost exclusive reliance on translation, but it offers insights to teachers on creating supportive classroom environments and moving learners toward independence.

Effective language classrooms often incorporate bits and pieces of many potentially contrasting methods, and successful teachers are eclectic in their choice of tasks for language lessons.

CLL has weaknesses but it provides some valuable insights for language teachers. Teachers should aim to create a supportive classroom environment, reduce students' anxiety, encourage students to initiate language use, and guide them towards independence. Effective language teaching requires the use of different methods and approaches, and successful teachers are flexible in their choice of activities for language lessons.

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The history of language teaching shows a shift from teacher-centered to learner-centered approaches, emphasizing learner autonomy and self-directed learning.

Learner autonomy requires the use of strategies to help students take responsibility for their own learning.

There are some potential challenges to promoting learner autonomy, including cultural differences and assumptions about the universality of autonomy.

However, research suggests that autonomy can be fostered in different cultural contexts and with appropriate levels of motivation.

A key aspect of promoting learner autonomy is helping students become aware of their own learning processes and develop metacognitive awareness.

There is growing research on awareness-raising among L2 learners in classrooms around the world, which shows an optimal level of awareness that serves learners.

Too much focus on correctness or grammar can smother a learner's yearning to use language, and too much focus on strategic options can block open communication.

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The outbreak of WWII increased the need for Americans to learn languages.

The U.S. military funded the Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP) or the Army Method to teach aural/oral language skills.

The Army Method used oral activities like pronunciation and conversation practice, but rejected deductive grammar teaching and translation.

Educational institutions adopted the Army Method, which later became known as the Audiolingual Method (ALM).

The ALM was based on linguistic and psychological theories of structural linguistics and conditioning and habit-formation models of learning.

The ALM was popular but eventually fell out of favor due to its failure to teach long-term communicative proficiency.

The ALM contributed the value of quick, fast-paced drilling routines to language teaching.

The audiolingual method of teaching is less commonly used in language education today, as it has been largely replaced by more communicative and task-based approaches. However, some language programs may still incorporate some audiolingual techniques, such as pattern drills and repetition exercises, as part of a broader teaching methodology. An example of an audiolingual method exercise could be a teacher leading a class in repeating short phrases or sentences out loud to practice pronunciation and intonation.

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Intelligence has been traditionally defined and measured in terms of linguistic and logical-mathematical abilities, as demonstrated by the notion of IQ (Intelligence Quotient) based on testing in these two domains.

High IQ scores have been shown to correlate with success in educational institutions and life in general.

However, research and observation over the last few decades suggests that successful second language acquisition (SLA) does not correlate equally well with high IQ scores.

Howard Gardner posited eight multiple intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalist, interpersonal, and intrapersonal.

Gardner argued that traditional definitions of intelligence are culture-bound and that our mental abilities go beyond just linguistic and logical-mathematical skills.

Robert Sternberg proposed a triarchic view of intelligence with three types of "smartness": componential ability for analytical thinking, experiential ability to engage in creative thinking, and contextual ability or "street smartness".

Sternberg contended that traditional intelligence tests overly emphasize mental speed and that practical tasks closely related to success in the real world should also be considered in measuring intelligence.

Daniel Goleman's work on emotional intelligence suggests that emotion plays a significant role in intellectual functioning, with the management of core emotions driving and controlling cognitive processing.

By expanding our understanding of intelligence to include other types of intelligence such as musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and spatial intelligence, we can better understand the relationship between intelligence and successful SLA.

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Language aptitude is the ability or talent to learn foreign languages.

Successful language learners possess various characteristics, such as risk-taking behavior, memory efficiency, and willingness to communicate.

Aptitude tests, such as the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) and Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery (PLAB), were initially popular in language learning contexts but declined in popularity.

Aptitude tests were criticized for reflecting general intelligence or academic ability rather than measuring language aptitude and for failing to tap into crucial learning strategies and styles.

Language aptitude tests may also bias both students and teachers and lead to self-fulfilling prophecies.

Interest in language aptitude research declined but resurged in the late 1990s and early 2000s.

Researchers proposed a new aptitude battery, the CANAL-F test, which involved the test taker in a process of learning a simulated language embedded in a multifaceted language context.

Further research is needed to determine whether aptitude tests can reliably predict success in learning a foreign language.

Language aptitude is typically assessed through standardized tests or assessments, which may involve the following steps:

1. Identification of the specific language(s) to be assessed.

2. Selection of an appropriate assessment tool, such as the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT).

3. Administration of the assessment to the individual being evaluated.

4. Scoring and interpretation of the results to determine the individual's level of language aptitude.

5. Feedback and recommendations for language learning based on the assessment results.

The assessment may measure various aspects of language aptitude, such as grammatical sensitivity, phonetic coding ability, rote learning ability, inductive language learning ability, and overall language learning aptitude.

IS IT STILL RELEVANT?
Yes, language aptitude tests are still relevant as they provide valuable insights into an individual's potential to learn and acquire languages. They can help identify an individual's strengths and weaknesses in various language learning areas, such as grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation, which can guide language instruction and training programs. Additionally, language aptitude tests can be used for various purposes, including selecting candidates for language-specific jobs or language immersion programs, and identifying individuals who may need additional language support.

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Inductive reasoning involves inducing a general rule or conclusion from specific instances, while deductive reasoning involves inferring specific facts from a generalization.

L1 learning and natural SLA involve a largely inductive process, whereas classroom language learning tends to rely more on deductive reasoning.

An inductive approach is generally superior to a deductive approach in communicative L2 learning, but form-focused instruction may benefit from explicit attention to rules.

Peters (1981) found evidence of "Gestalt" learning in children, where they produce "wholes" in the form of intonation patterns before speaking the particular words that make up sentences.

Wong (1986) advocated for explicitly teaching overall intonation patterns for communicative oral production before specific syntactic forms and using kazoos in pronunciation classes to help learners hear sentence stress and intonation.

The use of Gestalt learning and teaching overall intonation patterns, as described in the passage, involves both inductive and deductive learning. The child in Peters' case study used a Gestalt approach to language learning, which is largely inductive, whereas Wong's approach to teaching communicative oral production involves explicitly teaching overall intonation patterns, which is more deductive in nature.

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In SLA, interference and overgeneralization are common terms.

Generalization involves deriving a law, rule, or conclusion from the observation of particular instances.

Generalization helps in subsuming items under higher-order categories for meaningful retention.

Children acquire concept learning through generalization from experience with particulars.

In SLA, overgeneralization occurs when an L2 learner generalizes a particular rule or item in the L2 beyond legitimate bounds, irrespective of the L1.

Children acquiring English as a native language overgeneralize regular past tense endings as applicable to all past tense forms until they recognize a subset of verbs that belong in an "irregular" category.

L2 learners from all native language backgrounds overgeneralize within the target language.

Overgeneralization refers to the process of extending a particular rule or item in a language beyond legitimate bounds, often resulting in errors.

Here are some examples of overgeneralization:

A child learning English might say "goed" instead of "went" because they have overgeneralized the regular past tense rule to all verbs.

A second language learner might say "He no have any money" instead of "He doesn't have any money" because they have overgeneralized the word order from their first language to the target language.

A person might use the word "addicting" instead of "addictive" because they have overgeneralized the -ing suffix as an adjective form in English.

A student might write "the childs" instead of "the children" because they have overgeneralized the regular plural rule to irregular nouns.

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Humans use previous knowledge to solve new problems

Knowledge is accumulated through experiences and stored in memory

Learning can involve transfer, interference, and overgeneralization

Transfer refers to carryover of previous performance or knowledge to subsequent learning

Positive transfer occurs when prior knowledge benefits the learning task, negative transfer occurs when previous performance disrupts or inhibits the performance of a second task

Interference occurs when previously learned material conflicts with subsequent material

Native language can negatively transfer to second language learning, but can also positively transfer in terms of word order correspondence, personal pronouns, prepositions, and cognates

Positive transfer of previous second language experience can benefit subsequent second language learning

Learning course content can be applied to real-world situations

Retroactive effect of a second language on the first language can occur, especially among bilinguals living in a foreign country.

Retroactive refers to the effect of a current act of learning on previously learned material.

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Various methods can be used to help learners identify their own learning styles, preferences, strengths, and weaknesses

Self-check questionnaires are the most common method used, where learners respond to various questions along a scale of points of agreement and disagreement

Examples of such questionnaires include Kolb's Learning Style Inventory, Oxford's Style Analysis Survey, and Wintergerst, DeCapua, and Verna's Learning Styles Indicator

Measurement of style preferences by means of self-check questionnaires can be problematic, as external, objective measures are not available

Learners' styles represent preferred approaches rather than immutable stable traits, meaning that learners can adapt to varying contexts and situations, regardless of their overall general preferences

Learners' styles can be a reflection of their cultural background, and teachers should be sensitive to students' heritage languages and cultures

Teachers should gauge students' preferences, strengths and weaknesses, propensities, and abilities to tailor an effective methodological approach.

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Learning style refers to an individual's preferred way of processing information.

One dimension of learning style is field dependence/independence, which refers to a learner's tendency to either focus on details or see the big picture.

Another dimension is impulsivity/reflectivity, which refers to a learner's tendency to make quick or more calculated decisions.

Visual learners prefer to learn through reading and studying graphics, while auditory learners prefer to learn through listening to lectures and audio materials. Kinesthetic learners prefer physical activity and demonstrations.

Successful learners often utilize both visual and auditory input, but may have a slight preference towards one or the other.

There are some cross-cultural differences in learning style, particularly in visual and auditory styles among speakers of different languages.

Different learning styles have their own advantages and disadvantages in SLA. For example, visual learners may have an advantage in learning vocabulary, but may struggle with understanding complex grammar structures.

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Robert Gagné identified several types of human learning that are important to consider. These concepts can be applied to research on how people acquire language.

[NI COPY PASTE TEXTBOOK JE]
1-5 BEHAVIOURAL
LAST 3 COGNITIVE/SOCIOCULTURAL

1. Signal learning. Attending to something in one’s environment (music, animal sounds, human voices, etc.), typical of Pavlovian classical condi- tioning. Linguistic application: human beings notice and attend to human language.

2. Stimulus–response learning. The learner makes a response to a “dis- criminated” stimulus, a specific attendance to a single element in one’s perceptual environment. Linguistic application: Noticing and responding to specific sounds, words, and nonverbal gestures, and receiving a reward for the response.

3. Chaining. Learning a chain of two or more stimulus-response connec- tions. Linguistic application: Stringing several sounds or words together to attempt to communicate meaning.

4. Verbal association. Attaching meaning to verbal/nonverbal chains. Linguistic application: Assigning meaning to various verbal stimuli. “Nonsense” syllables become meaningful for communication.

5. Multiple discrimination. Learning to make different responses to many varying stimuli, which may resemble each other. Linguistic application: Noticing differences between/among sounds, words, or phrases that are similar. For example, minimal pairs (sheep/ship), homonyms (left/left), and synonyms (maybe/perhaps).

6. Concept learning. Learning to make a common response to a class of stimuli even though the individual members of that class may differ widely from each other. Linguistic application: The word “hot” applies to stoves, candles, and irons; young children learn that four-legged farm animals are not all “horsies.”

7. Principle learning. Learning a chain of two or more concepts, a cluster of related concepts. Linguistic application: Verbs in the past tense are classified into regular and irregular forms, yet both forms express the con- cept of tense.

8. Problem solving. Previously acquired concepts and principles are com- bined in a conscious focus on an unresolved or ambiguous set of events. Linguistic application: Learning that metaphorical language is not simply idiosyncratic, but connected to cultural world views and ways of thinking, thus explaining why a dead person is “gone.” Also, using language to solve problems, such as information gap exercises in a classroom.

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Individuals can have a tendency towards impulsive or reflective decision-making styles.

Impulsive thinkers make quick decisions based on intuition or "hunches," while reflective thinkers take more time to consider all factors and loopholes before making a decision.

Research suggests that conceptually reflective children tend to make fewer errors in reading than impulsive children, but impulsive individuals are usually faster readers and eventually master the "psycholinguistic guessing game" of reading.

Reflective adults in L2 learning contexts were found to be slower but more accurate than impulsive students in reading, and reflection was weakly related to performance on a proofreading task.

"Fast-accurate" learners, or good guessers, were found to be better language learners as measured by the standardized Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), but some fast learners were inaccurate.

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Ambiguity tolerance (AT) refers to the ability to tolerate ideas and propositions that contradict one's belief system, while ambiguity intolerance (AI) refers to a closed-mindedness that rejects contradictory information.

AT individuals are open-minded and can entertain innovative and creative possibilities without being affected by uncertainty, which is important in second language learning where contradictory information is encountered.

However, too much AT can result in wishy-washy thinking and the inefficient subsuming of necessary facts into one's cognitive organizational structure.

AI has advantages in guarding against wishy-washiness by rejecting contradictory material and dealing with the reality of one's cognitive system, but it can also result in a rigid, dogmatic, and narrow-minded approach that hinders creativity.

Research suggests that high AT may be a factor in L2 learning, and it is unlikely that a compartmentalizer would be successful in the ambiguous process of learning a second language.

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Left-brain (LB) and right-brain (RB) dominance is important in developing a theory of SLA.

The left hemisphere is associated with logical, analytical thought, while the right hemisphere perceives and remembers visual, tactile, and auditory images and is more efficient in processing holistic, integrative, and emotional information.

Both hemispheres operate together as a "team" and often the best solutions to problems involve the participation of each hemisphere.

The LB/RB construct helps to define a learning style continuum with implications for L2 learning and teaching.

LB dominant L2 learners prefer a deductive approach to teaching, while RB dominant learners are more successful with inductive techniques.

LB dominant learners are better at producing separate words, gathering specifics of language, carrying out sequences of operations, and dealing with classification, labeling, and reorganization.

RB dominant learners deal better with whole images, generalizations, metaphors, emotional reactions, and artistic expressions.

There is a strong relationship between hemispheric preference and field independence/field sensitivity (FI/FS) cognitive styles.

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Field independence (FI) is the ability to focus on specific relevant subsets in a distracting field, while field dependence (FD) is the tendency to perceive the total field as a unified whole.

A FI style enables one to distinguish parts from a whole and analyze separate variables without contamination from neighboring variables, while too much FI may result in cognitive “tunnel vision”.

A field sensitive (FS) style allows for the perception of the larger view, the general configuration of a problem or idea or event, and is necessary for cognitive and affective problems.

Early research on FI/FS found that affectively, FI people tended to be generally more independent, competitive, and self-confident, while FS people tended to be more sociable, empathic, and perceptive of others' feelings and thoughts.

Two conflicting hypotheses emerged about how FI and FS styles relate to second language learning: 1) FI is closely related to classroom learning that involves analysis, attention to details, and mastering of exercises, drills, and other focused activities, and 2) an FS style yields successful acquisition of the communicative aspects of a second language due to its association with empathy, social outreach, and perception of other people.

Little empirical evidence has been gathered to support the second hypothesis due to the lack of a true test of FS.

The two styles deal with different kinds of language learning, with natural, face-to-face communication being aided by an FS style, and classroom learning being enhanced by an FI style.

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According to Vygotsky, the best way to learn is through social interaction and collaboration, especially in the context of culturally constructed artifacts and social relationships. Language is a tool for communication with other human beings, and it is this symbiotic relationship that is a driving force in the development and growth of cognition. Therefore, educators should strive to create optimal environments for social interaction and negotiation of meaning, where learners can collaborate and engage in meaning-making with other members of their culture. Teachers should act as facilitators, providing nurturing contexts for learners to face real-world issues and believe in themselves.

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Lev Vygotsky's contributions to human learning were recognized later in the twentieth century for his unique insights.

Vygotsky believed that the key to understanding higher forms of human mental activity lay in the mediation of symbols, signs, and language.

For Vygotsky, the task of psychology is to understand how human social and mental activity is organized through culturally constructed artifacts and social relationships.

Vygotsky emphasized that language is not only an instrument for thought but also an ability that develops through social interaction.

Language is primarily a tool for communication with other human beings, and it is this symbiotic relationship that is a driving force in the development and growth of cognition.

A child's early stages of language acquisition are an outgrowth of the process of "meaning-making in collaborative activity with other members of a given culture."

Rogers, Freire, and Vygotsky contributed to the redefinition of the educational process by enabling learners to understand themselves and creating optimal environments for social interaction and negotiation of meaning.

Behavioral, cognitive, and social constructivist perspectives provide a comprehensive understanding of human learning and cognition.

An open-minded 21st-century view is enriched by considering the benefits and drawbacks of each side of the ancient Greek triangle of body, mind, and soul.

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Paulo Freire believed that traditional methods of education, which he called the "banking" concept, were ineffective because they treated students as passive recipients of knowledge rather than active learners. He argued that the best way to learn is through a process of discovery and critical thinking, which allows students to relate what they learn in school to their own experiences and reality outside of the classroom. In this approach, learners are encouraged to negotiate learning outcomes and cooperate with teachers and peers in the learning process. Ultimately, the goal of education is to empower students to become instruments of their own liberation, lifting themselves up by their own bootstraps, and achieving solutions to real-world problems.

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The concept of learning styles, which are general characteristics of intellectual functioning and personality that differentiate one individual from another. Learning styles are relatively stable tendencies or preferences within an individual, such as being more visually oriented or more impulsive than others. They mediate between emotion and cognition and can be contextualized within an educational context, where affective and physiological factors are intermingled.

This chapter also distinguishes between learning styles and learning strategies. While learning styles are relatively stable traits that indicate how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning environment, learning strategies are specific methods, behaviors, steps, or techniques used by students to enhance their own learning. They are contextualized and may vary from moment to moment, from one context to another, or from one culture to another, within an individual.

There are various types of learning styles, including field independence vs. field dependence, random vs. sequential, global vs. particular, inductive vs. deductive, synthetic vs. analytical, concrete vs. abstract, impulsive vs. reflective, left-brain vs. right-brain dominance, ambiguity tolerance vs. intolerance, and visual vs. auditory vs. kinesthetic modalities.

The text acknowledges that the identification and measurement of learning styles have not met with universal acceptance from researchers, and some have raised problematic issues in conceptualizing them. Nonetheless, learning styles remain an important starting point for a teacher in assessing an approach to an individual learner that will be appropriate.

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Paulo Freire rejected traditional education methods that viewed teachers as depositors of knowledge and students as passive recipients.

Instead, he believed in negotiated learning outcomes and cooperation between students and teachers in a process of discovery.

Freire emphasized the importance of relating everything learned in school to the real world outside the classroom.

He wrote Pedagogy of the Oppressed, which encouraged critical thinking and questioning of accepted knowledge.

Freire believed in empowering students to become instruments of their own liberation and to lift themselves up by their own bootstraps.

His liberationist views on education should be approached with caution, but learners can be empowered to solve real-world problems.

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SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST PERSPECTIVE IN HUMAN LEARNING (HOW SOCIAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS AFFECT HUMAN LEARNING)

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SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST PERSPECTIVE IN HUMAN LEARNING (HOW SOCIAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS AFFECT HUMAN LEARNING)

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Carl Rogers, Paolo Freire, and Lev Vygotsky

Carl Rogers

Rogers' work had a significant impact on our present understanding of learning, particularly in educational contexts.

His views on humanistic psychology were based on a phenomenological perspective, which contrasts with Skinner's behaviorism.

Rogers believed that fully functioning individuals live at peace with all their feelings and reactions and can reach their full potential.

Rogers suggested that the goal of education is to facilitate change and learning, and learning how to learn is more important than being taught from a superior perspective.

Many current education systems prescribe curricular goals and objectives, which deny individuals freedom and dignity.

Rogers believed that teachers should be facilitators of learning, discard superiority and omniscience, trust and accept students as valuable individuals, and keep open lines of communication.

Rogers' humanism represents a radical departure from scientific analysis in behavioral psychology and strictly cognitive theories.

Rogers was not as concerned with the actual cognitive process of learning, as he felt that if the context for learning is properly created, students will learn what they need to.

Teachers could take a nondirective approach too far, leading to lost time and a lack of facilitative tension needed for learning.

Competitive environments can have positive effects on learning as long as they don't damage self-esteem or hinder motivation to learn.

In a social constructivist context, the best way to learn is through active participation in meaningful, real-world activities that are situated in social and cultural contexts. This involves engaging in collaborative problem-solving, discussions, and other activities that allow learners to construct knowledge and understanding through interaction with others and with the environment. The role of the teacher in this context is to facilitate the learning process, providing guidance and support while allowing learners to take ownership of their learning and to direct their own learning activities.

From Rogers, we can conclude that the best way to learn in a social constructivist context is to focus on the learner's experience and emotional state, and to create a non-threatening, supportive environment that promotes open communication and trust between teacher and student. This involves a shift away from traditional teaching methods that emphasize the transmission of knowledge from teacher to student, towards a more collaborative and transformative approach to education.

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In the 1970s, research on second language acquisition (SLA) led to the realization that no single method of teaching could guarantee universal success in L2 learning.

Individual variation was found to be an important factor in language learning, with some learners being naturally better than others.

Rubin and Stern (1975) identified attributes of successful language learners, which included taking charge of their own learning, being creative and experimental, learning chunks of language, using memory and comprehension strategies, and monitoring themselves and learning from mistakes.

This led to the development of strategies-based instruction (SBI), which aimed to provide teachers with a taxonomy of strategic options for their learners.

Norton and Toohey (2001) adopted a sociocultural approach that viewed learners as participants in a community of language users, where each learner creates their own identity and avenues of success.

Cognitive linguists criticized the concept of language learning strategies as being ill-defined and not supported by empirical research, but others contend that attention to strategic options can be productive in language pedagogy.

Self-regulation is a preferred concept for capturing such pursuits.

Teachers should attend to common strategies for successful learning across cultures and contexts but also be mindful of individual needs, variations, and specific cultural contexts of learning.

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David Ausubel (1968) developed a theory of learning applicable to classrooms and teachers.

He described human learning as a meaningful process of relating new events/items to existing cognitive structures.

Meaningful learning is the process of relating and anchoring new material to relevant established entities in cognitive structure.

Rote learning is the process of acquiring isolated blocks with no particular relationship to other blocks.

Meaningful learning is the process whereby blocks become an integral part of already established categories or systematic clusters of blocks.

The distinction between rote and meaningful learning has implications for both natural and instructed language acquisition.

This means that there are important differences between simply memorizing something by rote and truly understanding and connecting new information to existing knowledge. Meaningful learning, or the process of relating and anchoring new material to relevant established entities in cognitive structure, has greater potential for retention and understanding than rote learning, which involves acquiring material as "discrete and relatively isolated entities" without reference to cognitive hierarchical organization. This has significant implications for language acquisition, as well as other areas of learning.

Recent linguistic research has emphasized the role of frequency in language acquisition.

Meaningfulness (importance, significance, relatability) has a significant role in the eventual retention of cognitive items.

Long-term memory of meaningfully learned, subsumed items has greater potential for retention.

Area codes, postal codes, street addresses, names of people, faces, events, and relationships are examples of meaningful learning.

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Systematic forgetting and cognitive pruning

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Systematic forgetting and cognitive pruning

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There are different explanations for why we forget things, including behavioral and cognitive perspectives.

Behavioral explanations cite infrequency of input, cessation of practice, and lack of reinforcement as reasons for forgetting.

Cognitive explanations look at saliency, relevance, emotion, and the strength of anchoring mental sets that capture a trace of memory.

These two statements are talking about different perspectives on why people forget things.

The first statement, about behavioral explanations, suggests that people forget things because they don't encounter the information frequently enough, they stop practicing or rehearsing it, or they don't receive any rewards or reinforcement for remembering it.

The second statement, about cognitive explanations, looks at how memorable a piece of information is. It suggests that people are more likely to remember things that are important or emotionally significant, and that the way we initially encode or "anchor" a memory can affect how well we remember it later on.

In summary, the two statements are just different ways of looking at why people forget things - one from a behavior perspective and the other from a cognitive perspective.

Ausubel (1965, 1968) provided an explanation for the universal nature of forgetting, stating that retention of rote material is influenced by interfering effects of similar rote material learned before or after the task, while retention of meaningfully learned material is influenced by properties of relevant and cumulatively established ideational systems in cognitive structure.

Forgetting of meaningfully learned material takes place in a systematic manner as a continuation of the subsumption process, with specific items becoming progressively less identifiable and incorporated into the generalized meaning of larger items.

Cognitive pruning is a way to conceptualize this second stage of subsumption, in which unnecessary clutter is eliminated to clear the way for more growth.

Pruning is not haphazard or chance, but a systematic process that promotes optimal pruning procedures for retention beyond what is expected under traditional theories of forgetting.

Pruned items may still be an integral part of deep cognitive structure, difficult to consciously retrieve but automatic and facilitating communicative competence in language learning.

Research on language attrition has focused on various possible causes for the loss of second language skills, including age of acquisition, language use, and linguistic factors.

Cognitive pruning refers to the process by which the brain selectively eliminates neural connections that are no longer needed or useful, in order to streamline and optimize cognitive functioning. This process is essential for the development of efficient and adaptive cognitive processes.

One example of cognitive pruning occurs during childhood and adolescence, when the brain undergoes significant changes in response to new experiences and learning. During this time, the brain eliminates unnecessary or weak neural connections while strengthening and consolidating important connections that support cognitive and behavioral functions.

For instance, a child who is learning to play the piano may initially struggle with finger coordination and timing. However, with practice, the brain gradually prunes away weak or unnecessary neural connections, while strengthening the connections that support the motor and sensory skills required for playing the instrument. This pruning process leads to more efficient and accurate piano playing over time.

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Cognitive psychology emerged as a response to the limitations of behaviorism in explaining human learning. While behaviorism was successful in animal training, it fell short in accounting for the neurological processes involved in human learning, including the acquisition of complex skills, development of intelligence, logical and abstract thinking, and creativity.

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Behavioral psychology was highly popular in the first half of the 20th century as the ultimate explanation of human and animal learning.

Ivan Pavlov was the best-known classical behaviorist who conducted numerous classical conditioning experiments, where he used the salivation response of dogs to the sight or smell of food to form associations between stimuli and reflexive responses.

John Watson coined the term behaviorism and adopted the classical conditioning theory as the explanation for all learning. He rejected nonmeasurable notions of innateness and instinct.

E. L. Thorndike expanded on classical conditioning models by showing that stimuli that occurred after a behavior had an influence on future behaviors, known as his Law of Effect.

B. F. Skinner established himself as one of the leading behaviorists in the United States and added a unique dimension to behavioristic psychology. His approach was more appropriately labeled as neobehaviorism.

Skinner contended that Pavlov's respondent conditioning was inferior to operant conditioning in which one "operates" on the environment. Here, the importance of a (preceding) stimulus is deemphasized in favor of rewards that follow desired behavior.

Skinner defined operants in the learning process as acts that are emitted with no observable stimulus and governed by the consequences they produce.

According to Skinner, the events or stimuli (reinforcers) that follow a response both strengthen behavior and increase the probability of a recurrence of that response.

Skinner felt that punishment "works to the disadvantage of both the punished organism and the punishing agency." Punishment can be either the withdrawal of a positive reinforcer or the presentation of an aversive stimulus.

Skinner believed that mild punishment may be necessary for the temporary suppression of an undesired response.

Skinner was extremely methodical and empirical in his theory of learning, to the point of being preoccupied with scientific controls.

Skinner's theories had an impact on our understanding of human learning and on education, and his book, The Technology of Teaching, was a classic in the field of programmed instruction.

Skinner's Verbal Behavior described language as a system of verbal operants, and his understanding of the role of conditioning led to a whole new era in educational practices around the middle of the 20th century.

Skinnerian view of both language and language learning strongly influenced L2 teaching methodology.

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This chapter discuss about how human learn language in different perspectives which are behavioural, cognitive and social constructivism.

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The focus is on providing comprehensible input and allowing students to acquire the language naturally, without the pressure of producing it until they feel ready to do so.

Based on Krashen's theories of L2 acquisition, which emphasize the importance of "comprehensible input" and delaying production until speech "emerges"

A methodological offshoot of Krashen's work that advocates for learners to "pick up" a language, rather than being forced to study grammar in the classroom

Utilizes TPR activities at the beginning level to simulate child language acquisition

Highlights everyday language situations (shopping, home and health topics, etc.)

Teacher delivers comprehensible input, but learners do not need to say anything until they feel ready to do so

Delay of oral production can be pushed too far, and it is important for the teacher to encourage students to talk at an early stage.

Here are some additional activity suggestions for the Natural Approach:

Dictogloss: The teacher reads a passage to the students at a natural pace, and the students listen without taking notes. The teacher then reads the passage again, and this time the students take notes. Finally, the students work together in pairs or small groups to recreate the passage as accurately as possible based on their notes.

Picture Narration: The teacher shows the class a series of pictures depicting a story, and the students work together to create a spoken or written narrative of the story. This activity helps students develop their listening comprehension skills and their ability to create a coherent story in the target language.

Role-Playing: Students are given a scenario and assigned roles to play. For example, students could act out a restaurant scene, with one student playing the waiter and the other playing the customer. This activity provides students with opportunities to use the target language in a realistic context.

Interviews: Students work in pairs or small groups to interview each other. This activity can be focused on specific grammar points or vocabulary themes, and helps students develop their speaking and listening skills.

Storytelling: Students take turns telling a story, either individually or as a group. The teacher can provide prompts or specific vocabulary to incorporate into the story, and this activity helps students develop their speaking and storytelling skills.

Comprehensible input refers to spoken or written language input that is understandable to the learner, and that is slightly beyond their current level of proficiency. Here are some examples of comprehensible input:

Simplified or adapted texts that are written with the learner's level in mind

Visual aids, such as pictures, diagrams, or videos that support the meaning of spoken or written language

Gestures and body language that help to convey meaning

Realia, or real-life objects, that can be used to support understanding

Contextual clues, such as the topic of the conversation or the situation in which the language is being used, that help the learner to infer meaning

Repetition and rephrasing of language input, which allows the learner to hear the same language in different contexts and with different levels of complexity.

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The Total Physical Response (TPR) method was founded by James Asher in 1977.

TPR focuses on the importance of listening and physical responses in language acquisition.

In a TPR classroom, the teacher is like a director, and the students are actors.

Commands in the imperative mood are used to get learners to perform physical actions, without necessarily needing to respond verbally.

As learners become more comfortable, they may start to respond verbally to questions and eventually ask questions themselves.

TPR is especially effective in the beginning levels of language proficiency but loses its distinctiveness as learners advance.

TPR activities are still used in communicative, interactive classrooms to provide auditory input and physical activity.

Sure, here's an example of a TPR activity that could be used in a language classroom:

1. The teacher gives the command "Stand up."

2. The students stand up.

3. The teacher gives the command "Raise your right hand."

4. The students raise their right hands.

5. The teacher gives the command "Touch your nose."

6. The students touch their noses.

7. The teacher gives the command "Walk to the door."

8. The students walk to the door.

9. The teacher gives the command "Turn around."

10. The students turn around.

This activity can be expanded by adding more commands and making them more complex as the students become more proficient in the language. The physical movement involved in responding to the commands helps to reinforce vocabulary and grammar, and can be a fun and engaging way to learn a new language.

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These paragraphs discuss two important aspects of language acquisition: input and discourse.

The first paragraph emphasizes the importance of input, or the language that learners are exposed to, in the process of language acquisition. It suggests that the quality and effectiveness of the input, as well as the feedback that learners receive, are crucial factors in determining the success of language acquisition in any classroom setting.

The second paragraph focuses on discourse, or the way that language is used in social contexts. It notes that children are particularly adept at acquiring conversational ability and understanding intended meaning, but also acknowledges that older children and adults have a superior ability to use more subtle and nuanced aspects of language, such as metaphors, humor, and nonverbal cues. This suggests that effective language instruction should not only focus on teaching vocabulary and grammar, but also on developing learners' ability to use language in social and cultural contexts.

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The passage is emphasizing that many language classes place too much emphasis on rote practice, which involves memorizing the surface-level features of language without necessarily understanding the meaning or purpose behind them. Cognitive psychologists argue that meaningful contexts and communication in the second language are more important than simple repetition and frequency of practice. While some research has suggested the importance of practice frequency, the overall consensus is that meaningful, contextualized communication in the target language is the most effective way to learn and practice language skills.

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This passage is discussing the difference between children and adults in terms of their ability to imitate language. Children are good at imitating the deep structure or meaning of language, while adults can be better at imitating surface structure or the specific features of language. However, adults can become too preoccupied with surface structure and lose sight of the purpose and function of language. Therefore, it is important for language learners, especially adults, to focus on meaningful contexts for language learning and not become overly fixated on form.

An example of the point made in the passage could be a situation in which an adult language learner is trying to communicate in their second language, but they are so focused on trying to use the correct grammar and vocabulary that they are unable to effectively convey their intended meaning. In this case, the learner may benefit from focusing more on the overall meaning they want to convey, rather than getting bogged down in the details of the language itself. For example, instead of worrying about using the correct verb tense, they may find it more helpful to focus on conveying the general timeframe of an event in their conversation.

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The passage discusses the relationship between language and thinking, and how this relationship is affected by the acquisition of a second language. The author highlights that language acquisition is not just about acquiring new words and grammar rules, but it also involves acquiring new ways of thinking and conceptualizing the world.

The passage also mentions the role of age in the process of acquiring a second language, and how it affects the relationship between language and thinking. The author suggests that while age is a factor in this process, the research is inconclusive about whether there is an advantage to learning a second language at a certain age. Overall, the passage emphasizes the complexity of the relationship between language and thinking, and the challenges involved in acquiring a second language.

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This passage discusses second language acquisition in natural or untutored contexts and suggests that it often follows a similar process to first language acquisition, including stages of development and overgeneralization. Research has also identified certain determinants that may universally impact the order of acquisition in second language learning. However, there are many variables that can impact second language acquisition, including cognitive, affective, cultural, and contextual factors, which can make it more challenging to analyze and understand. Additionally, there is significant variability in second language acquisition data for both children and adults.

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The passage discusses different viewpoints and theories on whether second language acquisition is constrained by Universal Grammar (UG), which refers to a set of innate linguistic principles and rules that are thought to be common to all humans. Some researchers argue that children's L2 grammars are constrained by UG, while others suggest that adults can acquire a second language without any reference to UG. The passage acknowledges that there is no clear consensus on the role of UG in second language acquisition and suggests that it may be best to keep an open mind about the mysteries surrounding UG and language learning.

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The passage discusses the question of what happens to the Language Acquisition Device (LAD) after puberty and if adults have difficulty acquiring a new language. While there are no complete answers, researchers have found hints that physical, cognitive, and affective factors may play a role in language acquisition for adults. While it may be difficult for adults to acquire a "native" accent, there are many language properties that can be efficiently acquired by an adult. Therefore, if an adult has trouble acquiring a new language, it is likely due to other factors, and identifying those factors is more important for researchers and teachers.

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Pretty much explanatory. Adult are bound to feel shy/obstructed to express themselves in L2, but children, without inhibition are bound to speak more. On the other hand, due to a more mature cognition, adult are more willing to attend to longer passages than children either written or spoken text.

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This passage highlights the limitations of assessing a person's language competence without taking into account intervening variables. It explains that both children and adults can only be evaluated based on their performance data, which is the actual "doing" of language. The passage suggests that despite years of research, there is still much to learn about language acquisition and how contextual factors, individual cognitive abilities, and socio-affective considerations influence language development. However, advances in neurolinguistic research have allowed for a better understanding of how the brain processes language, which can shed light on the age and acquisition issue. Overall, the passage emphasizes the importance of empirical performance data in understanding language acquisition and the ongoing efforts to improve methodology in this area of research.

In the field of language acquisition, "competence" refers to a person's underlying knowledge of a language - their understanding of grammar rules, vocabulary, and so on. "Performance," on the other hand, refers to the actual use of language in communication.

For example, let's say you are learning a new language in a classroom setting. You might have a strong competence in the language - you know the grammar rules, you can identify vocabulary words, and so on. However, when you are asked to speak in the language in front of others, you may struggle to put your knowledge into practice. This is where performance comes in - your ability to use the language in real-world situations.

In language acquisition research, it is important to study both competence and performance in order to fully understand how people learn and use language. By examining both aspects, researchers can identify patterns in language development and make more accurate predictions about language learning outcomes.

The statement means that researchers are improving their methods for studying language acquisition by looking at various factors that contribute to it, such as neurophysiological development, the context in which language is learned, and individual cognitive and socio-affective factors. By examining these factors, researchers hope to gain a better understanding of how language acquisition happens and how it may be affected by age. This improved understanding can lead to significant benefits, such as better educational programs for language learners and more effective interventions for individuals with language disorders.

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Order of Acquisition (Linguistic Domain)

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Order of Acquisition (Linguistic Domain)

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Dulay and Burt's research on child second language acquisition (SLA) demonstrated that first language interference is not the most important factor in child SLA.

They found that children learning a second language use a creative construction process similar to their first language, and that transfer of first language syntactic patterns rarely occurs.

Dulay and Burt identified a common order of acquisition for eleven English morphemes among children from different native language backgrounds, which was similar to the order found in children acquiring English as their first language.

The causes of this universal order of acquisition are unclear, but frequency of occurrence in the child's input may be a factor.

Goldschneider and DeKeyser proposed five determinants of acquisition order across numerous languages: perceptual salience, semantic complexity, morpho-phonological regularity, syntactic category, and frequency in the input.

These determinants can potentially be used by teachers to increase the rate of acquisition.

Table 3.1 summarizes findings so far on the question of whether "younger is better" in SLA, distinguishing between acquisition of communicative, interactive fluency and the acquisition of a "native" accent.

Goldschneider and DeKeyser's proposal of the five determinants of acquisition order suggests that these factors can influence the order in which second language learners acquire different linguistic structures. Here is a brief explanation of each of these determinants:

1. Perceptual salience: This refers to how noticeable or salient a particular linguistic structure is in the input. If a structure is more salient, it may be easier for learners to notice and acquire it.

2. Semantic complexity: This refers to the number of different meanings that can be expressed by a particular linguistic form. If a structure has a simpler meaning, it may be easier for learners to acquire.

3. Morpho-phonological regularity: This refers to how regular or predictable a particular structure is in terms of its sound or spelling. If a structure is more regular, it may be easier for learners to acquire.

4. Syntactic category: This refers to the grammatical category to which a particular linguistic structure belongs (e.g., noun, verb, adjective). If a structure belongs to a category that is more common in the learner's native language, it may be easier for them to acquire.

5. Frequency in the input: This refers to how often a particular linguistic structure occurs in the input that the learner is exposed to. If a structure occurs more frequently, it may be easier for learners to acquire.

According to Goldschneider and DeKeyser, these determinants can potentially be used by teachers to increase the rate of acquisition by presenting material in a way that capitalizes on these causes. For example, a teacher might present more frequent or salient structures earlier in the curriculum or highlight the regularity of certain forms to help learners acquire them more easily.

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Interference Between First and Second Languages

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Interference Between First and Second Languages

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Research on children's second language acquisition (SLA) has focused on the effects of the first and second languages on each other.

Studies have shown that children learning two languages simultaneously use similar strategies and linguistic features for both first and second language learning.

Intralingual strategies, not interference errors from the first language, have been found among children learning a second language.

Children use similar strategies and rules for both their first and second languages.

Adult second language acquisition is more vulnerable to the effects of the first language on the second, especially the farther apart the two language-learning events are.

The saliency of interference from the first language does not imply that interference is the most relevant or crucial factor in adult second language acquisition.

Both adults and children manifest intralingual errors, which are the result of an attempt to discover the rules of the second language apart from the rules of the first language.

The first language is not just an interfering factor but can also facilitate second language acquisition.

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The sentence means that children who are learning two languages at the same time use similar cognitive and linguistic strategies for acquiring both languages. For example, they may use pattern recognition, language transfer, and contextual guessing to learn the meanings and structures of words in both languages. This is in contrast to sequential language learners, who may use different strategies when learning their second language because they have already established a strong foundation in their first language.

- Children learning two languages simultaneously use similar strategies to acquire them.

- They are essentially learning two first languages, but with the added element of distinguishing the appropriate contexts for each language.
- Coordinate bilinguals operate with two separate meaning systems, while compound bilinguals have one meaning system in which both languages operate.

A coordinate bilingual may be someone who learned English while living in the United States and then learned Spanish while living in Spain. They would have two separate and distinct meaning systems for each language and would likely use each language in different contexts.

A compound bilingual, on the other hand, may be someone who grew up speaking both English and Spanish at home and uses both languages interchangeably in the same context. In this case, both languages would operate within the same meaning system.

- Children generally do not have problems with language mixing, and engage in code-switching when communicating with another bilingual.
- Bilinguals may exhibit dominance of one of the languages, which is usually determined by contextual variables.
- Heritage language acquisition refers to languages acquired by individuals raised in homes where the dominant language of the region is not spoken or not exclusively spoken in the home.
- The acquisition of a heritage language involves various motivational factors, attitudes toward the language/culture, peer pressure, and age.
- Bilingual children's rate of acquisition of both languages is slightly slower than the normal schedule for first language acquisition. (mastery)
- Early childhood bilingualism has cognitive benefits, supporting Lambert's contention that bilingual children are more facile at concept formation and have greater mental flexibility.

Research suggests that although the rate of acquiring both languages in bilingual children is slightly slower than the normal schedule for first language acquisition, there are considerable cognitive benefits of early childhood bilingualism. Bilingual children are more adept at concept formation and have greater mental flexibility, supporting the idea that learning two languages at once has positive effects on the cognitive domain.

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What is the affective domain in language learning and how does it relate to age and acquisition?

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What is the affective domain in language learning and how does it relate to age and acquisition?

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The affective domain includes factors such as empathy, self-esteem, extroversion, inhibition, imitation, anxiety, and attitudes, among others, which can all influence second language (L2) learning.

As individuals develop, their egocentricity diminishes, and they become more self-aware and self-conscious, which is coupled with their awareness of others.

In preadolescence, children become acutely conscious of themselves in comparison to others, and they develop inhibitions to protect their self-identity.

These inhibitions act as invisible "walls" thrown up verbally or non-verbally to encapsulate a fragile self-concept.

During preadolescence, which is the period before adolescence, children start to become more aware of themselves in relation to others. They may begin to compare themselves to their peers and develop a sense of self-identity. However, this sense of self-identity can be fragile and vulnerable, especially if they perceive that others may not accept them for who they are.

To protect their self-identity, children may develop inhibitions, which are barriers or limitations that prevent them from fully expressing themselves. These inhibitions may be expressed verbally, such as by not speaking up in a group or not expressing their opinions, or non-verbally, such as by avoiding eye contact or withdrawing from social situations.

These inhibitions can be seen as invisible "walls" that prevent others from getting too close to their self-identity and can help children feel more secure and protected. However, these walls can also limit their growth and development, preventing them from exploring new experiences and fully expressing themselves.

At puberty, these inhibitions are heightened due to the physical, cognitive, and emotional changes that occur, which ultimately lead to a new physical, cognitive, and emotional identity.

Psychologist Alexander Guiora proposed the concept of the language ego to account for the identity a person develops in reference to the language they speak. For monolingual individuals, the language ego involves the interaction of the native language and ego development. A person's self-identity is closely related to their language, for it is in the communicative process that identities are confirmed, shaped, and reshaped. Guiora suggested that the language ego may account for the difficulties adults face in learning a second language.

Psychologist Alexander Guiora proposed that a person's identity is closely related to the language they speak. He called this concept the "language ego". The language ego refers to the identity a person develops in relation to the language they speak, and how this language interacts with their sense of self.

For individuals who speak only one language, their sense of self is closely tied to their native language. This is because language plays an important role in shaping a person's identity, and is used to confirm and reinforce their sense of self.

Guiora suggested that learning a second language can be difficult because it requires individuals to develop a new language ego. This means that they must learn to see themselves in a new way, and to develop a new sense of self that is tied to the new language. This can be challenging, as it requires individuals to let go of their old identity and develop a new one.

Children are less inhibited and less aware of language forms, making them less frightened and more receptive to learning a new language than adults. Negative attitudes can certainly affect success in learning a language, and young children who are not yet developed enough cognitively to possess feelings about races, cultures, ethnic groups, classes of people, and languages may be less affected than adults. Peer pressure can also be a powerful motivator in language learning. Ultimately, successful adult language learners may be those who can bridge the ego-related affective gaps.

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Cognitive considerations in acquiring L2 in different ages

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Cognitive considerations in acquiring L2 in different ages

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1. Cognitive development plays an important role in language acquisition.

2. Piaget's stages of intellectual development outline how a child's cognitive abilities progress.

3. A critical stage for language acquisition occurs around puberty (age 11), when a person becomes capable of abstract thinking.

4. Some argue that cognitive factors, such as the ability to focus on only one dimension at a time, may be necessary for language acquisition.

5. Children are generally not aware that they are acquiring a language, which may be an advantage over adults who may be too consciously aware of the process.

6. Some successful adult language learners have been very aware of the process they were going through.

7. Children may be better language learners because they excel in implicit learning, while adults may rely more on explicit learning.

8. The lateralization hypothesis suggests that as the child matures into adulthood, the left hemisphere becomes more dominant, which may contribute to a tendency to overanalyze and be too intellectually centered on the task of second language learning.

9. Equilibration, the progressive interior organization of knowledge, may provide significant motivation for language acquisition.

10. The need for resolution and an awareness of ambiguities may discourage older learners from acquiring a second language.

The statement means that as individuals learn and organize their knowledge, they may become more motivated to acquire language skills. Equilibration is the process of continually refining and adjusting one's knowledge to better fit the environment. As individuals develop their cognitive abilities through this process, they may become more motivated to learn language skills.

On the other hand, older learners may feel discouraged from acquiring a second language due to the need for resolution and an awareness of ambiguities. This means that older learners may feel the need to have a clear understanding of everything they learn, and they may struggle with the ambiguity and uncertainty that can be present when learning a new language. This could make them less motivated to continue with language acquisition.

The difference between a child and an adult based on their equilibration process is that children have a greater capacity for equilibration than adults. Equilibration is the process by which learners organize new knowledge and experiences into their existing cognitive structures, creating a state of equilibrium. Children have more malleable and flexible cognitive structures, allowing them to more easily assimilate new knowledge and adapt to new situations. On the other hand, adults tend to have more rigid cognitive structures, which can make it more challenging for them to assimilate new knowledge and adapt to new situations. This is why language acquisition is often easier for children than for adults, as adults may have more difficulty with equilibrating the new linguistic structures and sounds of a second language into their existing cognitive structures.

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Adult L2 acquisition can be affected by nonnative-like pronunciation because pronunciation is an important aspect of language that affects how well a speaker is understood and perceived by others. Pronunciation can also influence how confident a speaker feels when communicating in a second language, which can in turn affect their overall fluency and accuracy.

Research has shown that native-like pronunciation is difficult to achieve after puberty, and that this is due to a combination of factors such as neuromuscular plasticity, neurological development, and sociocultural influences. As a result, non-native-like pronunciation may lead to a speaker being perceived as less proficient in the language, which can in turn affect their motivation and willingness to continue to learn and improve their language skills.

However, it is important to note that pronunciation is just one aspect of language acquisition, and that it is possible for individuals to have excellent and fluent control of a second language despite having a non-native-like accent. The acquisition of the communicative and functional purpose of language is far more important than a "perfect" native accent, and there are many other factors that contribute to successful second language acquisition, including vocabulary, grammar, pragmatics, and socio-cultural knowledge.

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The importance of accent in assessing overall communicative language ability has been debated for decades.

In the middle of the twentieth century, research supported the notion of a critical period for achieving authentic (nativelike) control of the phonology of a foreign language, but recent studies have been more equivocal.

Some researchers now prefer to look at other proficiency factors rather than accent alone, since there is evidence that younger language learners are not necessarily more successful than older learners.

Moreover, the ability to define "native" accent is increasingly difficult in a world where many so-called native speakers of English have foreign accents.

While pronunciation is important, it is not the sole criterion for acquisition, and the acquisition of communicative and functional purposes of language is far more crucial.

Recent studies have looked at learner characteristics, contexts, and socio-psychological factors, and there is a growing recognition of the miraculous levels of proficiency that second language learners can achieve despite the constraints imposed by biological scheduling.

Therefore, it is important not to be too quick to criticize adult second language learners for minor pronunciation points or nonintrusive grammatical errors.

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Exceptional adults can acquire an authentic accent in a second language after puberty.

Anthropologist Jane Hill cited research on non-Western societies that suggested that adults can acquire second languages perfectly.

Sorenson studied the Tukano culture of South America and reported that individuals began to speak two or three other languages during adolescence without a foreign accent.

Language acquisition processes in largely monolingual societies are not universal, so caution is necessary in proposing an innatist or cerebral dominance model as a full explanation for adult foreign accents.

Subsequent research has identified multiple variables affecting the ultimate attainment of proficiency in an L2, including cognitive, motivational, affective, social, psychological, and strategic factors.

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There is a biological timetables for language acquisition! That's why CPH is mentioned earlier in this chapter in which there is a critical period for a child to learn L1. If their environmental stimuli is not present during the critical period, they won't be able to comprehend and produce language well. This is proven with the theory of 'wolf children'.

- Thomas Scovel argued for a sociobiological critical period for the development of a socially bonding accent in various species of mammals and birds.
- He concluded that human beings may also have a biologically programmed critical period for the stabilization of an accepted, authentic accent.
- Scovel suggested that native accents and foreign accents after puberty may be a genetic leftover that is no longer necessary for the preservation of the human species.
- Walsh and Diller proposed that different aspects of an L2 are learned optimally at different ages, with lower-order processes such as pronunciation being dependent on early-maturing brain functions.
- Higher-order language functions, such as semantic relations, are more dependent on late-maturing neural circuits, which may explain the efficiency of adult learning.
- Studies have supported the idea of a neurologically based critical period for the acquisition of an authentic accent but not strongly for the acquisition of communicative fluency and other higher-order processes.

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NOW, WE ARE LOOKING AT HOW NEUROBIOLOGICAL ASPECT OF A HUMAN CAN AFFECT L2 LEARNING.

Hemispheric lateralization refers to the idea that different functions of the brain are localized to one side or the other. In other words, the left and right hemispheres of the brain are specialized for certain tasks. For example, language processing is generally thought to be primarily located in the left hemisphere, while spatial processing tends to be more located in the right hemisphere. Hemispheric lateralization is an important concept in understanding brain function and the ways in which different regions of the brain work together to support various cognitive processes.

Brain plasticity refers to the ability of the brain to change and adapt throughout an individual's life as a result of learning, experiences, and environmental factors. It involves the brain's ability to create new neural connections and modify existing ones in response to changes in the environment or the individual's behavior. Brain plasticity is highest during childhood but continues throughout adulthood, although to a lesser extent.

Scovel (1969) suggested that the brain's plasticity before puberty allows children to acquire a second language, but lateralization may make it difficult for fluent control of L2.

Muñoz and Singleton (2011) reviewed related studies and concluded that findings cannot decisively prove the existence of a critical period.

Neurolinguistic research has focused on the role of the right hemisphere in L2 acquisition.

Obler (1981) noted significant right hemisphere activity during the early stages of learning L2, citing guessing at meanings and using formulaic utterances as examples.

Genesee (1982) found that learners in informal contexts use greater right hemisphere processing than left.

Urgesi and Fabbro (2009) concluded that the right hemisphere is crucially involved in processing the pragmatic aspects of language use.

Such studies suggest that L2 learners, especially adults, may benefit from more encouragement of right-brain activity in the classroom context.

Lateralization refers to the tendency for certain cognitive functions or processes to be more dominant in one hemisphere of the brain than the other.

Brain lateralization is the process in which certain cognitive functions in our brain is dominant in one hemisphere than the other.

From this, we can conclude that hemispheric lateralization and brain plasticity play a significant role in language acquisition, particularly in second language acquisition. While the left hemisphere is typically associated with language processing, research suggests that the right hemisphere also plays a role in L2 acquisition. The brain's ability to change and adapt through plasticity is highest in childhood but continues throughout adulthood, suggesting that language learning is possible at any age. More research is needed to determine the precise role of hemispheric lateralization and brain plasticity in L2 acquisition, but it appears that encouraging right-brain activity in the classroom context may benefit adult learners in particular.

It has been suggested that the right hemisphere is more involved in the early stages of second language acquisition, particularly in processing certain aspects of language, such as prosody, intonation, and nonliteral language (such as metaphors). Additionally, research has shown that L2 learners who are in informal contexts (such as immersion or study abroad programs) tend to rely more on right hemisphere processing than those in formal classroom settings.

However, it's important to note that the left hemisphere still plays a significant role in language processing, especially in later stages of L2 acquisition when more complex grammatical structures are being learned. Overall, the involvement of the right hemisphere in L2 acquisition is still a topic of ongoing research and debate in the field of neurolinguistics.

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Researchers have been studying how the brain works during language acquisition, especially in relation to age. They want to know if changes in the brain affect a person's ability to learn a new language, and if there is an age limit for successful language acquisition.

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THE CRITICAL PERIOD HYPOTHESIS: THE YOUNGER THE BETTER?

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THE CRITICAL PERIOD HYPOTHESIS: THE YOUNGER THE BETTER?

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Based on the Critical Period Hypothesis, there is a biological timetable for people to acquire language. It has been experimented that L1 learning is affected by a biological timetable. Hence, if a child is not exposed to a correct environmental stimuli, they will not be able to acquire L1.

Next, linguists then starts to connect this theory (CPH) to L2 learning. --In recent years, researchers have studied how the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) applies to learning a second language (L2). The CPH suggests that there is a crucial time for learning an L2, and that after puberty, people have more difficulty acquiring a second language. However, this assumption may not be entirely accurate because success in learning an L2 depends on various factors, including accent, and not just age. This article examines the neurological, phonological, cognitive, affective, and linguistic aspects of L2 learning.

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If we compare the language acquisition process between a child and an adult in L1 and L2, we have neglected the age difference. There are two possible ways we can compare and contrast the acquisiton of language among a child and an adult.

1. SLA in children (of varying ages) and adults
2. Children’s L1 and L2 acquisition

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François Gouin and Maximilian Berlitz were early pioneers in language pedagogy who drew insights from children learning first and second languages.

Gouin failed to learn German despite living in Hamburg for a year because he focused on memorizing vocabulary and grammar instead of conversing with native speakers.

Gouin observed his three-year-old nephew learning French effortlessly and developed the Series Method based on his insights.

The Series Method taught learners directly and conceptually through a series of connected sentences that were easy to understand and relate to reality.

The Direct Method, developed by Maximilian Berlitz, emphasized active oral interaction, spontaneous use of the language, and little or no analysis of grammatical rules, similar to first language acquisition.

The Direct Method became popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and Berlitz language schools are still well-known today.

Insights from children's natural language acquisition continue to provide valuable guidance for second language acquisition.

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Conversational or discourse analysis is a subfield of applied linguistics that is increasingly receiving attention from child language researchers.

Successful first language acquisition requires interaction, not just exposure to language.

Children learn how to take part in conversations by learning transactions and exchanges, including how to initiate a conversation and respond to another's initiating utterance.

Children learn that utterances have both a literal and intended or functional meaning.

Children learn discourse rules and attend to key features to detect intended meaning.

The acquisition of conversational knowledge is the next frontier to be mastered in the quest for answers to the mystery of language acquisition.

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- The role of input in child language acquisition is crucial.
- The nature of linguistic input children receive is a topic of debate.
- Some researchers claim children are exposed to semi-grammatical and haphazard samples of language.
- Other studies show that adult input, especially from parents, is surprisingly grammatical and lacks performance variables.
- Children consistently react to the deep structure and communicative function of language and largely ignore expansions and grammatical corrections.
- Children eventually transfer correct forms to their own speech after consistent, repeated models in meaningful contexts.
- Recent research suggests that adult and peer input is more important than previously believed.
- The interaction patterns between child and parent change according to the increasing language skill of the child.
- Nurture and environment are tremendously important in language acquisition, but the proportion of parental input remains unclear.

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The passage discusses the concept of practice in language acquisition and its relationship to imitation and frequency of exposure. Here are the main points:

- Children practice language through repetition and association, which forms habits through operant conditioning.
- Children may also practice language through monologues or "playing" with language.
- Practice can refer to both speaking and comprehension.
- The frequency of linguistic input from the child's environment can influence language acquisition.
- Certain very frequent linguistic forms are acquired first, such as what questions and irregular past tense forms.
- The frequency issue is complex, as some frequently occurring words may be omitted in telegraphic speech.
- Evidence suggests that the frequency of meaningful occurrence may be more precise in explaining the importance of frequency in language acquisition.

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Imitation is a common strategy in child language acquisition, but the type of imitation varies.

Behaviorists usually refer to surface-structure imitation, where a person repeats or mimics surface strings, attending to a phonological code rather than a semantic code.

Early language learning often involves surface imitation since very small children do not possess the necessary semantic categories to comprehend the meaning of all utterances that they hear.

As children perceive the importance of the semantic level of language, they attend to a greater extent to a meaningful, deeper level of language.

Children engage in deep-structure imitation, where they imitate the deep structure of language that can literally block their attention to the surface structure.

Children are excellent imitators, but it's important to understand exactly what it is that they are imitating.

Here are examples of deep meaning imitation and surface imitation:

Deep meaning imitation:
- A child says "Mommy, I goed to the store" and the mother responds "That's great, you went to the store!"
- A child says "I goed" because they are still learning about irregular past tense verbs, but the mother understands the intended meaning and provides the correct form for the child to imitate.

Surface imitation:
- A language teacher asks the class to repeat after them, saying "I am going to the store" and the students repeat the words without necessarily understanding their meaning.
- A child is asked to recite the alphabet and they repeat the letters without necessarily understanding their function or order.

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The relationship between language and cognition has been studied by researchers.

Jean Piaget believed that cognitive development is central to the human organism and that language is dependent on it.

Others, like Jerome Bruner and Vygotsky, emphasized the influence of language on cognitive development.

Vygotsky argued that social interaction through language is a prerequisite to cognitive development.

Graeme Kennedy's study showed that language can skew perceived conceptual acquisition, leading to incorrect answers and false conclusions.

Benjamin Whorf proposed the Whorfian hypothesis of linguistic relativity, which states that each language imposes a particular worldview on its speaker.

The issue at stake in child language acquisition is to determine how thought affects language, how language affects thought, and how to account for the interaction of the two.

Research confirms that cognitive and linguistic development are inextricably intertwined with dependencies in both directions.

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Current research on child language assumes the systematicity of the acquisition process.

Children have a remarkable ability to infer the phonological, structural, lexical, and semantic systems of language.

Despite this systematicity, there is an equally remarkable amount of variability in the process of learning.

Researchers do not agree on how to define various stages of language acquisition, even in English.

Certain "typical" patterns appear in child language, but the difficulty of defining stages is illustrated by the example of learning past tense forms of verbs.

Young children initially learn past tenses as separate items without knowledge of the difference between regular and irregular verbs.

Later, around the age of four or five, they begin to perceive a system in which the -ed morpheme is added to a verb, and all verbs become regularized.

Finally, after early school age, children perceive that there are two classes of verbs, regular and irregular, and begin to sort out verbs into the two classes, a process that continues for many years.

In both L1 acquisition and SLA, the problem of variability is being addressed by researchers.

The major current research objective is to account for all this variability and determine if what is currently variable can someday be deemed systematic through careful accounting.

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- There is a controversy about the innateness of language acquisition and whether the deep structure of language is common to all languages.
- Werner Leopold argued for certain phonological and grammatical universals in language, inspiring later work by other researchers.
- Research on child language acquisition across different languages aims to determine commonalities in language acquisition.
- Principles are invariable characteristics of human language that apply to all languages universally, such as word order, morphological marking, and agreement.
- Parameters are variable characteristics of human language that allow for cross-linguistic variation, such as word order variation.
- The child's initial state consists of a set of universal principles that specify limited possibilities of variation, expressible in terms of parameters.
- The principle of structure dependency and word order permutation are examples of naturally occurring constraints that make the child's task of language learning manageable.

Universal Grammar (UG) is a theory that suggests that humans are born with an innate ability to learn language. Researchers who support this theory believe that there are certain characteristics of language that are universal, such as word order, morphological marking, agreement, reduced reference, nouns and noun classes, verbs and verb classes, predication, negation, and question formation.

The study of UG involves examining child language acquisition across many different languages to determine commonalities. Researchers have found that there are certain invariable characteristics of human language that apply to all languages universally. These are called "principles" and include the characteristics listed above.

Parameters, on the other hand, vary across languages. They are the limited number of built-in options (settings or values) that allow for cross-linguistic variation. For example, the parameter of head directionality specifies whether a language is head-first (e.g., English) or head-last (e.g., Japanese) in phrases.

According to some researchers, a child's initial state consists of a set of universal principles that specify some limited possibilities of variation. These principles can be expressed in terms of parameters that need to be fixed in one of a few possible ways.

The principles of UG make language learning manageable because they provide certain naturally occurring constraints. For example, the principle of structure dependency states that language is organized in such a way that it depends on the structural relationships between elements in a sentence. This is why we are able to distinguish between "The boy kicked the ball" and "The boy that's wearing a red shirt and standing next to my brother kicked the ball."

In linguistics, the theory of Universal Grammar (UG) proposes that all human beings possess innate, biologically-based language knowledge that enables them to learn and use language. Principles and parameters are two key concepts in UG theory.

Principles refer to invariable characteristics of human language that appear to apply to all languages universally, such as word order, agreement between subject and verb, and negation. These principles reflect the fundamental structure of language.

Parameters, on the other hand, are the settings or values that can vary from one language to another within the framework of these principles. They allow for cross-linguistic variation in language structure. For example, the head parameter describes whether the head of a phrase comes before or after its complement. In some languages, such as English, the head comes first, while in others, such as Japanese, it comes last.

According to UG theory, all languages share a common set of principles, and it is the variation in parameters that accounts for the differences between languages. The task of language learning is to fix the parameters of the language being learned within the constraints set by the principles.

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Nativists believe that language acquisition is innate and humans are born with an innate knowledge of or predisposition toward language.

The innate property responsible for language acquisition is called the LAD or UG and is universal in all humans.

However, there is little scientific evidence of the existence of such a device, and emergentists argue that what is innate may not be grammatical or linguistic at all.

Genetic evidence of the transmission of certain abilities related to language acquisition is also scarce.

Environmental factors cannot be ignored in language acquisition, as connectionists and emergentists have shown.

The nature-nurture controversy has been ongoing for years, with questions about which behaviors are innately predetermined and which are acquired through environmental exposure or conscious attention.

Language acquisition is universal, but the efficiency and success of that learning are influenced by the child's environment and individual construction of linguistic reality in interaction with others.

Derek Bickerton's research found evidence of common patterns of linguistic and cognitive development across languages, suggesting that humans are bio-programmed to proceed from stage to stage in language acquisition.

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This passage is explaining that linguistic competence, or the internal ability to understand and produce language, has different aspects to it such as pronunciation (phonology) and using language in social contexts (discourse), and that these competencies can vary depending on the situation. The passage also emphasizes the importance of distinguishing between a person's ability to understand language (comprehension competence) and their ability to produce it (production competence) when studying language. In other words, just because someone understands a language well does not necessarily mean they can produce it as well, and vice versa.

Children often understand more language than they can produce.

The ability to understand and produce language are both part of linguistic competence, which is an internal mental and physical ability.

Linguistic competence has many different modes and competencies that range from phonology to discourse in different sociolinguistic contexts.

A theory of language must distinguish between production competence and comprehension competence.

One way to distinguish between comprehension and production in linguistic ability is to use different tasks that tap into each ability separately. For example, for comprehension, tasks could include listening or reading comprehension tests, while for production, tasks could include speaking or writing tasks.

Additionally, it is important to consider the context in which the language is being used. For example, a person may have high production competence in formal writing but may struggle with producing language in a casual conversation. Therefore, a comprehensive assessment of linguistic ability should take into account different modes of language use, such as formal versus informal contexts, and different skills, such as speaking, listening, reading, and writing.

It is also important to recognize that linguistic competence is not static and can change over time. Therefore, regular assessments and evaluations can help to identify areas of strength and weakness and inform targeted interventions to improve both comprehension and production competence.

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The competence-performance distinction in linguistics refers to the difference between a person's underlying knowledge of a language system, known as competence, and the observable manifestation of that knowledge, known as performance. Competence includes a person's understanding of the rules of grammar, vocabulary, and how these pieces fit together, while performance is the actual production or comprehension of linguistic events. The distinction is important because a person's competence is not always evident in their performance, which may be affected by factors such as memory limitations, distractions, and errors. Linguists have historically focused on understanding competence rather than performance, as it is not observable and forms the foundation of a person's language ability. However, it can be difficult to accurately infer a person's competence from their performance, and researchers have developed various methods to judge competence, such as audio or video recordings and rigorous analysis or administering imitation, production, or comprehension tests.

The competence-performance model, which distinguishes between a person's idealized linguistic abilities and their actual performance, has been criticized for ignoring real-world factors that affect performance, such as slips of the tongue and self-corrections. Some linguists argue that the only way to study language is to observe it in use, rather than assuming an idealized hearer-speaker. Additionally, mistakes or errors made by a person may be linked to their ongoing development of linguistic abilities. Therefore, it may not be appropriate to dismiss such errors as irrelevant.

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Functional approach emphasizes the use of language in real-life situations.

The focus is on language functions, or the purposes for which language is used.

This approach views language as a tool for communication and learning.

Language is taught in context, with an emphasis on meaningful communication.

Grammar and vocabulary are taught in relation to specific language functions.

Activities include role-playing, problem-solving, and simulations.

The teacher acts as a facilitator, guiding students in their use of language for authentic communication.

This approach is used in communicative language teaching, task-based language teaching, and content and language integrated learning.

Cognitive development and social interaction are two major factors that affect language development in children.

Cognitive development refers to the mental processes involved in learning, such as perception, memory, and problem-solving. As children develop cognitively, they gain a better understanding of the world around them and the language they use to communicate with others.

Social interaction is also crucial for language development as children learn how to use language to interact with others in different social situations. They learn about conversational turn-taking, using appropriate social cues, and understanding others' intentions and emotions.

The interplay between cognitive and social development can influence language development in several ways. For example, children who have strong cognitive skills may have an easier time understanding and producing complex sentences. Children who have strong social skills may have an easier time using language to communicate with others in a variety of social situations.

Overall, cognitive and social interaction both play important roles in language development, and understanding their influence can help parents, educators, and researchers support children's language learning.

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An example of emergentism in language is the process of language acquisition in children. Emergentists suggest that children acquire language through a combination of innate abilities and exposure to language in their environment, rather than solely through innate language-specific knowledge. This means that children gradually develop their language skills as they are exposed to different linguistic contexts and input, allowing for the emergence of language ability over time.

One example of emergentism in language is the way in which a sentence's meaning can be more than just the sum of its parts. For instance, the sentence "The chicken is ready to eat" cannot be fully understood just by examining the meanings of the individual words "chicken," "ready," and "eat." Rather, the meaning of the sentence emerges from the way in which these words are combined and used in context.

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The nativist approach suggests that language is innate in which everyone is born with a genetic capacity that predisposes human to learn language.

Eric suggested that language is 'species-specific' behaviour in which certain language-related mechanisms are biologically determined.

Chomsky (he suggested the theory of universal grammar) claimed that the innate properties of a child to acquire language is explained when they are able to master their native language in a short time despite its abstract nature. He also proposes the existence of LAD (Language acquisition device) in our brain that contains innate knowledge of language.

There are four innate language properties suggested by Mcneill. (1) ability to distinguish speech sounds from other sounds in the environment, (2) ability to organize linguistic data into various classes that can then be refined, (3) knowledge that only a certain kind of linguistic system is possible and other kinds are not, (4) ability to engage in constant evaluation of the developing linguistic system so as to construct the simplest possible system out of the available linguistic input.

THE LAD

The LAD allows children to generate infinite number of utterances and account for meanings.

The UG (Universal Grammar) research suggests that there is a system of universal linguistic rules that children bring to language acquisition process. It looks upon how there are various grammatical phenomena occurs regardless of environment.

Children develop language systematically by forming hypotheses based on input received and test them on their speech.

As children apply rules of grammar formation in speech, Jean Berko suggests that children learn language as an integrated system and not discrete items.

Nativists studies of child language acquisition is constructed by hypothetical grammars based on empirical data (based on experiment/not factual). They found out that the data can be conceived similarly to how linguists describe a language in the field. A generative framework was ideal to describe the LAP in which early grammars of child languave were called 'pivot' grammars. Their two-word utterances manifest words from 2 diff word classes which are 'pivot' and 'open'. Pivot words could pivot around a number of words in the second 'open' class.

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• The Verbal Behaviour Theory fails to account for a few aspects. For example, it fails to explain how children can speak novel utterances. It suggests that there is novelty of language as children are able to speak the language that they have never heard before. Other than that, it fails to account for the abstract nature of language, which include its creative and interactive aspects such as syntax, semantics and pragmatics. Lastly, TVBT is challenged when cognitivist suggests that language is affected by innate properties of a human. The mediation theory suggests that human will take some time to give response and the gap/time taken can be referred to as the mediation. This theory supports the VBT but it is also challenged as it can't account for the creativity and interactive nature of language acquisition.

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• Behavioural psychologists such as B.F. Skinner studies how publicly observable responses are affected by rewards.

• An effective language behaviour is seen as production of desired response to stimuli which then become habitual and conditioned.

• Comprehension of language can be demonstrated through verbal and nonverbal responses which are conditioned and then internalized into linguistic meanings.

• To simply put, Skinner's verbal behaviour theory is an extension of the operant conditioning theory in which it explains about how responses are affected by stimuli which are not observable. The responses are then conditioned and turned into a habit/ maintained by reinforcement.

• Similar to any other behaviour, verbal behaviour suggests that behaviour are controlled by its consequences. Rewards will reinforce behaviour and punishment will weaken behaviour.

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• Babies will start to say their first word by 12 months and when they almost reach 2 years (18 month), they will be able to say a few words at once. These can be called as telegraphic utterances such as 'bye-bye daddy' 'baby go boom'.

• As time goes by, they will be able to speak more words and combination. By the age of 2, children will be able to ask questions and negatives. This time enables them to speak more sophisticated language.

• By the age of three, their production and comprehension capacity increases. They will get more creative and they will talk a lot.

• When they enter the school age, their creativity and fluency increases. They can already internalize complex structures, and their vocab expands. At school age, they can also differentiate what to say and what not to say as they can already understand situated functions.

• There are two notions that support the idea of L1 by saying that (1) humans are born without any prior knowledge of language and they are conditioned to learn language from the environment /tabula rasa/. On the other hand, nativists believe that humans are born with innate knowledge of language and it improves from time to time through social interaction.