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On February 5, 1885, Belgian King Leopold II took the Congo Free State as his own, not as a colony but by privately owning the region. He began projects through the money lent to him from the Belgian government, with this money he wanted to make the people "civilized". However, the people of the Congo were exploited and forced to labor for resources such as rubber and ivory. Many died from punishment or malnutrition, others caught diseases and were tortured by having their hand or foot amputated. There were rebellions against their mistreatment, but in spite of that, they were shut down by Leopold. The news of the abuse faced by the Congolese spread and many Europeans spoke out and demanded that Leopold cease his abuses. Eventually, he was forced to give the Congo to the country of Belgium but they would later gain independence in 1960 and become the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

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On February 5, 1885, Belgian King Leopold II established the Congo Free State as his personal possession.

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Social Studies, World History

On February 5, 1885, Belgian King Leopold II established the Congo Free State by brutally seizing the African landmass as his personal possession. Rather than control the Congo as a colony, as other European powers did throughout Africa, Leopold privately owned the region. (Colonizing other peoples, regardless of the justification, is wrong. The people being colonized are robbed of their land, resources, and freedom.) Leopold financed development projects with money loaned to him from the Belgian government. The king's stated goal was to bring civilization to the people of the Congo, an enormous region in Central Africa. (Believing one people is more civilized than another is wrong.) Leopold's reign over the Congo Free State, however, has become infamous for its brutality. The people of the Congo were forced to labor for valued resources, including rubber and ivory, to personally enrich Leopold. Estimates vary, but about half the Congolese population died from punishment and malnutrition. Many more suffered from disease and torture. Among those who weren't killed, many were punished by having a hand and/or foot amputated. The people of the Congo did not suffer these injustices without fighting back. Several rebellions were mercilessly put down under Leopold's direction. As the realities and suffering within the Congo Free State became more widely known, many European people spoke out against these abuses. Demonstrations and protests demanded that Leopold end human rights abuses in the Congo Free State. In 1908, international pressure forced the king to turn the Congo Free State over to the country of Belgium. The newly named "Belgian Congo" remained a colony until the Democratic Republic of Congo gained its independence in 1960.

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Belgian King Establishes Congo Free State

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On February 5, 1885, Belgian King Leopold II established the Congo Free State as his personal possession. Social Studies, World History On February 5, 1885, Belgian King Leopold II established the Congo Free State by brutally seizing the African landmass as his personal possession.

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The Boer War was fought between 1899 and 1902 between the British and Boers in South Africa. The discovery of gold in South Africa attracted the British, or "Uitlanders". The Boers became worried because they felt as if their way of life may be threatened. In 1899 the SAR offered the British and extension of their franchise as long as they did not interfere in the SAR's internal affairs, and that they drop their claim to rule the SAR. However, this was rejected because the British believed they could easily defeat the Boers. This was not true, "Black Week" as it was called was a period of defeats for the British. The Boers were skilled and were able to defeat the British whose tactics were ineffective against them. The war eventually turned Britain's way but they only controlled ground when they physically had troops there, once they left their control faded. Farms were burnt and concentration camps were made, Boer families and Black Africans were sent there because the British thought it would make Boer soldiers surrender. In the end the Boers were forced to agree to terms. In 1902 the Treaty of Vereeniging was signed, British sovereignty was accepted but with limited self-government.

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Between 1899 and 1902, the British Army fought a bitter colonial war against the Boers in South Africa. Although outnumbered, the Boers were a skilled and determined enemy. After initial setbacks and a long period of guerrilla warfare, the British eventually prevailed, but not without adopting controversial tactics.

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Between 1899 and 1902, the British Army fought a bitter colonial war against the Boers in South Africa. After initial setbacks and a long period of guerrilla warfare, the British eventually prevailed, but not without adopting controversial tactics.

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There was no singular reason for why the rebellion started but many things piled up resulting in the rebellion. These included imposing laws without regard for Indian culture, fear of having to convert to Christianity, bad pay, no promotions, insensitivities from British soldiers, and to top it all off cartridges for new rifles were greased with pig and cow fat, making it offensive to Muslims and Hindus. The rebellion really started though when 85 members of the 3rd Bengal Light Cavalry were broken out of prison and destroyed a nearby military station and killed any Europeans they found. The news of this event spread and encouraged other mutinies and eventually all 10 Light Bengals and a majority of the 74 Bengal Native Infantry Regiments were affected. This didn't mean that all of the Sepoys fought the British, some simply went home and did not participate in either side. It was mostly just soldiers in the Bengal army that retaliated, other armies actually supported the British because they did not want Mughal rule to return. Common people also joined the revolts and wanted the British gone for religious reasons and because they were loyal to their previous rulers. They wanted to destroy the Company tax collecting system.

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Explore more from Indian Mutiny

In 1857, Indian soldiers rose up against their British commanders. They were joined by native rulers and thousands of ordinary people in a struggle that threatened to destroy British colonial power on the Indian subcontinent. The reasons behind the rebellion stretch back to the origins of British involvement in Indian affairs.

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In 1857, Indian soldiers rose up against their British commanders. The reasons behind the rebellion stretch back to the origins of British involvement in Indian affairs.

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The Boxer Rebellion was a rebellion started by peasants in an attempt to remove all foreigners from China in the late 1890s. "Boxers" were what foreigners called a Chinese secret society that practiced martial arts and calisthenic rituals that believed would make them withstand bullets. This group had begun attacking foreigners and Chinese Christians because they blamed their living conditions on foreigners who were colonizing the country. In 1900 the rebellion spread to Beijing where the Boxers killed and destroyed property. This attack lasted weeks and diplomats, families, and guards fought against the Boxers, eventually, an international force comprised of eight nations arrived and rescued the foreigners and Chinese Christians. The rebellion ended in 1901 when the Boxer Protocol was signed. The protocol stated that forts protecting Beijing should be destroyed, and people involved in the uprising were to be punished, foreign troops were allowed to station troops in Beijing, and China was not allowed to import arms for two years and had to pay more than $330 million in reparations to foreign nation involved.

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In the Boxer Rebellion of 1900, a Chinese secret organization called the Society of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists led an uprising in northern China against the spread of Western and Japanese influence there. The rebels, referred to by Westerners as Boxers because they performed physical exercises they believed would make them able to withstand bullets, killed foreigners and Chinese Christians and destroyed foreign property.

From June to August, the Boxers besieged the foreign district of China's capital city Beijing (then called Peking) until an international force that included American troops subdued the uprising. By the terms of the Boxer Protocol, which officially ended the rebellion in 1901, China agreed to pay more than $330 million in reparations.

Cause of the Boxer Rebellion

By the end of the 19th century, Western nations and Japan had forced China's ruling Qing dynasty to accept wide foreign control over the country's economic affairs. Throughout the Opium Wars of 1839-42 and 1856-60, popular rebellions and the Sino-Japanese War, China had fought to resist the foreigners, but it lacked a modernized military and suffered millions of casualties.

Did you know? America returned the money it received from China after the Boxer Rebellion, on the condition it be used to fund the creation of a university in Beijing. Other nations involved later remitted their shares of the Boxer indemnity as well.

John Hay, the U.S. Secretary of State from 1898 to 1905, began to implement an "Open Door Policy" to exert American and European influence over Chinese trade and economic partnerships. Though his Open Door Policy was met with indifference or resistance by other players-including the Qing Empress Dowager Tzu'u Hzi-continued Western influence over domestic Chinese affairs set the stage for rebellion.

By the late 1890s, a Chinese secret group, the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists ("I-ho-ch'uan" or "Yihequan"), had begun carrying out regular attacks on foreigners and Chinese Christians. The rebels performed calisthenics rituals and martial arts that they believed would give them the ability to withstand bullets and other forms of attack. Westerners referred to these rituals as shadow boxing, leading to the Boxers nickname.

Although the Boxers came from various parts of society, many were peasants, particularly from Shandong province, which had been struck by natural disasters such as famine and flooding. In the 1890s, China had given territorial and commercial concessions in this area to several European nations, and the Boxers blamed their poor standard of living on foreigners who were colonizing their country.

The Boxer Movement

In 1900, the Boxer movement spread to the Beijing area, where the Boxers killed Chinese Christians and Christian missionaries and destroyed churches, railroad stations and other property. On June 20, 1900, the Boxers began a siege of Beijing's Legation District (where the official quarters of foreign diplomats were located). The following day, Empress Dowager Tzu'u Hzi declared a war on all foreign nations with diplomatic ties in China.

As the Western powers and Japan organized a multinational force to crush the rebellion, the siege stretched into weeks, and the diplomats, their families and guards suffered through hunger and degrading conditions as they fought to keep the Boxers at bay.

By some estimates, several hundred foreigners and several thousand Chinese Christians were killed during this time. On August 14, after fighting its way through northern China, an international force of approximately 20,000 troops from eight nations (Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States) arrived to take Beijing and rescue the foreigners and Chinese Christians.

Aftermath

The Boxer Rebellion formally ended with the signing of the Boxer Protocol on September 7, 1901. By terms of the agreement, forts protecting Beijing were to be destroyed, Boxer and Chinese government officials involved in the uprising were to be punished, foreign legations were permitted to station troops in Beijing for their defense, China was prohibited from importing arms for two years and it agreed to pay more than $330 million in reparations to the foreign nations involved.

The Qing dynasty, established in 1644, was weakened by the Boxer Rebellion. Following an uprising in 1911, the dynasty came to an end and China became a republic in 1912.

Sources

U.S. Marines in the Boxer Rebellion. National Archives.
Essay: The Boxer Rebellion. University of Washington: Digital Collections.

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Boxer Rebellion: China, Definition & Cause | HISTORY

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The Boxer Rebellion of 1900 was a failed uprising against Japanese and Western influence in China, led by the Society of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists.

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The Opium Wars were two wars that were fought in China. The first one was China vs Great Britain and the second was between China vs Great Britain and France. The wars were fought in the mid-19th century and China lost both times. The wars were fought because China would only exchange their goods for silver, eventually another form of payment taken was illegal opium. Although opium was heavily valued because it was better than traditional Chinese medicine, China wanted to end the trade because many people became addicted. The war started because smuggled opium was destroyed which outraged Britain.

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The Opium Wars in the mid-19th century were a critical juncture in modern Chinese history. The first Opium War was fought between China and Great Britain from 1839 to 1842. In the second Opium War, from 1856 to 1860, a weakened China fought both Great Britain and France. China lost both wars. The terms of its defeat were a bitter pill to swallow: China had to cede the territory of Hong Kong to British control, open treaty ports to trade with foreigners, and grant special rights to foreigners operating within the treaty ports. In addition, the Chinese government had to stand by as the British increased their opium sales to people in China. The British did this in the name of free trade and without regard to the consequences for the Chinese government and Chinese people.

The lesson that Chinese students learn today about the Opium Wars is that China should never again let itself become weak, 'backward,' and vulnerable to other countries. As one British historian says, "If you talk to many Chinese about the Opium War, a phrase you will quickly hear is 'luo hou jiu yao ai da,' which literally means that if you are backward, you will take a beating." ¹
Two Worlds Collide: The First Opium War
In the mid-19th century, western imperial powers such as Great Britain, France, and the United States were aggressively expanding their influence around the world through their economic and military strength and by spreading religion, mostly through the activities of Christian missionaries. These countries embraced the idea of free trade, and their militaries had become so powerful that they could impose such ideas on others. In one sense, China was relatively effective in responding to this foreign encroachment; unlike its neighbours, including present-day India, Burma (now Myanmar), Malaya (now Malaysia), Indonesia, and Vietnam, China did not become a full-fledged, formal colony of the West. In addition, Confucianism, the system of beliefs that shaped and organized China's culture, politics, and society for centuries, was secular (that is, not based on a religion or belief in a god) and therefore was not necessarily an obstacle to science and modernity in the ways that Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism sometimes were in other parts of the world.

But in another sense, China was not effective in responding to the "modern" West with its growing industrialism, mercantilism, and military strength. Nineteenth-century China was a large, mostly land-based empire (see Map 1), administered by a c. 2,000-year-old bureaucracy and dominated by centuries old and conservative Confucian ideas of political, social, and economic management. All of these things made China, in some ways, dramatically different from the European powers of the day, and it struggled to deal effectively with their encroachment. This ineffectiveness resulted in, or at least added to, longer-term problems for China, such as unequal treaties (which will be described later), repeated foreign military invasions, massive internal rebellions, internal political fights, and social upheaval. While the first Opium War of 1839-42 did not cause the eventual collapse of China's 5,000-year imperial dynastic system seven decades later, it did help shift the balance of power in Asia in favour of the West.
Map 1: China's Borders as of 1820. Opium and the West's Embrace of Free Trade
In the decades leading up to the first Opium War, trade between China and the West took place within the confines of the Canton System, based in the southern Chinese city of Guangzhou (also referred to as Canton). An earlier version of this system had been put in place by China under the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), and further developed by its replacement, the Qing Dynasty, also known as the Manchu Dynasty. (The Manchus were the ethnic group that ruled China during the Qing period.) In the year 1757, the Qing emperor ordered that Guangzhou/Canton would be the only Chinese port that would be opened to trade with foreigners, and that trade could take place only through licensed Chinese merchants. This effectively restricted foreign trade and subjected it to regulations imposed by the Chinese government.

For many years, Great Britain worked within this system to run a three country trade operation: It shipped Indian cotton and British silver to China, and Chinese tea and other Chinese goods to Britain (see Map 2). In the 18th and early 19th centuries, the balance of trade was heavily in China's favour. One major reason was that British consumers had developed a strong liking for Chinese tea, as well as other goods like porcelain and silk. But Chinese consumers had no similar preference for any goods produced in Britain. Because of this trade imbalance, Britain increasingly had to use silver to pay for its expanding purchases of Chinese goods. In the late 1700s, Britain tried to alter this balance by replacing cotton with opium, also grown in India. In economic terms, this was a success for Britain; by the 1820s, the balance of trade was reversed in Britain's favour, and it was the Chinese who now had to pay with silver.
The Scourge and Profit of Opium Figure 1: A "stacking room" in an opium factory in Patna, India. On the shelves are balls of opium that were part of Britain's trade with China. Map 2: Great Britain's Three-Country Trade, Early 19th Century. Figure 2: Opium smoking in China.
The opium that the British sold in China was made from the sap of poppy plants, and had been used for medicinal and sometimes recreational purposes in China and other parts of Eurasia for centuries. After the British colonized large parts of India in the 17th century, the British East India Company, which was created to take advantage of trade with East Asia and India, invested heavily in growing and processing opium, especially in the eastern Indian province of Bengal. In fact, the British developed a profitable monopoly over the cultivation of opium that would be shipped to and sold in China.

By the early 19th century, more and more Chinese were smoking British opium as a recreational drug. But for many, what started as recreation soon became a punishing addiction: many people who stopped ingesting opium suffered chills, nausea, and cramps, and sometimes died from withdrawal. Once addicted, people would often do almost anything to continue to get access to the drug. The Chinese government recognized that opium was becoming a serious social problem and, in the year 1800, it banned both the production and the importation of opium. In 1813, it went a step further by outlawing the smoking of opium and imposing a punishment of beating offenders 100 times.
The Users Versus Pushers Debate
In response, the British East India Company hired private British and American traders to transport the drug to China. Chinese smugglers bought the opium from British and American ships anchored off the Guangzhou coast and distributed it within China through a network of Chinese middlemen. By 1830, there were more than 100 Chinese smugglers' boats working the opium trade.

This reached a crisis point when, in 1834, the British East India Company lost its monopoly over British opium. To compete for customers, dealers lowered their selling price, which made it easier for more people in China to buy opium, thus spreading further use and addition.
Figure 3: Lin Zexu.
In less than 30 years-from 1810 to 1838-opium imports to China increased from 4,500 chests (the large containers used to ship the drug) to 40,000. As Chinese consumed more and more imported opium, the outflow of silver to pay for it increased, from about two million ounces in the early 1820s to over nine million ounces a decade later. In 1831, the Chinese emperor, already angry that opium traders were breaking local laws and increasing addiction and smuggling, discovered that members of his army and government (and even students) were engaged in smoking opium.
Figure 4: British officers in their tent during the first Opium War, circa 1839. Figure 5: Chinese swordsman, 1844. The War's Aftermath Figure 6: The British bombardment of Guangzhou/Canton.
By 1836, the Chinese government began to get more serious about enforcing the 1813 ban. It closed opium dens and executed Chinese dealers. But the problem only grew worse. The emperor called for a debate among Chinese officials on how best to deal with the crisis. Opinion were polarized into two sides.
One side took a pragmatic approach (that is, an approach not focused on the morality of the issue). It focused on targeting opium users rather than opium producers. They argued that the production and sale of opium should be legalized and then taxed by the government. Their belief was that taxing the drug would make it so expensive that people would have to smoke less of it or not smoke it at all. They also argued that the money collected from taxing the opium trade could help the Chinese government reduce revenue shortfalls and the outflow of silver.

Another side vehemently disagreed with this 'pragmatic' approach. Led by Lin Zexu, a very capable and ambitious Chinese government official, they argued that the opium trade was a moral issue, and an "evil" that had to be eliminated by any means possible. If they could not suppress the trade of opium and addiction to it, the Chinese empire would have no peasants to work the land, no townsfolk to pay taxes, no students to study, and no soldiers to fight. They argued that instead of targeting opium users, they should stop and punish the "pushers" who imported and sold the drug in China.
Figure 7: Opium War Imports into China, 1650-1880.
In the end, Lin Zexu's side won the argument. In 1839, he arrived in Guangzhou (Canton) to supervise the ban on the opium trade and to crack down on its use. He attacked the opium trade on several levels. For example, he wrote an open letter to Queen Victoria questioning Britain's political support for the trade and the morality of pushing drugs. More importantly, he made rapid progress in enforcing the 1813 ban by arresting over 1,600 Chinese dealers and seizing and destroying tens of thousands of opium pipes. He also demanded that foreign companies (British companies, in particular) turn over their supplies of opium in exchange for tea. When the British refused to do so, Lin stopped all foreign trade and quarantined the area to which these foreign merchants were confined.
Second Opium War (1856-1860)
After six weeks, the foreign merchants gave in to Lin's demands and turned over 2.6 million pounds of opium (over 20,000 chests). Lin's troops also seized and destroyed the opium that was being held on British ships-the British superintendent claimed these ships were in international waters, but Lin claimed they were anchored in and around Chinese islands. Lin then hired 500 Chinese men to destroy the opium by mixing it with lime and salt and dumping it into the bay. Finally, he pressured the Portuguese, who had a colony in nearby Macao, to expel the uncooperative British, forcing them to move to the island of Hong Kong.
Map 3: China's Treaty Ports, 1860.
Taken together, these actions raised the tensions that led to the outbreak of the first Opium War. For the British, Lin's destruction of the opium was an affront to British dignity and their concepts of trade. Many British merchants, smugglers, and the British East India Company had argued for years that China was out of touch with "civilized" nations, which practised free trade and maintained "normal" international relations through consular officials and treaties. More to the point, British representatives in Guangzhou requested that merchants turn over their opium to Lin, guaranteeing that the British government would compensate them for their losses. The idea was that in the short term, this would prevent a major conflict, and that it would keep the merchants and ship captains safe while reopening the extremely profitable China trade in other goods. The huge opium liability (the opium was worth millions of pounds sterling), and increasingly shrill demands from merchants in China, India, and London when they discovered their profits were destroyed, gave politicians in Great Britain the excuse they were looking for to act more forcefully to expand British imperial interests in China. War broke out in November 1839 when Chinese warships clashed with British merchantmen.

In June 1840, 16 British warships and merchantmen-many leased from the primary British opium producer, Jardine Matheson & Co.-arrived at Guangzhou. Over the next two years, the British forces bombarded forts, fought battles, seized cities, and attempted negotiations. A preliminary settlement called for China to cede Hong Kong to the British Empire, pay an indemnity, and grant Britain full diplomatic relations. It also led to the Qing government sending Lin Zexu into exile. Chinese troops, using antiquated guns and cannons, and with limited naval ships, were largely ineffective against the British. Dozens of Chinese officers committed suicide when they could not repel the British marines, steamships, and merchantmen.

The first Opium War ended in 1842, when Chinese officials signed, at gunpoint, the Treaty of Nanjing. The treaty provided extraordinary benefits to the British, including:
Thinking About the Opium War

an excellent deep-water port at Hong Kong;

a huge indemnity (compensation) to be paid to the British government and merchants;

five new Chinese treaty ports at Guangzhou (Canton), Shanghai, Xiamen (Amoy), Ningbo, and Fuzhou, where British merchants and their families could reside;

extraterritoriality for British citizens residing in these treaty ports, meaning that they were subject to British, not Chinese, laws; and

a "most favoured nation" clause that any rights gained by other foreign countries would automatically apply to Great Britain as well.

For China, the Treaty of Nanjing provided no benefits. In fact, Chinese imports of opium rose to a peak of 87,000 chests in 1879 (see Figure 1). After that, imports of opium declined, and then ended during the First World War, as opium production within China outgrew foreign production. However, other trade did not expand as much as foreign merchants had hoped, and they continued to blame the Chinese government for this. Among Chinese officials, the aftermath of the war led to a bitter political struggle between two factions: a peace faction, which was roughly aligned with the 'users' faction in the opium trade debate; and a 'war' faction, which was roughly aligned with the 'pushers' faction in that debate. The peace faction was in nominal control.

In addition, the Treaty of Nanjing ended the Canton System that had been in place since the 17th century. This was followed in 1844 by a system of unequal treaties between China and western powers. Through the most favoured nation clauses, these treaties allowed westerners to build churches and spread Christianity in the treaty ports. Western imperialism and free trade had its first great victory in China with this war and its resulting treaties.

When the Chinese emperor died in 1850, his successor dismissed the peace faction in favour of those who had supported Lin Zexu. The new emperor tried to bring Lin back from exile, but Lin died along the way. The Chinese court kept finding excuses not to accept foreign diplomats at the capital city of Beijing, and its compliance with the treaties fell far short of western countries' expectations.

In 1856, a second Opium War broke out and continued until 1860, when the British and French captured Beijing and forced on China a new round of unequal treaties, indemnities, and the opening of 11 more treaty ports (see Map 3). This also led to increased Christian missionary work and legalization of the opium trade.
About the Author
Even though new ports were opened to British merchants after the first Opium War, the Chinese dragged their feet on implementing the agreements, and legal trade with China remained limited. British merchants pressed their government to do more, but the government's hands were tied because the Chinese government in the capital city of Beijing restricted who it met with.
End Notes:
In October 1856, Chinese authorities arrested the Chinese crew of a ship operated by the British. The British used this as an opportunity to pressure China militarily to open itself up even further to British merchants and trade. France, using the execution in China of a French Christian missionary as an excuse, joined the British in the fight. Joint French-British forces captured Guangzhou before moving north to the city of Tianjin (also referred to as Tientsin). In 1858, the Chinese agreed-on paper-to a series of western demands contained in documents like the Treaty of Tientsin. But then they refused to ratify the treaties, which led to further hostilities.

In 1860, British and French troops landed near Beijing and fought their way into the city. Negotiations quickly broke down and the British High Commissioner to China ordered the troops to loot and destroy the Imperial Summer Palace, a complex and garden where Qing Dynasty emperors had traditionally handled the country's official matters.

Shortly after that, the Chinese emperor fled to Manchuria in northeast China. His brother negotiated the Convention of Beijing, which, in addition to ratifying the Treaty of Tientsin, added indemnities and ceded to Britain the Kowloon Peninsula across the strait from Hong Kong. The war ended with a greatly weakened Qing Dynasty that was now confronted with the need to rethink its relations with the outside world and to modernize its military, political, and economic structures.

In 1839, the British imposed on China their version of free trade and insisted on the legal right of their citizens (that is, British citizens) to do what they wanted, wherever they wanted. Chinese critics point out that while the British made lofty arguments about the 'principle' of free trade and individual rights, they were in fact pushing a product (opium) that was illegal in their own country.

There are different viewpoints on what was the main underlying factor in Britain's involvement in the Opium Wars. Some in the west claim that the Opium Wars were about upholding the principle of free trade. Others, however, say that Great Britain was acting more in the interest of protecting its international reputation while it was facing challenges in other parts of the world, such as the Near East, India, and Latin America. Some American historians have argued that these conflicts were not so much about opium as they were about western powers' desire to expand commercial relations more broadly and to do away with the Canton trading system. Finally, some western historians say the war was fought at least partly to keep China's balance of trade in a deficit, and that opium was an effective way to do that, even though it had very negative impacts on Chinese society.

It is important to point out that not everyone in Britain supported the opium trade in China. In fact, members of the British public and media, as well as the American public and media, expressed outrage over their countries' support for the opium trade. ²

From China's historical perspective, the first Opium War was the beginning of the end of late Imperial China, a powerful dynastic system and advanced civilization that had lasted thousands of years. The war was also the first salvo in what is now referred to in China as the "century of humiliation." This humiliation took many forms. China's defeat in both wars was a sign that the Chinese state's legitimacy and ability to project power were weakening. The Opium Wars further contributed to this weakening. The unequal treaties that western powers imposed on China undermined the ways China had conducted relations with other countries and its trade in tea. The continuation of the opium trade, moreover, added to the cost to China in both silver and in the serious social consequences of opium addiction. Furthermore, the many rebellions that broke out within China after the first Opium War made it increasingly difficult for the Chinese government to pay its tax and huge indemnity obligations.

Present-day Chinese historians see the Opium Wars as a wars of aggression that led to the hard lesson that "if you are 'backward,' you will take a beating." These lessons shaped the rationale for the Chinese Revolution against imperialism and feudalism that emerged, and then succeeded, decades later.

Jack Patrick Hayes, PhD, is a professor of Chinese and Japanese history at Kwantlen Polytechnic University in Vancouver. His research focuses on late imperial and modern Chinese and Tibetan environmental history, resource development, and ethnic relations in western China.

¹ Andrew Moody, "Lessons of the Opium War," China Daily, February 24, 2012, http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/weekly/2012-02/24/content_14681839.htm.

² See, for example, Peter Perdue, "The First Opium War: The Anglo-Chinese War of 1839-1842," MIT Visualizing Cultures, p. 29, https://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/opium_wars_01/ow1_essay01.html.

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