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WATER SCARCITY IN SINGAPORE: PHYSICAL WATER SCARCITY

Singapore is a unique, beautiful country. It is a hub of knowledge and skyscrapers. So, it can afford unlimited water, right? No. 430 gallons of water is used per day. This means that in just ten years, this small country would’ve spent 1.57 trillion gallons of water. That’s enough to fill 3 billion Olympic-sized swimming pools. Singapore is just using water so fast! Even a place with huge reserves of water will soon be exhausted. And Singapore is tiny, which means the water supply is less.

THE SOLUTION TO WATER SCARCITY IN SINGAPORE IS DESALINATION.

Why?

There are two good options now:

1. Saving water at home: Normally, this is a bad idea as only around 7% of water is spent on domestic use. But Singapore, unlike other places spends 45% of its water for homes. This might also be because, according to this source, agriculture, which usually takes the lion’s share of water, is reduced here in Singapore.

2. Desalination: There are only two times when desalination is not the perfect option—one time is if the place has less money or if the place has no seawater near it. Otherwise, it is a very good option because the sea can’t run out of water. We can keep pumping it up and it will keep going back due to the water cycle. We can just pipe up how much ever water we need!

THE WINNER, AS YOU KNOW IS DESALINATION.

Even if the water usage goes mostly towards homes, water usage can only be reduced to some extent, whether water is saved or not is up to the individual. Also, in the end, the water will get spent. This method will just slow down the process. Nevertheless, while desalination must be done, saving water at home should also be done ideally.

Some Other Perks:

Singapore is an island because one side touches the sea, and the other side is separated from the mainland by a huge river. This means that seawater is freely accessible. Singapore has all the money it needs to fund this project. What is stopping it?

BY ADITYA JOSE ALEX
THANK YOU.

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https://www.water-technology.net/projects/perth by tyrik

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With the official opening of the Perth Seawater Reverse Osmosis Plant in November 2006, Western Australia became the first state in the country to use desalination as a major public water source - and this may be simply the beginning. Facing a drying climate, the Water Corporation of Western Australia is actively exploring a variety of options to meet growing demands, which makes building a second SWRO facility a serious prospect to consider.

Located at Kwinana, some 25km south of the city, the new plant has an initial daily capacity of 140,000m³ with designed expansion to 250,000m³/day, making it the largest of its kind in the southern hemisphere and the biggest in the world to be powered by renewable energy. Ultimately supplying 17% of Perth's needs, the plant will be the largest single contributor to the area's integrated water supply scheme and provide an annual 45GL, to help serve the 1.5 million population.

"Supplying 17% of Perth's needs, the plant will be the largest single contributor to the area's integrated water supply scheme."

The project was delivered under an alliance arrangement, implemented in two phases covered by separate Design/Construct and Operate/Maintain contracts. The Multiplex Degrémont Joint Venture was selected to build the plant along with the seawater intake, pre-treatment and product water facilities, pipeline and new pumping station required by the project.

Degrémont is the plant operator for the 25 years of the contract, in alliance with the Water Corporation.

The total project cost was AUS$387m, with annual running costs of under $20m - less than one dollar per week per household. The anticipated water cost has been estimated at $1.17/kl.

BACKGROUND

Growing concern over the dwindling natural supplies of water across the region in the wake of the hotter, drier shift in the climate acted as the main driver on the project. The winter of 2001 saw the poorest inflow of water to the reservoirs serving the Perth metropolitan area since 1914 and by 2002 it was clear that the region was suffering the worst two-year drought on record. In 2005, it was confirmed that in the eight years from 1997 stream flows had dropped to an annual average of 115GL compared with the 161GL/yr over the previous 23 years (1974-1997).

The initial response was to implement a medium-term drought recovery plan, which included restrictions on sprinkler use, obtaining a temporary increase in groundwater allocation and the provision of $142m to further augment supply capacity.

This led to the construction of three bores into the Yarragadee aquifer deep below Perth's northern suburbs and a further nine into the shallower aquifer at Mirrabooka. Two new dams were also constructed in the South West, where rainfall is naturally more plentiful - at Samson Brook and Wokalup Creek.

By 2004, these combined initiatives had added nearly 40GL of water to the municipality's integrated supply system.

To safeguard the future of supply in the longer term, the Water Corporation have adopted what they have termed a 'security through diversity' strategy. Competitive tendering for the new plant design began in September 2004 between pre-qualified consortia and bids were received in the following February. In April 2005, the contract for the plant was awarded and construction began almost immediately, with work beginning on the pumping station in May and pipeline construction in September.

THE PLANT

The Cockburn Sound is an area of environmental sensitivity so the potential impact of the new plant on this water has been extensively considered and strict monitoring conditions have been imposed on TDS, temperature, DO and the sediment habitat in the vicinity.

The plant is designed to operate continuously, drawing water with an input salinity of 35,000mg/l to 37,000mg/l at 16°C to 24°C via the new intake structure. This amounts to under 0.02% of the water in the sound being removed per day, which first passes through a pre-treatment filter to protect the pores of the membranes, before being forced through the spiral wound membrane elements of the RO treatment trains.

After treatment, the product water is treated with lime, chloride and fluoride before being stored and ultimately being blended with water from other sources and entering the municipal integrated supply system. The filter backwash and concentrate stream is returned to the sound.

Although the concentrate flow is about 7% salt, the discharge nozzles are designed to act as diffusers, ensuring that mixed water salinity falls to less than 4% within 50m of the discharge point. As a result, there will be less than 1%
increase in the salinity of the receiving waters.

Electricity for the desalination plant - which has an overall 24MW requirement and a production demand of 4.0kWh/kl to 6.0kWh/kl - comes from the new 80MW Emu Downs Wind Farm, which consists of 48 wind turbines located 30km east of Cervantes. Developed by Stanwell Corporation, a power generation corporation owned by Queensland Government and Western Australia's Griffin Energy, this facility commenced operation in 2006.
FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
"Electricity for the desalination plant comes from the new 80MW Emu Downs Wind Farm, which consists of 48 wind turbines located 30km east of Cervantes."

By 2010, around 107GL/year of new water will be needed to meet the rising demands of a growing population. While the new SWRO plant will contribute 45GL of this, the need for a further source is inescapable and the Corporation has accordingly been examining a number of options, with additional extraction from the South West Yarragadee aquifer being their preferred one.

The necessary environmental approvals have not yet been gained, though the Environmental Protection Authority did give the project conditional support in December 2006 and full agreement is expected to follow later in 2007. However, a second desalination plant remains a firm possibility at some point in the future to help secure water supplies until 2015 and beyond.

KEY PLAYERS

The client and plant owner is the Water Corporation of Western Australia. The main contractor was the Multiplex-Degrémont JVC and the plant is being operated by Degrémont in alliance with the Water Corporation.

McConnell Dowell Constructors were the subcontractors on the mechanical installation works and the lime systems were provided by Transmin. Western Power is the energy supplier, using renewable power from the wind farm developed by Stanwell Corporation and Griffin Energy.

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With the official opening of the Perth Seawater Reverse Osmosis Plant in November 2006, Western Australia became the first state in the country to use desalination as a major public water source - and this may be simply the beginning.

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https://www.water-technology.net/projects/perth

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With the official opening of the Perth Seawater Reverse Osmosis Plant in November 2006, Western Australia became the first state in the country to use desalination as a major public water source - and this may be simply the beginning. Facing a drying climate, the Water Corporation of Western Australia is actively exploring a variety of options to meet growing demands, which makes building a second SWRO facility a serious prospect to consider.

Located at Kwinana, some 25km south of the city, the new plant has an initial daily capacity of 140,000m³ with designed expansion to 250,000m³/day, making it the largest of its kind in the southern hemisphere and the biggest in the world to be powered by renewable energy. Ultimately supplying 17% of Perth's needs, the plant will be the largest single contributor to the area's integrated water supply scheme and provide an annual 45GL, to help serve the 1.5 million population.

"Supplying 17% of Perth's needs, the plant will be the largest single contributor to the area's integrated water supply scheme."

The project was delivered under an alliance arrangement, implemented in two phases covered by separate Design/Construct and Operate/Maintain contracts. The Multiplex Degrémont Joint Venture was selected to build the plant along with the seawater intake, pre-treatment and product water facilities, pipeline and new pumping station required by the project.

Degrémont is the plant operator for the 25 years of the contract, in alliance with the Water Corporation.

The total project cost was AUS$387m, with annual running costs of under $20m - less than one dollar per week per household. The anticipated water cost has been estimated at $1.17/kl.

BACKGROUND

Growing concern over the dwindling natural supplies of water across the region in the wake of the hotter, drier shift in the climate acted as the main driver on the project. The winter of 2001 saw the poorest inflow of water to the reservoirs serving the Perth metropolitan area since 1914 and by 2002 it was clear that the region was suffering the worst two-year drought on record. In 2005, it was confirmed that in the eight years from 1997 stream flows had dropped to an annual average of 115GL compared with the 161GL/yr over the previous 23 years (1974-1997).

The initial response was to implement a medium-term drought recovery plan, which included restrictions on sprinkler use, obtaining a temporary increase in groundwater allocation and the provision of $142m to further augment supply capacity.

This led to the construction of three bores into the Yarragadee aquifer deep below Perth's northern suburbs and a further nine into the shallower aquifer at Mirrabooka. Two new dams were also constructed in the South West, where rainfall is naturally more plentiful - at Samson Brook and Wokalup Creek.

By 2004, these combined initiatives had added nearly 40GL of water to the municipality's integrated supply system.

To safeguard the future of supply in the longer term, the Water Corporation have adopted what they have termed a 'security through diversity' strategy. Competitive tendering for the new plant design began in September 2004 between pre-qualified consortia and bids were received in the following February. In April 2005, the contract for the plant was awarded and construction began almost immediately, with work beginning on the pumping station in May and pipeline construction in September.

THE PLANT

The Cockburn Sound is an area of environmental sensitivity so the potential impact of the new plant on this water has been extensively considered and strict monitoring conditions have been imposed on TDS, temperature, DO and the sediment habitat in the vicinity.

The plant is designed to operate continuously, drawing water with an input salinity of 35,000mg/l to 37,000mg/l at 16°C to 24°C via the new intake structure. This amounts to under 0.02% of the water in the sound being removed per day, which first passes through a pre-treatment filter to protect the pores of the membranes, before being forced through the spiral wound membrane elements of the RO treatment trains.

After treatment, the product water is treated with lime, chloride and fluoride before being stored and ultimately being blended with water from other sources and entering the municipal integrated supply system. The filter backwash and concentrate stream is returned to the sound.

Although the concentrate flow is about 7% salt, the discharge nozzles are designed to act as diffusers, ensuring that mixed water salinity falls to less than 4% within 50m of the discharge point. As a result, there will be less than 1%
increase in the salinity of the receiving waters.

Electricity for the desalination plant - which has an overall 24MW requirement and a production demand of 4.0kWh/kl to 6.0kWh/kl - comes from the new 80MW Emu Downs Wind Farm, which consists of 48 wind turbines located 30km east of Cervantes. Developed by Stanwell Corporation, a power generation corporation owned by Queensland Government and Western Australia's Griffin Energy, this facility commenced operation in 2006.
FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
"Electricity for the desalination plant comes from the new 80MW Emu Downs Wind Farm, which consists of 48 wind turbines located 30km east of Cervantes."

By 2010, around 107GL/year of new water will be needed to meet the rising demands of a growing population. While the new SWRO plant will contribute 45GL of this, the need for a further source is inescapable and the Corporation has accordingly been examining a number of options, with additional extraction from the South West Yarragadee aquifer being their preferred one.

The necessary environmental approvals have not yet been gained, though the Environmental Protection Authority did give the project conditional support in December 2006 and full agreement is expected to follow later in 2007. However, a second desalination plant remains a firm possibility at some point in the future to help secure water supplies until 2015 and beyond.

KEY PLAYERS

The client and plant owner is the Water Corporation of Western Australia. The main contractor was the Multiplex-Degrémont JVC and the plant is being operated by Degrémont in alliance with the Water Corporation.

McConnell Dowell Constructors were the subcontractors on the mechanical installation works and the lime systems were provided by Transmin. Western Power is the energy supplier, using renewable power from the wind farm developed by Stanwell Corporation and Griffin Energy.

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With the official opening of the Perth Seawater Reverse Osmosis Plant in November 2006, Western Australia became the first state in the country to use desalination as a major public water source - and this may be simply the beginning.

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Groundwater replenishment (watercorporation.com.au)

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South Africa
solution: needs infrastructure
positive: once it it made it has a long term effect on africas water problems
Negative: it costs alot of money
The cause of water scarcity in South Africa is the lack of infrustructure built in the country. South Africa doesnt have the money to build infrustructure. This is a economic water scarcity since South Africa doesnt have the the money to provide  infrustructure
By Jess

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𝕔𝕒𝕦𝕤𝕖𝕤 𝕠𝕗 𝕨𝕒𝕥𝕖𝕣 𝕤𝕔𝕒𝕣𝕔𝕚𝕥𝕪
California naturally cycles between wet periods and droughts. But scientists have found that globally climate change is intensifying the water cycle and bringing more extreme droughts, as well as more extreme bouts of wet weather.

𝕊𝕠𝕝𝕦𝕥𝕚𝕠𝕟 𝕥𝕠 𝕨𝕒𝕥𝕖𝕣 𝕤𝕔𝕒𝕣𝕔𝕚𝕥𝕪
Gov. Gavin Newsom set a goal of 1.8 million acre-feet of water recycled in California by 2040. That is more than double the amount recycled in 2021. Turning sewage into water is the Golden State equivalent of turning water into wine, and California has been doing it for decades.

𝕡𝕠𝕤𝕚𝕥𝕚𝕧𝕖𝕤

Protects water supplies.

Reduces water purchase costs.

Reduces water infrastructure costs.

Reduces energy use (associated with water extraction, conveyance, treatment, and distribution)

Reduces stormwater runoff of pesticides and other pollutants.

Reduces greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

𝕟𝕖𝕘𝕚𝕥𝕒𝕧𝕖𝕤

Disturbance in our personal hygiene like bathing, washing clothes, etc. ...

Farmers will face problems as there will be no water for farming.

The crop production will decline due to the lack of water for irrigation in fields.

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Small-scale desalination for agriculture for Britain
so they have physical water scarcity because there
are no water sources for them and most of them are facing absolute water scarcity and they have relatively small water sources

positive:
reliable water source
does the job of supporting irrigation
negative
Britain is using desalination and it is expensive

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WHAT IS THE CAUSE OF WATER SCARCITY IN KENYA?
The causing of water scarcity is things such as global warming (causing recurrent and increasingly severe droughts as well as floods), the contamination of drinking water, and a lack of investment in water resources.

SOLUTIONS
A solution to this situation is that you could install dams to get water.
NEGATIVES
This option will cost a lot of money
POSATIVE
Dams will prevent floods

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india has a lack of safe drinking water for citizens.  So it is a physical scarcity .  water scarcity is really big in Chennai .

SOLUTION
To solve this solution the IVRCI is coming with a plan , they are doing this by commissioning a desalination plant near Chennai that converts  seawater into safe portable water. the project has been nominated  as one of the highly commendable   desalination deals of 2007.

NEGATIVES
in coastal areas, the groundwater is saline and not suitable for drinking. Therefore, desalination of sea water becomes an ideal solution to bridge the widening gap between growing water needs of urban population and scarcity in supply in major coastal cities in India.

BY SHRADDHA

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This idea is very smart and effective. Many of the Western countries use this due to the fact that the ocean practically never runs out. It is the process of removing the salt and other contaminants from the ocean water and then it gets converted into fresh water.

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cool fog catch with mountain view very dull lil white board catching fog which turns into water for agriculture. Fog catching is a method of collecting water from fog. It is done by using a mesh net to trap the moisture in the air. The water droplets condense on the net and drip into a container. This method is often used in areas with limited clean water access. Fog catching can provide a sustainable source of water for communities.

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Chile
Chile is in scarcity due to climate change making it a physical scarcity, Wastewater reuse will become important in fixing Chile's water issue. the warming temps are a issue for the scarcity in Chile making the climate change the biggest issue for Chile citizens.

solution: WasteWater reuse.
positive: using wastewater reuse it saves water and doesnt rely on rainfall, which is useful due to the warm temps
negative:Needs community support and is too expensive to build treatment plant

By Brooklyn

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The reason that China is water scarce is because 80-90 per-cent of ground water is unfit to be drinkable there.  The solution is that China can use sponge cities and sponge cities are urban areas like trees, parks, lakes, etc... absorb rain to prevent floods. A positive is that when all of the water is saved it wouldn't flood which could damage areas. A negative is that it increases pollution.

Sam Foroozandeh

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Perth's water scarcity is caused by climate change which is physical scarcity. A solution given was: wastewater treatment and groundwater replenishment. This is where wastewater is treated beyond drinking standards and recharged into our groundwater supplies. Then is stored in underground aquifers which will naturally filter the water.
Positive: Doesn't rely on rainfall.
Negative: May pollute water
Cheryl.

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The reason Niger is water scarce is because of physical scarcity, due to the desert like weather.

The solution is New technology, new technology is solar desalination. Solar desalination is when we use the suns energy to create heat.

Positives: The positive is that it allows us to use free solar energy and it doesn't cost us much to get the energy.

Negative: The negative is that it has brine production and high energy consumption, it is costly to dispose of brine energy.

From Brian

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Problem: In Ghana, there is deforestation and illegal mining going on, and it is the exacerbating problem by further polluting the water supply. around 73% have drunk water that is not under sanitary conditions. This is known as economic scarcity
Solution: There is an instruction manual that recently came out known as the 'Drinkable Book.' The drinkable book helps educate people in need of clean drinking water, that has pages you can rip out as a water filter. One book can have you in store for around 4 years at most.

Positives of Solution:
- A perfect water filter (the pages)
- Provide water filtrate that's 99.9% free of bacteria.
Negatives of Solution:
- May not be able to tell when bacteria has been removed.
- Small metal particles could seep through water past the filter.

- From Amelia

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In Algeria, water sources are overexploited and nearing the limit of ecologic sustainable withdrawal of ground surface water. Population growth puts increasing pressure on land and water resources. When it comes to fresh water Algeria relies on ground water. the country is experiencing water stress with less than 300 cubic metres capita per year.

By: Prassana Permual Subbraj Radhakrishnan

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W/C: Physical
The climate is a dry climate with only 250mm per year and 83% of that water evaporates, and only 1% of rainwater infiltrates into the ground.

Solution: Recycled drinking water

Positives:
It saves energy and money by reducing the cost and transportation of new water.
It creates or enhances wetlands and habitats for plants, wildlife, and fish.

Negatives:
Human Health
Greenhouse gas
Drain Blockage
Unsustainable resource consumption
By Sahanah

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"In Windhoek, every drop of water counts"

This is WINGOC's motto. It manages one of the only facilities in the world to produce drinking water from wastewater. In 2001 the consortium signed an operating contract with the city of Windhoek aimed at improving the water treatment processes and increasing the site's production capacity. Recycling wastewater increases the amount of drinking water available, but it also has a twofold benefit for the environment: it avoids tapping into natural resources and significantly reduces pollutant discharges.

Namibia is one of the most arid countries in Africa: the average rainfall is 250 mm per year, but the heat causes 83% to evaporate - only 1% of rainwater infiltrates into the ground. Consequently, the water supply of Windhoek - located in central Namibia - depends mainly on boreholes and three dams located 60 and 200 km away. To cope with shortages, the city has sought alternative solutions to secure its water supply.

A process that mimics nature

To transform the wastewater from Windhoek's 350,000 residents into drinking water, the Goreangab water treatment plant uses a process that mimics nature.

"Everything is done biologically. The bacteria help digest the human waste and pull it out of the water, essentially mimicking what happens in nature but a whole lot faster," said Justina Haihambo, Process Engineer at the plant.

The facility features state-of-the-art "multi-barrier" technology: ozone treatment, ultra membrane filtration and residual chlorination. This process eliminates all pollutants and contaminants. The various treatments, coupled with rigorous bio-monitoring programs, guarantee high quality, safe drinking water. It is a global benchmark since the only cities in the world to produce drinking water from their wastewater are Windhoek and Singapore.

"The Goreangab plant has become an international benchmark, an innovative and sustainable water management model and an example of a successful public-private partnership that attracts experts from Australia, Singapore and the United States. And if in the future the climate becomes even drier, recycling water will be even more important", said Pierre van Rensburg, head of Windhoek's water department.

"With the increasing risk of water stress, Veolia is a solid partner in implementing complex solutions. Today, the efficient process used in Windhoek has yet to be developed in Africa", concluded Patrice Fonlladosa, Senior Executive Vice President Africa-Middle East Veolia

Windhoek figures

350,000 inhabitants supplied with drinking water (35% of the needs of the urban area)
: the daily production of drinking water
+ 6% per year: urban growth of the city of Windhoek.

More :

> Circular cities: creating local loops to generate local value
> Wastewater reuse, a second life for an essential resource
> A resilient city: making cities more resistant to impacts and risks
> Veolia contributes to "resourcing the world"
> Veolia's water management expertise
> Veolia's website in Africa
> WINGOC: Wastewater to clean water - Windhoek, Namibia

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Namibia: Windhoek has been producing drinking water from its wastewater for 50 years

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Windhoek, the capital of Namibia, today celebrates the 50th anniversary of its wastewater to drinking water production plant! Commissioned in 1968, the plant was the first in the world to develop this type of process. Since 2001 it has been run by WINGOC - Windhoek Goreangab Operating Company - a consortium of Veolia, Berlinwasser International and WABAG.

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Source of the Water Scarcity
Over the past 30 years, massive irrigation projects have diverted millions of gallons of water from the two main rivers that feed the Aral Sea.  For cotton and rice crops, this was diverted for.  By the early 1980s, the Aral's freshwater source was completely cut off.

Solution
A dam surrounding the Aral Sea, which is a building constructed over a river or stream to hold back water, is the most effective response to this water shortage. This will create a reservoir for water to be used.

Positives & Negatives
More dependable reservoirs and water supplies can support our expanding population, to name a few advantages.
-Probability of producing hydroelectric electricity
-Irrigation source
Some drawbacks will be: -Environmental harm.
-Erosion of the surrounding soil
-Expensive
-Relies on equate rainfall

Physical Scarcity or Economic Scarcity?
-Economic Water Scarcity

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What is causing water scarcity: In Perth the main reason Perth is experiencing water scarcity is climate change this has lead to declining rainfall and reduced stream flows this is a physical water scarcity.

Solution: Desalination Plant
A Desalination Plant uses reverse osmosis technology to seperate water molecules from seawater. Over the past five years almost half of Perth's water has been supplied by the Desalination Plant's. Desalination Plant do not rely on rainfall and with declining rainfall and growing population. Perth can not rely on streamflow into dams to supply our water needs. Desalinated seawater has filled the gap for our growing population and declining rainfall.

Positives:
- Australia has a vast supply of sea water available
- It can supply 50% of Perth's water needs

Negatives:
- Desalination plants are very expensive it will cost $3.8 billion dollars to build.
- Can damage the environment such as areas where salt is realised into the ocean

-Fleur