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The Chicano Civil Rights Movement was an event in the 1960’s that gave way to a powerful shift in bilingual education. The main cause of this movement was due to the schooling struggles that Mexican Americans were facing because of unequal learning conditions.

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In 1963, the first bilingual elementary program was launched in Miami Florida. Despite those who did not agree, the Coral Way Elementary School program continued to flourish and positively influence the future of bilingual education in America.

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President Lyndon B. Johnson signing the Civil Rights Act on July 2, 1964. 

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1964 Social Movement that influenced bilingual education

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1964 Social Movement that influenced bilingual education

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The social movement with the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed discrimination and at the same time, Title VI that was part of the Civil Rights Act became the initiative event for bilingual education in the United States.

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Ralph Yarborough was a democratic Texas senator who served on the US Senate from 1957 to 1971. In 1967, he introduced a bill that recommended that schools adopt a bilingual education curriculum. The bill also recommended funding to support such a program. A year later this bill became the Bilingual Education Act.

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Ralph Webster Yarborough (June 8, 1903 - January 27, 1996) was an American politician and lawyer. He was a Texas Democratic politician who served in the United States Senate from 1957 to 1971 and was a leader of the progressive wing of his party. Along with Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson and Speaker of the House Sam Rayburn, but unlike most Southern congressmen, Yarborough refused to support the 1956 Southern Manifesto, which called for resistance to the racial integration of schools and other public places. Yarborough voted in favor of the Civil Rights Acts of 1957, 1960, 1964, and 1968, as well as the 24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the confirmation of Thurgood Marshall to the U.S. Supreme Court. Yarborough was the only senator from a state that was part of the Confederacy to vote for all five bills.

Born in Chandler, Texas, Yarborough practiced law in El Paso after graduating from the University of Texas School of Law. He became an assistant to Texas Attorney General James V. Allred in 1931 and specialized in prosecuting major oil companies. Allred was later elected governor of Texas and appointed Yarborough to a judgeship in Travis County. After serving in the United States Army during World War II, Yarborough repeatedly ran for governor, opposing the conservative faction of Democrats led by Allan Shivers. Price Daniel resigned from the Senate after winning the 1956 gubernatorial election, and Yarborough won the special election to serve the remainder of Daniel's term. He won election to a full term in 1958 and was reelected again in 1964, defeating Harris County Republican Party Chairman George H. W. Bush in the latter race.

Yarborough was known as "Smilin' Ralph" and used the slogan "Let's put the jam on the lower shelf so the little people can reach it" in his campaigns. He staunchly supported the " Great Society" legislation that encompassed Medicare and Medicaid, the War on Poverty, federal support for higher education and veterans, and other programs. He also co-wrote the Endangered Species Act and was the most powerful proponent of the Big Thicket National Preserve. Yarborough criticized the Vietnam War and supported Robert F. Kennedy in the 1968 presidential election until the latter's assassination.

In 1970, Yarborough lost re-nomination to fellow Democrat Lloyd Bentsen, who campaigned as relatively more conservative. Yarborough attempted to win the 1972 Democratic primary for Texas's other Senate seat, but lost the primary to Barefoot Sanders. Yarborough did not seek public office after 1972.

Yarborough was born in Chandler in Henderson County west of Tyler, the seventh of nine children of Charles Richard Yarborough and the former Nannie Jane Spear. He was appointed to the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1919 but dropped out to become a teacher. Yarborough instead attended Sam Houston State Teachers College and transferred to the University of Texas at Austin. Yarborough graduated from the University of Texas Law School in 1927 and practiced law in El Paso until he was hired as an assistant attorney general in 1931 by the state Attorney General and later Governor James V. Allred. From 1923 to 1926 he served with the 36th Infantry Division of the Texas Army National Guard, reaching the rank of Staff Sergeant. After attending teaching school he taught for three years in Delta County and Martin Springs. He spent one year working and studying foreign trade and international relations in Europe, mostly as assistant secretary for the American Chamber of Commerce in Berlin, Germany.

Yarborough was an expert in Texas land law and specialized in prosecuting major oil companies that violated production limits or failed to pay oil royalties to the Permanent School Fund for drilling on public lands. He earned renown for winning a million dollar judgment against the Mid-Kansas Oil and Gas Company for oil royalties, the second largest judgment ever in Texas at the time. After Allred was elected governor, he appointed Yarborough judge of the 53rd Judicial District serving Travis County, the county seat of which is Austin. Yarborough was elected to a four-year term later the same year. Yarborough's first run for state office resulted in a third-place finish in the Democratic primary for state attorney general in 1938 against the sitting lieutenant governor. Yarborough served in the U.S. Army during World War II after 1943 and achieved the rank of lieutenant colonel.

Before being elected a senator, Yarborough served on the Lower Colorado River Authority's board of directors and lectured on land law at University of Texas School of Law in 1935. He also served as a presiding judge for the Third Administrative Judicial District of Texas. From 1947 to 1951 he was a member of the Texas Board of Law Examiners.

Yarborough was urged to run again for state attorney general in 1952, and he planned to do so until he received a personal affront from Governor Allan Shivers who told him not to run. Texas Secretary of State John Ben Shepperd resigned in the spring of 1952 and was elected attorney general that year. He served two two-year terms. Angered at Shivers, Yarborough ran in the gubernatorial primaries in 1952 and 1954 against the conservative Shivers, drawing support from labor unions and liberals. Yarborough denounced the " Shivercrats" for veterans' fraud in the Texas Veterans Land Board of the Texas General Land Office and for endorsing in 1952 and 1956 the Republican Eisenhower/ Nixon ticket, instead of the Democrat Adlai Stevenson of Illinois. Shivers portrayed Yarborough as an integrationist supported by communists and unions. The 1954 election was particularly nasty in its race-baiting by Shivers as it was the year that Brown v. Board of Education was decided, and Shivers made the most of the court decision in order to play on voters' fears. Yarborough, however, nearly upset Shivers.

In 1956, Yarborough made it to the primary runoff for governor against U.S. Senator Price Daniel. Texas historian J. Evetts Haley ran in the primary to the political right of both Daniel and Yarborough but lost. After being endorsed by former opponent and former Governor W. Lee O'Daniel, and making aggressive attacks on the Shivers-backed candidate, Yarborough looked to win the runoff, but instead he trailed Daniel by about nine thousand votes. It is believed (by Yarborough, his supporters, and biographer) that the election was stolen because of irregular voting in East Texas and that Yarborough really won the runoff by thirty thousand. Nevertheless, Yarborough's runs for governor had raised his stature and popularity in the state as he had been campaigning for six straight years for office.

When Daniel resigned from the Senate in 1957 to become governor, Yarborough ran in the special election to fill the empty seat. With no runoff then required, he needed only a plurality of votes to win. Ironically, his many runs for governor made him the best positioned candidate. Yarborough won the special election with 38 percent of the vote to join fellow Texan Lyndon B. Johnson in the Senate. The runner-up in the race with 30 percent of the vote was U.S. Representative Martin Dies, Jr., known for his investigations into communist infiltration. A Republican lawyer from Houston, Thad Hutcheson, ran third with 23 percent of the ballots cast.

James Boren served as Yarborough's campaign manager and chief of staff. In office, Ralph Yarborough was a very different kind of Southern senator. He did not support the Southern Manifesto opposing integration and supported national Democratic goals of more funding for health care, education, and the environment. Himself a veteran, he worked to expand the G.I. Bill to Cold War veterans. Yarborough's first major legislative victory was the successful passage of the National Defense Education Act of 1958, which began federal funding of loans and grants to universities and their students.

In the 1958 Democratic primary, Yarborough easily defeated the conservative William A. Blakley, a millionaire businessman from Dallas who was backed by Daniel. Blakley had been the interim senator from January to April 1957 but did not run in the special election in which Yarborough defeated Dies and Hutcheson. Instead Blakley was appointed senator again in 1961 and ran in another special election, only to be defeated by the Republican John Tower.

Shortly after the passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, on July 9, Johnson nominated former Florida governor LeRoy Collins to a position in the Community Relations Service, which was designed to mediate racial disputes. Strom Thurmond, the most senior southern member of the Commerce Committee, bitterly opposed Collins's nomination, based on a speech that Collins made in Thurmond's home state in which he said that southern leaders' "harsh and intemperate" language unnecessarily stoked racial unrest. Commerce Chairman Warren Magnuson was aware that he had the votes in favor of the nomination, but had failed to get the required quorum. Thurmond, aware of Magnuson's struggles, stationed himself outside of the committee door, physically blocking any entry by later-arriving senators.

Later, Yarborough arrived, and was blocked from entering. The only southern senator to have voted for the Civil Rights Act, Yarborough joked to Thurmond, "Come on in, Strom, and help us get a quorum." Thurmond responded, "If I can keep you out, you won't go in, and if you can drag me in, I'll stay there." Thurmond and Yarborough were both 61 years old, but Thurmond was 30 pounds lighter and much fitter. After some light scuffling, both senators removed their suit jackets. Thurmond overpowered Yarborough, whom he managed to bring to the floor. "Tell me to release you, Ralph, and I will," said Thurmond. Yarborough refused. Another senator approached, suggesting that they stop before one of them had a heart attack. Eventually, the fight was broken up by Magnuson, who growled, "Come on, you fellows, let's break this up." Yarborough said, "I have to yield to the order of my chairman." Thurmond and Yarborough composed themselves and entered the committee chamber.

Collins was nominated by a vote of 16 to 1.

Yarborough rode in the Dallas motorcade in which John F. Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963. He was in a convertible with Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson, Lady Bird Johnson (who sat between Yarborough and Johnson), United States Secret Service agent Rufus Youngblood, and Hurchel Jacks of the Texas State Highway Patrol. From the start of the President's tour of Texas, Yarborough considered that he had been slighted by some of the arrangements and so, in the early stages, refused to ride with Johnson, despite repeated pleas by Youngblood. His decision, underpinned by a long-standing feud with Governor Connally, an old friend and erstwhile ally of Johnson, caused embarrassment to both the President and Vice President and drew considerable diversionary attention in the press. According to Johnson, Kennedy considered Yarborough's behavior "an outrage" and there is some evidence of a heated exchange between Kennedy and Johnson the night before the President's death. According to Johnson's biographer, Robert Caro, the following morning in Fort Worth, Kennedy intervened directly with Yarborough, making clear that, if he valued his friendship, he would ride with Johnson when the party reached Dallas. Then, during the short flight from Fort Worth, Kennedy persuaded Connally to give Yarborough a more prominent role in some of the later functions planned in Austin. In the ensuing motorcade, the car carrying Yarborough and the Vice President was two cars behind the presidential limousine carrying Kennedy and Connally (who was seriously wounded during the attack on the President). In a later interview, Yarborough called the event, "the most tragic event of my life." Shortly after Johnson became president, Yarborough telephoned him in conciliatory and supportive terms.

In 1964, Yarborough again won the primary without a runoff and went on to general election victory with 56.2 percent in LBJ's 1964 Democratic landslide. His Republican Party (GOP) opponent was future president George H. W. Bush, who attacked Yarborough as a left-wing demagogue and for his vote in favor of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Yarborough denounced Bush as an extremist to the right of that year's GOP nominee for president Barry M. Goldwater and as a rich easterner and a carpetbagger trying to buy a Senate seat. It has since been learned that then-Governor Connally was covertly aiding Bush, instead of party nominee Yarborough, against President Johnson's wishes, by teaching Democrats the techniques of split ticket voting. In the same election, Connally defeated Bush's ticket-mate, Jack Crichton. In 1967, Yarborough was the first U.S. Senator to introduce the first bilingual education act.

In 1970, South Texan businessman and former Congressman Lloyd Bentsen won a 54 to 46 percent upset victory against Yarborough in the Democratic primary, when Yarborough was focusing on the expected second general election again against Bush. Bentsen played on voters' fears of societal breakdown and urban riots and made an issue of Yarborough's opposition to the Vietnam War. Bentsen said that Yarborough was a political antique. Said Bentsen, "It would be nice if Ralph Yarborough would vote for his state every once in a while." Bentsen went on to win the general election against Bush.

In 1972, Ralph Yarborough made a comeback effort to win the Democratic nomination for U.S. Senator as a challenger of Republican Senator John Tower, who as a young man had once circulated Ralph Yarborough stickers. Yarborough won the first round of the primary and came within 526 votes of winning the primary without the need for a runoff. Yarborough again made accusations of vote fraud from the conservative wing. He lost in the primary runoff to a former U.S. Attorney, Barefoot Sanders, in an anti-incumbent sweep after the Sharpstown Bank-stock Scandal despite neither being an incumbent nor involved at all with the scandal.

From 1973 to 1974 he served as a member of the Constitutional Revision Commission of Texas. From 1983 to 1987 he served as a member of the State Library and Archives Commission of Texas. He practiced law in Austin from 1971 until his death in 1996.

The University of Texas at Austin Press published a biography titled, Ralph W. Yarborough: The People's Senator, by Patrick L. Cox. It features a foreword written by liberal Senator Edward Kennedy ( D- MA).

The Yarborough Branch of the Austin Public Library was named in Ralph Yarborough's honor.

In October 1966, Yarborough introduced Senate Bill 5-3929 to establish a 75,000-acre national park to preserve the remaining natural and undisturbed areas of the Big Thicket in southeast Texas. Due in part to opposition from the lumber industry in the region, as well as vague and disputed definitions of what and where the Big Thicket actually was, it took seven years and another 27 Big Thicket bills until Congress established the Big Thicket National Preserve in 1974.

Yarborough was well known for his commitment to science. He favored the creation of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and in 1957 was on a subcommittee that began the investigation that resulted in NASA's creation. The following year, Yarborough voted in favor of the National Aeronautics and Space Act, citing the impact he believed the agency could have on his hometown of Houston.

Yarborough advocated more education in science and technology in schools throughout the country. In his biography, he wrote, "NASA helped push ahead progress in technology. The country's schools should be oriented towards developing technology and teaching science."

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Ralph Webster Yarborough (June 8, 1903 - January 27, 1996) was an American politician and lawyer. He was a Texas Democratic politician who served in the United States Senate from 1957 to 1971 and was a leader of the progressive wing of his party. Along with Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B.

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 Mexican workers crossing the border into Texas and have their papers checked. Source: Huffington Post

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1967 Language difficulties continued to hinder the education for many Spanish-speaking students

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1967 Language difficulties continued to hinder the education for many Spanish-speaking students

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U.S. Senator Ralph Yarborough of Texas introduces a bill to help school districts educate students with limited English speaking abilities - important issue in Texas and other Southwestern states because they were experiencing an increase in Mexican immigration.

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Jan. 2nd, 1968 Lyndon B. Johnson signs this bill into a law

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Jan. 2nd, 1968 Lyndon B. Johnson signs this bill into a law

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The bill recommended bilingual education including Spanish and other native languages and funding was designated for developing programs, training staff, and obtaining educational resources -- this would become the Bilingual Education Act of 1968.

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This legislation provided school districts with federal funds in order to establish educational programs for children with Limited English Speaking Ability (LESA). There were some states that were already providing these programs for students with limited English, however this was the first time that it was recognized by the U.S. government.

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Source: San Antonio Express-News Photograph Collection

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Five San Antonio teenagers give testimony at U.S. Commission on Civil Rights Hearing on Mexican-American problems in Chapel Auditorium at Our Lady of the Lake College. The United States Commission held these hearings for 5 days under the authority of Civil Rights Act of 1957. The problem was regarding civil rights problems of Mexican Americans in the five Southwestern states. One of them was about equal education including bilingualism.

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Student walkout in Crystal City, Texas. Source: San Antonio Express-News Photograph Collection / UTSA Special Collections

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Students posed around high school sign during a boycott in Crystal City, Texas on Dec. 22, 1969. Source: San Antonio Light Photograph Collection / UTSA Special 

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Chicano student walkout from schools in Texas. The goal was to protest for more bilingual and bicultural education programs, the right to speak Spanish at school with no harassment, more Mexican-American books in the school library, and to implement more Mexican-American teachers.

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Kinney Kinmon Lau was the plaintiff named in Lau vs. Nicholas. He was one of the students to challenge the San Francisco school district by filing a class action lawsuit against Alan H. Nicholas, the president of SFUSD. His claim was that as a bilingual learner, he was entitled to additional educational support.

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After getting his JD and passing the bar in the 1950’s, Alan H. Nicholas began his career in law in San Francisco. During this time, he became involved in the SFUSD, eventually serving as president. It was during this tenure that he was named respondent in Lau vs. Nicholas.

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Alan Hammond Nichols (born February 14, 1930) is an American attorney, author, explorer and authority on sacred mountains. He was the 42nd president of The Explorers Club.

Nichols was educated at Stanford University receiving a BA and election to Phi Beta Kappa in 1951.

From 1951 to 1954, he saw active service in Korea with the 47th Infantry Division of the U.S. Army, mustering out as a lieutenant with a commendation medal with four clusters.

Back to civilian life, Nichols returned to Stanford to study law getting his JD in 1955. As a first-year law student he was selected for the Board of Editors of the Stanford Law Review.

After passing the bar, Nichols practiced law in the San Francisco area for over 50 years specializing in business, banking, finance, and non-profit companies. During this time he was actively involved in the governance of community organizations most notably the San Francisco Unified School District (SFUSD), City College of San Francisco, Prescott College, Cathedral (Elementary) School, Webb (High) School, the graduate school of California College, and the Ewald Foundation. During his tenure as president of SFUSD he was named respondent in the landmark 1974 civil rights case Lau v. Nichols, where the Supreme Court found for the students.

Nichols has been active in campaigning and fund raising for the Republican party in his home state of California. In 1990, he ran unsuccessfully for Congress from the 5th District of California against Democrat Nancy Pelosi.

Throughout his life his interest in spirituality, religion and culture have inspired Nichols to travel the world and in doing so to attain many notable firsts. Among these, in 1978 when China opened the Tibet Autonomous Region for tourism he was the first Westerner to have permission to make pilgrimages to the sacred Tibetan sites of Mount Kailash and Lake Manasarovar. He has bicycled the entire 10,300 miles of the Silk Road from Istanbul to Xi'an, a journey completed in four legs beginning in 1989 and concluding in 2005. In 2010 and 2012 he was the first to lead expeditions into little traveled areas of Ningxia, Inner Mongolia and China in search of the tomb of the great Mongol emperor Genghis Khan.

Nichols holds an honorary doctor of science degree from California College of Podiatric Medicine.

He resides in Marin County, California, with his wife Rebecca "Becky" Rygh-Nichols.

Nichols' written works include:

NON-FICTION

Nichols, Alan H. & Rogers, Harold E. (1965). Water for California: Planning, Law & Practice, Finance. San Francisco: Bancroft-Whitney. Hathi Trust Digital Library. ASIN B0006BPZ1M.

Nichols, Alan (1988, March) "The Xinjiang-Tibet Mountain Bike Expedition." The Explorers Journal. Volume 66, Number 1.

Nichols, Alan H., Nichols, Nancy A. editor (1991). Journey: A Bicycle Odyssey through Central Asia. San Francisco: J.D. Huff & Company. ISBN 978-0963027443.

Nichols, Alan H., Nichols, Nancy A., editor (1992). Letters Home from the Lafayette Flying Corps. San Francisco: J.D. Huff & Company. ISBN 978-0963027405

Nichols, Alan H. (2002). Travels with Annie. Sacred Mountain Press. ISBN 978-0972663908

Nichols, Alan H., editor (2003). Curriculum Guide for the Arts. The Ewald Foundation. Downloadable Version

Nichols, Alan H. (2003/4, Winter). "Cycling the Silk Road: A Central Asian Adventure." The Explorers Journal. Volume 84, Number 4.

Under Pen Name

Hammond, Alan (1978). A Gift from the Master. Las Vegas, NV: Illuminated Way Press. ISBN 978-0914766377.

Hammond, Alan (1979). To Climb a Sacred Mountain: One Man's Search for God Atop the Holy Mountains of the World. Las Vegas, NV: Illuminated Way Press. ISBN 978-0914766476

As Contributor

Fok, Pat & Terrill, Ross (1974). Faces of China: Tomorrow, Today, Yesterday. Great Britain: Michael Joseph Limited. Contribution: Text on sacred mountains. ISBN 978-0718112769

Nichols, Nancy Ann (1991). San Quentin: Inside the Walls. San Francisco: San Quentin Museum Association. Contribution: Pictures, stories and history. ISBN 978-0963011527

FICTION

Nichols, Alan (2000). Adventures in Time (Poems from the 20th Century). Belvedere, CA: The Rygh Corporation. (c) Alan Nichols.

Under Pen Name

Hammond, Alan (1962). San Francisco Commuter. Poems. San Francisco: Pendragon Press.

Hammond, Alan (2011). All's Fair in Love and Law: Small Town Tales of Life, Laughter and Litigation. Novel. United Kingdom: Orion Publishing. ISBN 978-1409131618

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Alan Hammond Nichols (born February 14, 1930) is an American attorney, author, explorer and authority on sacred mountains. He was the 42nd president of The Explorers Club. Nichols was educated at Stanford University receiving a BA and election to Phi Beta Kappa in 1951.

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Chinese students with limited to no English speaking abilities were not given any aid to succeed in the classroom.  The United States Supreme Court made the ruling that identical education does not constitute equal education. Therefore, school districts had to provide educational programs for students that needed them.

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Issued by the Office of Civil Rights; these were guidelines to make sure schools were in compliance with the Lau ruling and also provided help to schools in developing educational programs for students with limited English speaking ability.

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The first reason for bilingual education

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The first reason for bilingual education

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There are several reasons and factors of how come the so-called bilingual education would stand out significantly. First of all, the bilingual ability will let people have a much higher chance of communicating with others more successfully. From this point of view, the school is regarded as the most effective and reasonable place to cultivate this attribute! Especially, when a person is still a student, he or she usually has the tendency to improve and progress in the right direction, as a matter of fact.

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Bilingual students normally have the advantage of learning a second language.

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The second reason for bilingual education

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The second reason for bilingual education

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In addition to have a much better capability of interacting and talking with people who speak different languages, there is another reason of why bilingual education would be considered important and thereby be valued by parents, school, and even Government. Learning a second language lets children and students know the process of how to develop perseverance and being diligent at all times despite the fact that there are a lot of obstacles which might hinder the growth and progress is difficult and complicated. By doing so, students will have accomplishment afterwards which is rewarding and positive.

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Advantages & Disadvantages of Bilingual Education. Source: Andreas. 27 Key Pros & Cons Of Bilingual Education. https://environmental-conscience.com/bilingual-ed

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The benefits and costs of bilingual education

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The benefits and costs of bilingual education

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The argument of whether the bilingual education and system is proper for students

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The third reason for bilingual education

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The third reason for bilingual education

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Last but not least, now we will discuss about the third reason of how come bilingual education has started to rise! With the comprehension of seeing and understanding the communication and confidence training are both important, we will also have to look at it from a different angle. Globalization has made the world become more and more convenient, and as a result, the opportunities and scenes of approaching foreigners and doing businesses with them, for example, have increased a lot of degree nowadays. This is a reason of why bilingual education is so indispensable and common, particularly at school. When students begin to learn different languages, they are able to get used to the atmosphere and environment of the bilingualism more quickly and effectively!

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The analysis and discussion of the relationship and connection between bilingualism and globalization.

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First, there is a notable and significant of bilingualism. The goal of bilingualism is to hopefully let everyone can at least be familiar with two languages. However, there are some concerns and issues as well on the surface. For a starter, some nations or people tend to value their own cultures and language a lot. In this case, learning and accepting another foreign language could be a challenge that they will have to deal with and face unwillingly. For example, the English-speaking countries tend to regard English as the most important language in the world. As a consequence, they might have the hesitation while learning another language. They may start to question the motivation of why they have to learn another language at all. This is the first argument of bilingualism.

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While on the other hand, here is another argument for bilingualism system and culture. The difficulty of how to choose a second language is a big problem among a lot of students nowadays. Besides English, honestly, there are so many languages. As a result, how to choose it and where to start? This has never been an easy issue no matter when and where. Thus, the argument of how to select is debatable and it needs a lot of time and practices to go through.

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Furthermore, how to preserve the traditional language is also important and essential to contemplate on. While it is good to accept another language in general, we also have to think about supporting and maintaining our original languages at the same time so that we can be ourselves. The argument is that how to reach the goal of simultaneously keep learning new languages while keep conserving the primary languages.