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Culturally responsive teaching involves educators recognizing the cultural dimensions of learning by understanding how students make sense of the world in relation to their communities, and intentionally integrating students' home cultures into the classroom environment to ensure that all children feel valued and supported in their learning. (Ashbrook, 2021)

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Culturally responsive teaching develops through an educator's deep understanding of students' cultural backgrounds and everyday lives. This understanding is built by connecting the classroom environment with students' home cultures, allowing for a more meaningful and relevant learning experience (Vander Kolk, 2025). As educators engage with families and become familiar with students' cultures, they can create learning opportunities that reflect and honor these cultural identities, fostering stronger connections between students and the content (Ashbrook, 2021).

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Assessment in culturally responsive teaching involves understanding how students apply their cultural knowledge in learning tasks. Teachers observe and listen closely to how children relate their cultural experiences to academic topics, ensuring that assessment methods respect and highlight these cultural perspectives. This approach encourages educators to focus on the ways students interact with learning material, drawing from their backgrounds to make sense of new information, rather than solely relying on traditional testing methods (Ashbrook, 2021).

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Teaching in a culturally responsive manner involves creating a classroom environment that is rich with diverse cultural materials and experiences. Educators use strategies that connect academic content with students' home practices, like incorporating cooking, building, or other daily activities into lessons. Teachers encourage social interactions and group work, fostering a sense of community where students can share and learn from each other’s cultural experiences, ultimately strengthening their learning through meaningful connections (Ashbrook, 2021).

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Literacy motivation refers to students' drive and willingness to engage in reading and writing activities. This motivation is shaped by both internal factors, such as interest and enjoyment, and external factors, such as rewards and external encouragement (Turner & Paris, 1995). Literacy engagement, on the other hand, involves active participation and investment in literacy tasks. Engaged students approach literacy tasks with enthusiasm, focus, and persistence, which enhances their overall learning experience and academic success (Brandt, et. al, 2021).

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Literacy motivation develops as students experience success in literacy tasks. When students are given the opportunity to do it themselves they develop a sense of ownership over their learning. Doing this themselves fosters intrinsic motivation, encouraging students to engage more deeply with the material (Vander Kolk, 2025). Furthermore, students’ motivation is reinforced when they feel complete in their literacy abilities, leading to a cycle of positive engagement and achievement (Brandt et al., 2021).

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Assessing literacy motivation and engagement involves observing students' behaviors and gathering self-reported data. Teachers can observe how actively and enthusiastically students participate in literacy tasks. Additionally, tools like portfolios and interviews can help assess students' attitudes towards reading and writing. These assessments help educators understand the factors driving students' motivation and engagement.

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Teachers can create literacy motivation by offering students opportunities to make choices in their learning. Allowing students to select their reading materials, writing topics, or how they organize tasks increases their engagement and personal investment in the work. Teachers can also make literacy tasks more engaging by integrating them throughout all subjects, which helps connect learning to students' personal interests and experiences (Brandt et al., 2021). Providing opportunities for independence and interest-based learning encourages long-term motivation.

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Brandt, L., Sharp, A. C., & Gardner, D. S. (2021). Examination of teacher practices on student motivation for reading. Reading Teacher, 74(6), 723-731. https://doi-org.cornerstone.idm.oclc.org/10.1002/trtr.1999

Vander Kolk, B. (2025, January 29). Lecture notes on Culturally Responsive Teaching, Foundations of Literacy course, Cornerstone University.

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A literacy learning environment is a space designed to support and enhance students' reading, writing, and language development through meaningful interactions and experiences. It includes access to diverse reading materials, structured and unstructured learning opportunities, and a supportive atmosphere where students feel encouraged to explore language. (Vander Kolk, 2025)

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Creating a strong literacy learning environment means using the right tools and strategies to help students grow in reading and writing. One way to do this is by using technology to track student progress and find areas where they need more help (Wang, Yu, & Wang, 2022). Teachers can use this data to adjust lessons, provide better feedback, and make sure each student gets the support they need. It’s also important to create a space that encourages learning, with access to books, group activities, and interactive tools that make reading and writing more engaging. When students feel comfortable and supported, they are more likely to stay motivated and enjoy the learning process.

Teachers play a key role in designing literacy environments that cater to individual learning differences and developmental stages. By incorporating strategies from cognitive behaviorist and transactional theories, educators can balance direct skill instruction with student-led exploration, helping learners build strong connections between word recognition, language comprehension, and reading comprehension. Creating a rich literacy space involves using interactive elements like shared reading, small group discussions, and literacy stations where students can engage with texts in multiple ways. Ultimately, a well-structured literacy learning environment fosters motivation, confidence, and a lifelong love for reading and writing. (Vander Kolk).

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Ashbrook, P. (2021). Culturally Responsive Teaching[1]. Science and Children, 58(4), 14-15. http://www.cornerstone.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/culturally-responsive-teaching-1/docview/2501208508/se-2

Vander Kolk, B. (2025, January 29). Lecture notes on Culturally Responsive Teaching, Foundations of Literacy course, Cornerstone University.

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Wang, X., Yu, L., & Wang, Z. (2022, September 25). Design of Learning Environment for Undergraduate Comprehensive Literacy Education under blended learning environment. Journal of environmental and public health. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9527408/

Vander Kolk, B. (2025, February 5). Lecture notes on reading fluency and comprehension. Foundations of Literacy course, Cornerstone University.

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Print concepts involve a child’s understanding of the functions of written language. This includes knowledge of how books are handled, the directionality of text, and the distinction between letters and words (Justice, Bowles, & Skibbe, 2006). According to lecture materials, print awareness has three domains: functions of print, book knowledge, and attitudes toward reading and writing. Children with developed print concepts recognize that print carries meaning, can identify parts of a book, and understand that spoken language can be represented in written form.

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The development of print concepts usually begins through exposure to print in everyday settings and intentional interactions. Young children do not always learn print awareness naturally; instead, it is often made through experiences such as shared reading, labeling objects, and modeling of reading behaviors (Vander Kolk, 2025). Print knowledge varies greatly depending on the child’s home environment and whether adults explicitly point out print features. Children benefit from learning how print functions in different contexts, such as signs, menus, and books, which helps foster early literacy (Justice, Bowles, & Skibbe, 2006).

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Assessing print concept knowledge involves examining a child's ability to demonstrate awareness of how print works. Observations during shared reading and direct assessments can provide teachers insight into children’s print awareness development and help tailor instruction to meet individual literacy needs (Justice, Bowles, & Skibbe, 2006).

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Teaching print concepts is most effective when it combines explicit instruction with meaningful engagement. Teachers foster print awareness by modeling how to read books, discussing features like the author and title, and encouraging children to interact with environmental print. Instruction should be intentional and responsive, helping students understand that print is purposeful, organized, and tied to spoken language.

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Justice, L. M., Bowles, R. P., & Skibbe, L. E. (2006). Measuring preschool attainment of print-concept knowledge: A study of typical and at-risk 3- to 5-year-old children using item response theory. Language, Speech & Hearing Services in Schools, 37(3), 224–235. http://www.cornerstone.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/measuring-preschool-attainment-print-concept/docview/232588311/se-2

Vander Kolk, B. (2025, March 10). Print Concepts and the Big Five Components of Reading. Foundations of Literacy course, Cornerstone University.

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Phonological awareness is the ability to hear the sounds in spoken words, and it's one of the first and most important skills children need to develop before learning to read and spell. It includes being able to recognize rhyming words, count how many words are in a sentence, clap out syllables in a word, and break words into parts like the beginning sound and the rest of the word. For example, breaking the word pin into p and in. Children also learn to blend sounds together, take sounds away, or change one sound to make a new word. As kids grow, more advanced sound skills help them read harder words and recognize them more quickly (Graves et al., 2011).

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Phonological awareness develops slowly, starting from simple sound skills to more advanced ones, and it happens mostly through listening and speaking, not reading or writing. Young children typically begin by hearing and enjoying rhymes and songs. Then, they learn to notice and count the number of words in a sentence or syllables in a word. As they grow, they start to hear the beginning sounds in words and recognize parts of words. The hardest stage is understanding individual sounds, phonemes, and being able to blend them together, take them apart, or change them to make new words. (Mesmer, 2019).

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Phonological awareness is assessed by listening to how well a child can hear, recognize, and play with sounds in spoken words, without using letters or print. Teachers might ask children to do things like clap the number of syllables in a word, say whether two words rhyme, or identify the first or last sound in a word. Other activities include blending sounds together to form a word, or taking apart a word by saying each individual sound. More advanced tasks may ask students to remove or change a sound. (Simms & Marzano, 2019).

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Phonological awareness is taught through interactive listening activities that help children hear and work with sounds. It must be clearly and directly taught in the early grades, especially kindergarten and first grade, because it is the foundation for all later reading and spelling skills.  It should be taught directly and clearly, starting with easier skills like rhyming and syllables, and moving toward harder ones. Teachers might use songs, poems, clapping games, and picture cards to teach these skills in a way that’s engaging and playful. Instruction should be daily, short, and focused. Teaching phonological awareness in this way helps set kids up for success in reading and spelling later on (Graves et al., 2011).

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Graves, M. F., Juel, C., & Graves, B. B. (2011). Teaching reading in the 21st century (5th ed.). Pearson.

Mesmer, H. A. E. (2019). Tools for matching readers to texts: Research-based practices. Guilford Press.

Simms, M., & Marzano, R. J. (2019). Assessing and developing reading fluency: A teacher's guide. Solution Tree.

Vander Kolk, B. (2025, March 24 & 31). Lecture notes on reading fluency and comprehension. Early Childhood Education course, Cornerstone University.

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Phonics is the system that shows how letters and groups of letters match up with sounds in spoken words. It helps students understand how to “sound out” words when they read and how to spell them when they write. Even though English only has 26 letters, it has around 44 sounds, which means many sounds are spelled using letter combinations. The idea behind phonics is that letters stand for sounds, and students need to learn these connections to read and write effectively (Graves et al., 2011).

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Phonics skills build up over time. Children first learn to recognize the shapes and names of letters, both uppercase and lowercase. Then, they begin to match each letter to its sound and start noticing patterns in how words are spelled. Over time, their brains begin to recognize letters more quickly and accurately. Eventually, with enough practice, students don’t have to stop and think about each sound. They start reading more smoothly and can focus on understanding what they read (Simms & Marzano, 2019).

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Teachers assess phonics by checking if students can connect sounds to letters and use that knowledge to read and spell words. This might include asking kids to sound out words, identify beginning or ending sounds, spell simple words by sound, or read lists of words that follow common spelling patterns. These assessments help teachers know which letter-sound relationships a student understands and what they still need to practice or learn (Mesmer, 2019).

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Phonics is taught through direct, step-by-step lessons that help children learn letter sounds, spelling patterns, and word parts. Explicit instruction in phonics (including frequent practice with decoding, blending, and spelling) is key to building strong readers (Michigan Department of Education, n.d.).  Teachers use alphabet books, games, drills, and matching activities to make learning fun and memorable. For kids who need more help, extra teaching time with focused practice is key (Graves et al., 2011).

# data[].attributes.body
Graves, M. F., Juel, C., & Graves, B. B. (2011). Teaching reading in the 21st century (5th ed.). Pearson.

Mesmer, H. A. E. (2019). Tools for matching readers to texts: Research-based practices. Guilford Press.

Michigan Department of Education. (n.d.). Literacy essentials. https://literacyessentials.org/

Simms, M., & Marzano, R. J. (2019). Assessing and developing reading fluency: A teacher's guide. Solution Tree.

Vander Kolk, B. (2025, March 19). Lecture notes on phonics. Foundations of Literacy course, Cornerstone University.

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Sight words are the words kids learn to recognize instantly without needing to sound them out. These are often the most common words in the English language, like the, was, or said. Because some of these words don’t follow normal spelling rules, students can’t always figure them out using phonics. Instead, they memorize them visually, which helps them read more smoothly and understand stories better (Vander Kolk, 2025).

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Sight word recognition develops through repeated exposure and visual memory. When students see the same word over and over again in books, on word walls, or in classroom activities, they begin to recognize it without needing to stop and decode it. As phonics instruction becomes harder, students start to rely on that knowledge for regular words, while they memorize the irregular ones by sight (Graves et al., 2011). Over time, this practice builds up their knowledge of sight words, which helps with reading fluency and confidence.

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Teachers check students’ sight word knowledge by having them read word lists or flashcards out loud. The goal is for them to read the words quickly and correctly without hesitation. This helps show how well they can recognize high-frequency words automatically, which is key for becoming fluent readers (Simms & Marzano, 2019). Teachers may also watch how well students use sight words in their writing or during guided reading.

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Sight words are taught using lots of repetition, games, and visual strategies. The Literacy Essentials also recommend integrating sight word instruction within broader phonics and word recognition strategies to promote automaticity and fluency (Michigan Department of Education, n.d.). Words are often introduced a few at a time, with plenty of reviews built in. Some programs teach students to “say it, spell it, write it, and say it again” to build memory. Teachers also point out when a word doesn’t follow the rules, so students know it needs to be memorized rather than sounded out (Mesmer, 2019).

# data[].attributes.body
Graves, M. F., Juel, C., & Graves, B. B. (2011). Teaching reading in the 21st century (5th ed.). Pearson.

Mesmer, H. A. E. (2019). Tools for matching readers to texts: Research-based practices. Guilford Press.

Michigan Department of Education. (n.d.). Literacy essentials. https://literacyessentials.org/

Simms, M., & Marzano, R. J. (2019). Assessing and developing reading fluency: A teacher's guide. Solution Tree.

Vander Kolk, B. (2025, March). Lecture notes on phonics and sight words. Foundations of Literacy course, Cornerstone University.

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Reading fluency means being able to read smoothly, accurately, and with expression. It’s made up of several components: understanding print concepts, phonemic awareness, decoding words using phonics, and quickly recognizing sight words (Vander Kolk, 2025). Fluent readers don’t just decode, they read in a way that sounds natural, using rhythm and intonation to support meaning.

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When students first start reading, they tend to focus all their attention on sounding out words, which can make their reading sound slow and choppy. Because so much energy is spent on decoding, they often have a harder time understanding what they’ve read (Vander Kolk, 2025). Over time, with practice, they begin to recognize words automatically and decode more quickly, which frees up their attention for comprehension and expression (Graves et al., 2011).

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To evaluate fluency, teachers often use oral reading assessments. A common method is the Oral Reading Fluency (ORF) test, where the student reads a passage aloud for one minute. The teacher notes how many words are read correctly, subtracting any errors. This helps track accuracy, rate, and expression—all essential components of fluent reading (Simms & Marzano, 2019).

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Fluency improves through regular and supported practice. Fluency builds when students repeatedly engage with texts that match their reading level, receive feedback, and are guided in developing expressive reading habits like prosody and pacing (Michigan Department of Education, n.d.). Students need to become automatic with decoding and word recognition so they can shift their focus to reading expressively. Teachers can help by modeling fluent reading during read-alouds, guiding students to notice punctuation, phrasing, and pitch (Vander Kolk, 2025). Strategies like paired reading, audio-assisted reading, and repeated readings are effective, especially when students have strong reading models to follow (Mesmer, 2019).

# data[].attributes.body
Graves, M. F., Juel, C., & Graves, B. B. (2011). Teaching reading in the 21st century (5th ed.). Pearson.

Mesmer, H. A. E. (2019). Tools for matching readers to texts: Research-based practices. Guilford Press.

Michigan Department of Education. (n.d.). Literacy essentials. https://literacyessentials.org/

Simms, M., & Marzano, R. J. (2019). Assessing and developing reading fluency: A teacher's guide. Solution Tree.

Vander Kolk, B. (2025, March 24 & 31). Lecture notes on reading fluency and comprehension. Foundations of Literacy course, Cornerstone University.

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Oral language is the system through which we use spoken words to express knowledge, ideas, and feelings. It is a foundational skill for literacy, influencing a child’s ability to think, read, and communicate effectively. Oral language encompasses vocabulary, sentence structure, storytelling, and the use of figurative language. Proficiency in oral language is essential, as it serves as a vital tool for thought and meaning-making in both social and academic contexts (Vander Kolk, 2025).

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Children begin developing oral language through early and frequent exposure to rich, child-directed speech. Children acquire language naturally when they are immersed in environments filled with responsive, meaningful talk. This development includes growth in vocabulary, the ability to understand and construct sentences, comprehend and follow narratives, and grasp figurative language like similes and metaphors (Vander Kolk, 2025). As children progress, dialogic interactions further deepen their oral language skills and cognitive abilities (Simms & Marzano, 2019).

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Oral language can be assessed through both informal and formal methods. Informally, educators observe students during discussions, story retelling, or group conversations. Formal tools might include structured oral language assessments or checklists that monitor vocabulary development, sentence construction, and narrative skills. These evaluations may look at a student’s ability to engage in accountable talk, participate in dialogue, and use language to convey and comprehend complex ideas.

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Teaching oral language requires intentional, rich linguistic environments. Teachers must model and encourage sophisticated vocabulary and sentence structures. Strategies include interactive read-alouds, where teachers pause to discuss vocabulary and ideas, as well as dialogic reading, where students are invited to respond to and question the text (Vander Kolk, 2025). Teachers can enhance learning through paraphrasing students’ thoughts, introducing figurative language, and supporting peer discussions through book clubs and literature circles. These group interactions help students practice accountable talk, collaborate in meaning-making, and deepen their comprehension and communication skills (Mesmer, 2019; Michigan Department of Education, n.d.).

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Graves, M. F., Juel, C., & Graves, B. B. (2011). Teaching reading in the 21st century: Motivating all learners (5th ed.). Pearson.

Mesmer, H. A. E. (2019). Tools for matching readers to texts: Research-based practices. Guilford Press.

Michigan Department of Education. (n.d.). Essential instructional practices in early literacy: Prekindergarten. https://literacyessentials.org

Simms, R. L., & Marzano, R. J. (2019). Assessing and developing reading fluency: A teacher's guide. Solution Tree.

Vander Kolk, B. (2025, February 19 and 25). Class lectures on oral language. Foundations of Literacy Course, Cornerstone University.