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The two reliefs are from the Kushan Gandhara workshop, while the piece on the right is a fresco from a cave in Kizil. The piece on the bottom left is a part of a collection of reliefs from a Stupa. Stupas were used in Buddhism for worship purposes and were said to contain the actual cremated remains of The Buddha in the middle.

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Parinirvana Scene, Gandhara, Grey Schist, Kushan, 2nd to 3rd Century CE (TOP) vs Four Scenes from the Life of the Buddha: Parinirvana scene, Gandhara, Grey Schist, Kushan, 2nd to 3rd Century CE(BOTTOM) vs Parinirvana Scene, Fresco, Kizil, 5th-8th Century CE (RIGHT)

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Parinirvana Scene, Gandhara, Grey Schist, Kushan, 2nd to 3rd Century CE (TOP) vs Four Scenes from the Life of the Buddha: Parinirvana scene, Gandhara, Grey Schist, Kushan, 2nd to 3rd Century CE(BOTTOM) vs Parinirvana Scene, Fresco, Kizil, 5th-8th Century CE (RIGHT)

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The artwork on the top left is a high-relief sculpture, carved out of grey schist, depicting a parinirvana scene. This work is from the Kushan dynasty specifically the Gandhara workshop. Parinirvana scenes show the death of the Buddha. We know this is a parinirvana scene because Buddha is lying on his side and his followers surround him, mourning his death. The mourners are very dramatic, wailing out in pain. The dramatic cries are a trademark of nomadic art styles. Shala trees are seen popping out from the background. The sculpture is quite damaged with several chunks missing, including the Buddha’s face. On the left side of the relief, there is a large Greek-style column with a Corinthian capital on top. This feature is significant because it shows how there was interaction between the Greeks and the Kushans. The dramatic cries of the followers also show a connection with nomadic groups. The relief on the bottom left is also a parinirvana scene from the Kushan dynasty Gandhara workshop but is in way better condition. Because of its condition, it was likely made after the first relief. It depicts the Buddha leaning on his side, and his figures dramatically mourning his death above him. These figures appear to be deities from Hinduism, called Devas. Devas were often brought into Buddhist art and depicted very similarly to Bodhisattvas. This art was certainly influenced by nomadic and Greek art styles, but it was heavily influenced by Indian art styles too, as seen with the inclusion of the Devas as Buddha’s followers.

The third artwork on the right is a fresco from Cave 224 at Kizil and it’s one of the coolest pieces I learned about this semester. Like the two reliefs, it is also a parinirvana scene, but it is depicted very differently. This scene has a strong German influence, meaning people from Kizil were interacting with people in Germany! Whether it was in person, or through trading goods on the Silk Road, this is huge! We know that this is German because of the coffin. The coffin has an animal head on it and is designed exactly the same as the coffins that were being used in Germany. The most puzzling piece is the fact that there is a coffin being shown in the first place, as Buddha was cremated, and his remains given to his followers. Moving up the painting, there is a balcony scene with people watching over the process. These people are losing their minds (ding ding ding! Nomadic/Kushan art style!!!) Balcony scenes were very common in Indian Buddhist art. So not only is this fresco influenced by Nomadic and Indian culture, but also German culture!

All three artworks are significant because they all show the interconnectedness and interactions between different groups of people during that time. All three pieces are heavily influenced by other cultures, with each of them having a “trademark,” feature of the styles they were influenced by. The two works from Gandhara have influences from Greek, nomadic, and Indian art styles, while the work from Kizil has all of those- plus, influences from German art style! This is significant and shows that over time, people were becoming more and more diverse, and Buddhism was becoming more inclusive, all thanks to the Silk Road.

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The sculpture from the Kushan Dynasty is greatly influenced by Greek Hellenistic culture. The Hellenistic style is known for its veristic style portraits, portraying "extreme realism."

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Padmapani/Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva, Fresco, Cave 1, Ajanta, 2nd and 3rd Centuries CE  VS Emancipated Buddha, Grey Schist, Gandhara, Kushan, 1st-3rd Centuries CE

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Padmapani/Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva, Fresco, Cave 1, Ajanta, 2nd and 3rd Centuries CE  VS Emancipated Buddha, Grey Schist, Gandhara, Kushan, 1st-3rd Centuries CE

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Buddhist art evolved from the Kushan Dynasty to the Gupta period through artistic styles they were influenced by and their motivations for creating their art. The Kushan art from Gandhara was heavily influenced by Greek culture, while art from the Gupta period was influenced by Indian culture. In addition, the motivations of the people creating the art shifted from the Kushans starting to digest the idea of Buddhism to trying to earn good karma for creating their work in the Gupta Period.

The Kushans were obsessed with the Greek Art style and replicated it often in their work, as clearly seen in the Emancipated Buddha sculpture. The sculpture is made of grey schist, the typical sculpture material of Gandhara. Buddha is here seen basically withering away. His rib cage is bulging out of his skin and where his eyes are supposed to be is just sunken in sockets. This extreme style is directly from Greek culture, specifically the Hellenistic period. The Kushans were the first to depict the Buddha in human form because they needed him to be similar to us, but God-like. It was easier for them to understand his teachings, and for travelers on the Silk Road to understand what they were looking at.

During the Gupta period at Ajanta, Buddhism was flourishing and spreading, and people were really starting to reflect and dissect the Buddha’s teachings. They began to create Buddhist art to earn good karma, making the creation of the art more meaningful to them than the actual art piece itself. In addition, they shifted to more Indian art styles. Seen in Cave 1 at Ajanta, is Padmapani, otherwise known as Avalokitesvara. Avalokitesvara is the Bodhisattva of compassion and is always represented holding a lotus flower. Avalokitesvara is depicted with a red/dark outline, white highlights, arched eyebrows, and chubby/plumb fertility goddess-inspired body proportions, typical of Indian art. The depiction of Bodhisattvas seems to become more popular also, possibly due to Buddhism evolving and growing.

The Buddhist art created during the Gupta period evolved from the art created during the Kushan dynasty due to artistic styles, motivations for creating the work, and the evolution of Buddhism itself.

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The Mogao Caves at Dunhuang are also known as The Caves of a Thousand Buddhas and contain the world's largest collection of Buddhist art. In the caves, scholars have found the only complete Tripitaka.

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Maitreya Seated in the Tushita Heaven, Fresco, Cave 224, Kizil, 5-8th Century CE VS North Wall and Maitreya, Cave 275, Mongao Caves, Dunhuang, 5th Century CE

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Maitreya Seated in the Tushita Heaven, Fresco, Cave 224, Kizil, 5-8th Century CE VS North Wall and Maitreya, Cave 275, Mongao Caves, Dunhuang, 5th Century CE

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While Cave 224 at Kizil and Cave 275 at the Mogao Caves share few similarities such as layout and the presence of Maitreya Buddha, many differences between them illustrate the beginning of the Sinicization of Buddhist ideas. Looking at the floor plans of the caves, it is obvious that they are similar. Both plans are rectangular, but the Cave at Kizil reflects closer to older chaitya halls in India. The Cave at Dunhuang has a more open floor plan. Both caves would have been very dark and viewed with the light emitted from candles. Both caves have depictions of Maitreya Buddha, which is typically for this period. MAPPO, a new age of Buddhism characterized by the disappearance of Buddhist teachings, led to Maitreya Buddha cults popping up everywhere. We are certain that these are Maitreya because of the typical iconography such as the slightly crossed legs and a hand pointed upwards towards the Tushita heavens. While both caves are dedicated to Maitreya, the stylistic depictions in each cave are very different. We discussed in class that the half-circle fresco seen when leaving Cave 224 resembles a “Kronk” body with larger shoulders and a small torso. This style is typical of Indian styles of body proportions. Other attributes of the Indian painting style in the fresco include the highly arched eyebrows, long nose, and pouted lips. The fresco also has a lot of white pigment, which is also typically of the Indian painting style as it helps highlight certain areas in the dim candlelight. The sculptural Maitreya in the Mogao Caves also borrows from Indian styles, but it has a friendlier tone. The form is slightly pudgier and has an archaic smile. There are also more Chinese elements incorporated into the design such as the Chinese lions on either side of Maitreya and the presence of flying drapery in the background. Both Maitreyas are ornately decorated with jewelry and surrounded by chaos in the background. Both caves also use a spearmint green color, but the Mogao Caves have more red colors.

Comparing these two Caves is important because it shows that the Chinese were starting to embrace Buddhism. We know this because they started to incorporate their style with Western images of the Buddha. In terms of the Silk Road, this information is very important because it shows just how far and fast items and ideas moved on the Silk Road. This proves how important and powerful the Silk Road was.

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This sculpture is a high-relief sculpture made of grey schist. Many Greek influences are seen, such as the wet drapery style of depicting clothing. Many Indian influences are also seen, like the inclusion of Hindu deities, Brahma and Indra

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Maitreya, Avalokitesvara, Indra, and Brahma, Grey Schist, Gandhara, Kushan Dynasty, 1-3rd Centuries 

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Maitreya, Avalokitesvara, Indra, and Brahma, Grey Schist, Gandhara, Kushan Dynasty, 1-3rd Centuries 

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Around this time, the Xiongnu were increasingly gaining power in Asia. After almost facing defeat against Xiongnu, the Yuezhi people fled to the west. They settled in Bartica, which was controlled by the Greeks. These Yuezhi people would come to be known as the Kushans. The Kushans thrived and took control of this area. They embraced Buddhism and funded many projects that contributed to its spread into East Asia. Two workshops were funded in Gandhara and Mathura to produce Buddhist art, one is heavily influenced by Greek art, and the other is inspired by Indian art.

This artwork best illustrates art on the Silk Road during the reign of the Kushan Empire because of how inclusive it is. The style the figures are depicted is influenced by Greek culture, while the inclusion of Hindu deities shows a strong connection with India. Shakyamuni Buddha is the focal point in the middle of the sculpture and is larger than the other figures (hierarchy scale). Buddha is sitting upon a lotus flower, under the Bodhi tree, surrounded by Bodhisattvas. His hands are placed in a mudra symbolizing the spinning of the wheel, or the teachings of the Buddha being set into motion. On the left is Maitreya, who lives in the Tushita Heaven until he is reborn into the world, becoming Buddha of the Future. On the right is Avalokitesvara, the bodhisattva of compassion. Behind those three figures are Indra and Brahma, deities of the Hindu religion, supporting the views of the Buddha.

It's important to note that the Kushans were the first people to show the Buddha in human form. Before the Kushans, Buddha was depicted through symbols like the dharma wheel. The inclusivity may have come about naturally, as the Kushans were looking to other cultures for how to accurately create the human figure of the Buddha, as well as the Lakshana. Through the Gandharan and Mathura workshops, the Kushans were able to create this human-like Buddha, making the religion more digestible to outsiders. This not only spread Buddhism but also developed a great marketing tactic for the Kushans to gain donations from merchants traveling on the Silk Road.

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The Dian people's use of the elements of art and the principles of design are very impressive, as seen in this animal plaque. This piece strongly uses positive and negative shapes and form to create an an engaging composition.

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Animal plaque, Bronze, Dian Kingdom, Western Han, 2nd century BCE

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Animal plaque, Bronze, Dian Kingdom, Western Han, 2nd century BCE

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This plaque comes from the Dian people who were located in Southern China. The reddish-green color indicates that it is made of bronze and was most likely cast using the lost wax technique. The scale is extremely small but still highly detailed and naturalistic. Within the piece is a tiger with an ox laid across her back and cubs surrounding them. The tiger is shown with large sharp teeth and the ox has long horns emphasising their natural weapons in combat.

The Dian people were very violent nomadic people who regularly engaged in human sacrifice, valued warfare, and glorified violence. They owned slaves and were highly skilled artisans working with bronze. While the Dian people’s style of weaponry and violence stands out in this plaque, the intertwining style of animal forms is from Eurasian Steppe culture. However, I would argue that animal combat scenes in general are a universal motif. If I saw two animals fighting to the death in nature, I would cry my eyes out; however, I think previous groups of people would have been inspired. I recently watched a hawk try to eat another hawk in my front yard (I went outside and saved it! No death!). While I was very traumatized, I was also fascinated. The hawk launched the other one into the side of our house to get the upper hand in the fight. The hunting skills the hawk had were impressive. I’m sure previous groups of people saw this type of animal combat too and were inspired to create art based on that theme and favored the way the nomadic peoples were depicting it.

spacin

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Incense burner found in Emperor Wu’s Mausoleum in Maoling. The incense burner lid design was based on Daoist ideas of immortality.  It was rumored that the Isles of the Immortals were in the Eastern Sea and could only be seen by children

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Mountain lidded incense burner, Gilded bronze, Maoling (Mausoleum of Emperor Wu), Western Han Dynasty, 2nd century BCE

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Mountain lidded incense burner, Gilded bronze, Maoling (Mausoleum of Emperor Wu), Western Han Dynasty, 2nd century BCE

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This incense burner was found in Maoling in Emperor Wu’s Mausoleum. Emperor Wu, also known as Han Wudi, helped the Han Dynasty grow and solidify their power. During this time the Silk Road was thriving with 2 different routes, one over the Tarim basin and one below. The discovery of a second route led to even more intermixing of cultures, goods, and ideas. This incense burner is significant because it shows the Chinese entanglements with the Xiongnu.

The incense burner was crafted out of bronze and gilded primarily in gold. The gold surface gives the burner a shiny, polished, and expensive appearance. The emphasized vertical form adds an overall calming tone. On the base, there are intertwined, contoured dragons with their mouths pointed up toward the stem, possibly giving the illusion they are biting or holding the stem up. There are also small inscriptions on the rim of the base. Moving up, the stem is divided into four sections by horizontal lines, giving a naturalistic impression of bamboo. Upon the top of the stem, there are three dragons. The dragons are supporting the bowl of the incense burner with their heads. The bottom bowl of the incense burner is divided up into triangular sections. In each section, there are contoured animal relief motifs with terminating horns. The animals could be birds, griffins, or stags. Continuing up the burner, there is a register of low-relief dragons circling the top of the bowl. On the bottom of the lid, there is another register containing inscriptions. Large crashing waves circulate the middle of the lid and mountains come out the top.

Emperor Wu’s incense burner functioned by releasing the smoke from the incense out from the holes in the mountains on the lid. This gave the illusion the mountains were floating in misty clouds above the water. This imagery is from Daoist beliefs that were being spread throughout China. Immortality cults began forming and many people believed there was an island covered in mountains hidden in the clouds where there could be an elixir of immortality.

The contoured animal forms and terminating horns on the bottom of the incense burner were popular motifs in Eurasian Steppe tribes, like the Xiongnu, and are completely foreign to the Chinese. Dragons and the mountain subject matter are popular motifs in China. Seeing both nomadic and Chinese motifs side by side on the object shows how closely these two groups of people were entangled.

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This bronze vessel was created using the section mold technique and the lost wax technique. This is one of the earliest examples of the lost wax technique being used in China. 

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Hu, Bronze, Chu (Xiasi), Spring and Autumn Period, 6th Century BCE

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Hu, Bronze, Chu (Xiasi), Spring and Autumn Period, 6th Century BCE

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The Eastern Zhou period is divided into two periods: the spring and autumns(771-476 BCE) and the warring states (475-221 BCE). The Chu State was located in southern China and was one of the three superpower states. The people living in the Chu state were extremely into art and mythology. Some(John Major) believe that the Chu people may have descended from earlier groups of people that may have been related to the Eurasian Steppe people.

Many, many bronze vessels were stuffed into Chu tombs including a hu that belonged to a minister. A hu is a vessel used for holding wine during rituals. This hu is kind of mind blowing! It was created using the section mold technique and the lost wax technique. This is one of the earliest examples of the lost wax technique being used in China- and no one knows how the Chinese learned it! The lost wax technique was invented in Mesopotamia and traveled all the way to south China. The technique was used to craft the highly decorated lid, handles, and feet. The handles and feet contain theriomorphic animals that resemble taotie but have antlers that terminate and resemble Eurasian Steppe art. The section mold technique was used to create the vessel base of the hu. The section mold technique was invented in the Jin State and used at the Houma Foundry, located in Northern China. The Jin State and other northern states were stealing ideas from the Steppe cultures and the Chu state was stealing ideas from the Steppe through those northern states.

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The stag on the left from Pazyryk was created using cedar wood, leather, and lacquer to keep the leather in place. The Scythian Pontic-Caspian Steppe stag in the center was created using gold and the stag on the right from Filippovka was created using wood and small nails to bind everything together, then decorated with gold, silver, and bronze.

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Stag shaped finial, Cedar and leather, Kurgan 2, Pazyryk, Altai Culture, 5th century BCE; Shield Emblem, Gold, Greek workmanship, Pontic-Caspian Steppe, 7th Century BCE; Stag, Wood, gold, silver and bronze, Kurgan 1, Filippovka, Sarmatian, 4th century BCE 

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Stag shaped finial, Cedar and leather, Kurgan 2, Pazyryk, Altai Culture, 5th century BCE; Shield Emblem, Gold, Greek workmanship, Pontic-Caspian Steppe, 7th Century BCE; Stag, Wood, gold, silver and bronze, Kurgan 1, Filippovka, Sarmatian, 4th century BCE 

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The nomadic, warlike people from Pazyryk, Filippovka, and the Pontic-Caspian Steppe share many similarities like their love for designing animals in their art and decoration. They also share a love for stags. When thinking of stags, it’s important to think of elk rather than white-tailed deer. It is unknown why these nomadic cultures loved stags, but it is speculated that they may have had a protective function or acted as vehicles in the afterlife.

While looking at the stag-shaped finial from Pazyryk, the Scythian stag shield emblem, and the Sarmatian stag sculpture, it is clear that each group of people interpreted the stag differently due to influence and trade from other cultures around them. While looking at the Scythian stag emblem, it is clear they have been in contact with the Greeks. The proportions of the stag are accurate and naturalistic, but the antlers are large and terminate along its back. This was clearly made by the Greeks and sold to the Scythians. Looking at the Filippovka stag, they are replicating the idea of large antlers that terminate, but the antlers on their stag grow vertically. The craftmanship isn’t as clean and the body is less proportionate. The stag is more stylized and there is embossing along the shoulders and legs. When looking at the stag from Pazyryk, they are returning to the more naturalistic, proportionate stag imagery. This stag looks more elk-like. The craftmanship has increased tremendously and that leads many people to believe they were also influenced by peoples from farther west of the Altai mountains, such as the Greeks.

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The pectoral was most likely made using the lost wax technique and the plaques were made by hammering/shaping the gold. 

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Pectoral, Gold, Greek workmanship, Scythian/Greek style, 4th century BCE and Stag-shaped plaques, Gold, Kurgan 1, Filippovka, 4th century BCE

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Pectoral, Gold, Greek workmanship, Scythian/Greek style, 4th century BCE and Stag-shaped plaques, Gold, Kurgan 1, Filippovka, 4th century BCE

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The Scythians and the Sarmatians were both nomadic, warlike peoples of the Eurasian Steppe near the Black Sea. They spoke similar languages and had a love for depicting animals in their art. Both cultures believed in an afterlife, evident in their creation of burial mounds known as kurgans. Many of the objects found in both the kurgans of the Scythians and the Sarmatians were gold. Many of the gold objects seem to be functional objects. In the Sarmatian kurgans, many animal-shaped plaques were found. These plaques would attach to bowls made of natural materials like wood. In Scythian kurgans, gold jewelry was often found. An intricate pectoral created by the Greeks most likely to be sold to the Scythians, symbolizing many of the gold objects found in Scythian kurgans were influenced by the Greeks.

While they share many similarities, they are quite different. Studies have shown they have different skull structures. Scythians appear to come from a European descent, while the Sarmatians appear to come from a European and Asian descent. The Scythians were intermixing often with the Greeks which led to many of their objects being more naturalistic. As seen in the gold pectoral, many of the animals depicted are very detailed and proportional. The pectoral depicts animal combat on the bottom register, floral rosette motifs in the middle, and pastoral activities on the top. While the Sarmatians in Filippovka were also using animals in their art, they were viewing and creating them more stylistically. As seen in the gold stag-shaped plaques, the stags are twisted and contorted. On the left plaque, the stag has its head down in profile with its antlers terminating up into a raptor head. On the right plaque, the stag is in profile again, but its hoof/leg is contorted to come out of its back. These objects are significant because they show how different the Scythians and the Sarmatians were. While they appear to be very similar because they lived in similar areas, they were interpreting and intermixing with their surroundings differently.

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Greek crafted gold Scythian comb made using the lost wax technique.

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Comb with Battle Scene, Solokha Kurgan, Gold, Scythian/Greek Style, 5th Century BCE

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Comb with Battle Scene, Solokha Kurgan, Gold, Scythian/Greek Style, 5th Century BCE

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The Solokha Comb was crafted in the 5th century using gold and the lost wax casting technique. It was found in a kurgan in modern day Ukraine. It was most likely crafted by the Greeks, who often traded with the Scythians. Although it looks like it was sculpted in the round, they are actually reliefs on each side that were attached together. The subject matter contains three figures, with the one in the middle riding a horse and another horse on the ground laying on its back. The figures are slightly stylized because the proportions are a bit off. The heads are huge! They almost look like bobble heads. It is a battle scene, with two of the characters attacking a man and the horse on the ground. Their swords create movement throughout the piece by acting as leading lines and guiding the viewer through the piece. The comb is highly detailed and features many Greek elements like the Corinthian helmet on the horseman figure. Under the battle scene, there is a repetition of five crouching lions.

The imagery on this comb has been interpreted as possibly depicting a story told by Herodotus in Book 4. There were three brothers, Scylas, Octamasades, and Oricus. Scylas was murdered (beheaded?) by his brother Octamasades. People wanted Scylas dead because he really really liking Greek culture and was sneaking off to do Dionysianism rituals instead of being a King/leader. Many people believe the horseman is Octamasades and the man behind him is Oricus. The figure they are fighting is assumed to then be Scylas. Many people also believe the kurgan this comb was found in may have belonged to Octamasades and Oricus (what a power move to have a com depicting you killing your brother in your burial chamber).

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Mummified man found at Cherchen, also known as "David."

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Cherchen Man, Tomb 2 at Chechen, Tarim Basin, 1000 BCE

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Cherchen Man, Tomb 2 at Chechen, Tarim Basin, 1000 BCE

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As an art history student, I don’t think it is fair for modern-day political issues like nationalism and the desire to control territory to influence our interpretation and access to archaeological discoveries. Educated people deserve to have access to these materials to accurately record and learn from the past. When archaeologists uncover groundbreaking historical information, society is able to better understand and preserve their cultural heritages and also learn from past civilizations. People need to feel connected to each other and the past. In the case of the Tarim Mummies' DNA being concealed by the Chinese government, an ethnic culture could better understand their identity if their lineage is linked to them. As a non-confrontational people pleaser, I slightly understand why China would want to keep the Tarim Mummies top secret. The Uyghur and the Han are both claiming ownership of the mummies and creating a serious divide within that area. When it is finally revealed what ethnic culture they belong to, it could possibly cause even more tension. The Chinese government has been trying to assimilate the Uyghurs into the Chinese population. The Uyghurs have wished to separate themselves from China and connect themselves and their culture to their homeland. The discovery that the mummies belong to either group could be problematic. If the mummies are neither, that could also create problems in other areas of the world. In addition, I could see China wanting to keep the Tarim Mummies under wraps to curtail any thoughts of white supremacy or master race extremist values.