# data[].attributes.headline
Macro Poverty Outlook for Europe and Central Asia

# data[].attributes.subject
Macro Poverty Outlook for Europe and Central Asia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Macro Poverty Outlook for Europe and Central Asia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Macro Poverty Outlook analyzes macroeconomic and poverty developments in 22 developing countries in Europe and Central Asia.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Select one of the SDGs to see it on the map

All data presented on this website are based on the publication Sachs, J.D., Lafortune, G., Fuller, G., Drumm, E. (2023). Implementing the SDG Stimulus. Sustainable Development Report 2023. Paris: SDSN, Dublin: Dublin University Press, 2023. 10.25546/102924

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2023 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
K-14 Educator Programs and Resources | Center for Slavic and East European Studies

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A primary mission of the Center for Slavic, East European and Eurasian Studies (CSEEES) is to work with Ohio K-14 educational institutions to promote the knowledge and understanding of Eastern Europe and Eurasia by bringing the cultures, histories, and languages of these regions into the classroom.…

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
To provide free, widely accessible content about Eastern Europe and Eurasia, CSEEES has worked with Ohio State faculty and graduate student experts to create various types of online resources that range from resource guides, lesson plans, self-contained units of instruction, or videos. These resources are ideal for K-12 students and teachers, as well as community college educators and students, are fully accessible, and are made to provide users with additional resources and information to further their study of a topic and/or country. Currently, we have various resources for the following regions:

Is there a resource or module topic that you want to use in your classroom but don't see above? Email CSEEES at cseees@osu.edu to let us know what topics you are looking for!

CSEEES Online Modules and Ohio Learning Standards for K-12 Educators

In order to help K-12 educators find which module would best fit their courses, we have created different groupings for our online modules based on which Ohio Learning Standards they fulfill. Groupings are separated by grade and then further separated by subject, course theme/strand, and topic. Beneath each module you will see which specific content statements that each module covers.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
To provide free, widely accessible content about Eastern Europe and Eurasia, CSEEES has worked with Ohio State faculty and graduate student experts to create various types of online resources that range from resource guides, lesson plans, self-contained units of instruction, or videos.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
ScarletCanvas Language Courses | Center for Slavic, East European and Eurasian Studies

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
As a part of our mission as a Title VI National Resource Center (NRC) the Center for Slavic, East European and Eurasian Studies (CSEEES) is pleased to have partnered with The Ohio State University’s ScarletCanvas platform to create a series of asynchronous, self-paced introductory language and culture courses for Bosnian-Croation-Serbian (BCS), Polish, and Romanian.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2023 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2023 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2021 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2023 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2023 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2023 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2023 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2021 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2021 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2023 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2023 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2023 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2023 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2023 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Moldova

Eastern Europe and Central Asia

Overview Indicators

SDG Dashboards and Trends

Click on a goal to view more information.

Dashboards:

SDG achieved

Challenges remain

Significant challenges remain

Major challenges remain

Information unavailable

Trends:

On track or maintaining SDG achievement

Moderately improving

Stagnating

Decreasing

Trend information unavailable

Check us out on social media!

The Sustainable Development Report (formerly the SDG Index & Dashboards) is a global assessment of countries' progress towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. It is a complement to the official SDG indicators and the voluntary national reviews.

All data presented on this website are based on the publication Sachs et al. (2022): From Crisis to Sustainable Development: the SDGs as Roadmap to 2030 and Beyond. Sustainable Development Report 2022. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Feedback? Questions? Contact us at info@sdgindex.org

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2022 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2023 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2023 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2023 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2023 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2023 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2023 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2023 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2023 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2023 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.body
https://dashboards.sdgindex.org/profiles/tajikistan

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2023 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2023 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2023 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Sustainable Development Report 2023 tracks the performance of all 193 UN Member States on the 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

# data[].attributes.headline
Vasily Perov "Troika. Apprentice Workmen Carrying Water"

# data[].attributes.subject
Vasily Perov "Troika. Apprentice Workmen Carrying Water"

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Troika. Apprentice Workmen Carrying Water, 1866 - Vasily Perov - WikiArt.org

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
'Troika. Apprentice Workmen Carrying Water' was created in 1866 by Vasily Perov in Realism style. Find more prominent pieces of genre painting at Wikiart.org - best visual art database.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Barge Haulers on the Volga

Artist
Ilya Repin

Year

1870-1873

Medium

Oil-on-canvas

Dimensions

131.5 cm × 281 cm (51.8 in × 111 in)

Location

State Russian Museum, St. Petersburg

Barge Haulers on the Volga or Burlaki (Russian: Burlaki na Volge, Бурлаки на Волге) is an 1870-1873 oil-on-canvas painting by artist Ilya Repin. It depicts 11 men physically dragging a barge on the banks of the Volga River. They are at the point of collapse from exhaustion, oppressed by heavy, hot weather.

The work is a condemnation of profit from inhumane labor. Although they are presented as stoical and accepting, the men are defeated; only one stands out: in the center of both the row and canvas, a brightly colored youth fights against his leather binds and takes on a heroic pose.

Repin conceived the painting during his travels through Russia as a young man and depicts actual characters he encountered. It drew international praise for its realistic portrayal of the hardships of working men, and launched his career. Soon after its completion, the painting was purchased by Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich and exhibited widely throughout Europe as a landmark of Russian realist painting. Barge Haulers on the Volga has been described as "perhaps the most famous painting of the Peredvizhniki movement [for]....its unflinching portrayal of backbreaking labor".

Repin was accepted into the Imperial Academy of Art in St. Petersburg in 1863. The academy at the time was known for its deep conservatism and leaning towards academic art, a fact that bred a sense of revolt and desire for change in many of its students.

Barge Haulers was inspired by scenes witnessed by Repin while holidaying on the Volga in 1870. He made a number of preparatory studies, mostly in oil, while staying in Shiriaev Buerak, near Stavropol (Stavropol-na-Volge). The sketches include landscapes, and views of the Volga and barge haulers.

The characters are based on actual people Repin came to know while preparing for the work. He had had difficulty finding subjects to pose for him, even for a fee, because of a folklorish belief that a subject's soul would leave his possession once his image was put down on paper. The subjects include a former soldier, a former priest, and a painter. Although he depicted eleven men, women also performed the work and there were normally many more people in a barge-hauling gang; Repin selected these figures as representative of a broad swathe of the working classes of Russian society. That some had once held relatively high social positions dismayed the young artist, who had initially planned to produce a far more superficial work contrasting exuberant day-trippers (which he himself had been) with the careworn burlaks. Repin found a particular empathy with Kanin, the defrocked priest, who is portrayed as the lead hauler and looks outwards towards the viewer. The artist wrote,

There was something eastern about it, the face of a Scyth...and what eyes! What depth of vision!...And his brow, so large and wise...He seemed to me a colossal mystery, and for that reason I loved him. Kanin, with a rag around his head, his head in patches made by himself and then worn out, appeared none the less as a man of dignity; he was like a saint.

Barge Haulers on the Volga shows a row of eleven male burlaks dragging a barge on the Volga River that must be pulled upstream against the current. The men are dressed in rags and bound with leather harnesses. They are rendered as mostly stoical, although in obvious physical discomfort, with their bodies bowed in toil. The scene is rendered in a white, silvery light which has been described as "almost Venetian". In earlier studies, it was dominated by blue tones.

The men appear to be unsupervised and form the focus of the picture, with the barge relegated to a minor role at the rear of the frame. Further in the distance is a tiny steam-powered boat, perhaps a suggestion that the back-breaking labor of the barge haulers is no longer necessary in the industrial age. Also worthy of note is the inverted Russian flag flying from the main mast of the barge, adding to the sense of hostile unease. Repin echoes the stop-go rhythm of the labor in the undulating line of the workers' heads. In the preparatory studies, many of the figures were positioned differently; for example the second man was shown wearing a cap with his head bowed into his chest.

There is a general sense of mounting exhaustion and despair moving from left to right among the group; the last hauler seems oblivious to his surroundings and drifts from the line out towards the viewer. The exception is a fair-haired boy in the center of the group. Set brightly against the uniform muted tones of his companions, he stands straighter; his head is raised looking into the distance, while he pulls against his straps as if determined to free himself from his task.

Repin grew up in Chuguev, in the Kharkov Governorate (now Ukraine) and was aware of the poverty and hardship of most rural life at that time. He spent two years traveling, during which time he observed both the dachas of the rich and the toil of the common peasant. As such the painting can be considered a genre work, but treated on the heroic scale of history painting, as was often the case in 19th-century works, especially after A Burial At Ornans by Gustave Courbet (1850). Barge Haulers drew direct comparisons from critics with Millet's works and Courbet's The Stone Breakers (also 1850), which showed laborers at the side of a road.

The painting is a relentlessly physical description of the men; Repin was attracted by their strength and superhuman effort. According to critic Vladimir Stassov, "They are like a group of forest Hercules with their disheveled heads, their sun-tanned chests, and their motionlessly hanging, strong-veined hands. What glances from untamed eyes, what distended nostrils, what iron muscles!" In his description of their heavy brows and the lined foreheads, Repin does not neglect their spiritual torment; although he does not concentrate too much on any single man's personal intimate emotions. Any sense of personal hardship is of secondary importance to the portrayal of effort and human dignity.

Critical opinion, propaganda, and legacy

Repin considered Barge Haulers to be his first professional painting and it is the work that defined him as a master documentarian of social inequality. When first exhibited, it received enthusiastic reviews for its unsentimental depiction of lower-class laborers, which stood in stark contrast to the romanticised, classical or propagandist nature of most contemporary Russian art. The painting paved the way for Repin to join the Peredvizhniki (the Wanderers or Itinerants), an anti- academic realist movement formed in 1870. The Peredvizhniki sought not only to break away from the academic school, but also to subvert the manner in which art was viewed. By depicting scenes from ordinary life and holding exhibitions in the provinces they aimed to enlighten and make art more accessible to the masses.

The painting was widely discussed for its break with the traditions of the Academy. It earned Repin the respect of Vladimir Stasov who believed that art shaped people's outlook and the way in which they viewed their own political situation. Stasov encouraged Repin to focus on Russian subject matter and after the release of Barge Haulers, he became a close friend of the artist and enthusiastically praised each of Repin's paintings thereafter. Stasov wrote of the painting, "with a daring that is unprecedented amongst us [Repin] has abandoned all former conceptions of the ideal in art, and has plunged head first into the very heart of the people's life, the people's interests, and the people's oppressive reality... no one in Russia has ever dared take on such a subject". In return, Repin said that Stasov's "cry all over Russia was the first and the mightiest and it was heard in Russia by everyone capable of hearing. It was thanks to him that my glory spread."

Fyodor Dostoyevsky read about Repin's painting in the newspapers and assumed it was another Russian work whose artistry was secondary to its social message. He wrote, "Even the subject itself is terrible... I came expecting to see these barge-haulers all lined up in uniforms with the usual labels stuck to their foreheads... To my delight, all my fears turned out to be in vain... Not a single one of them shouts from the painting to the viewer, 'Look how unfortunate I am and how indebted you are to the people!'" To Dostoyevsky, Repin had avoided a common fault of contemporary Russian art, and in doing so had heightened the work's impact. He concluded, "[I saw] barge haulers, real barge haulers, and nothing more... you can't help but think you are indebted, truly indebted, to the people." Such a feeling of an "unpaid debt" owed by the higher society to the peasantry was a common idea of the . Today the painting is regarded as seminal in the formation of Russian realism.

The painting has been criticised both for still bearing hallmarks of academic drawing and for having an overall yellowish tone. Although it won a prize at the Society for the Advancement of the Arts in 1872, Repin continued to rework the canvas until 1873 when it was exhibited at the Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg.

The painting has been widely parodied, and it is often used as the basis for satirical political cartoons in Russia and elsewhere. A Finnish political cartoon by Kari Suomalainen created an international hubbub in 1958 for showing Nikita Khrushchev on a barge pulled by Eastern bloc countries shouting "Imperialists!" to the US and UK on the shore.

According to the art critic Elia Kabanov, Repin's painting influenced American orientalist painter Frederick Arthur Bridgman to produce his Towing on the Nile in 1875.

Despite its social realism, Barge Haulers was bought by the Tsar's second son. It was lent for exhibition at the 1873 International Exhibition in Vienna, where it won a bronze medal. It was exhibited outside Russia again in 1878, when it was again widely praised by critics for marking a watershed in Russian art. After the Russian Revolution the grand duke's art collection was nationalized and transferred from Vladimir Palace to the Russian Museum.

1. ^ Not long after Repin's painting, burlakis were replaced by steam powered tug-boats

2. ^ Gray, Rosalind Polly. Russian genre painting in the nineteenth century. Alderley: Clarendon Press, 2000. ix. ISBN 0-19-820875-8

3. Hilton, Alison. "The Exhibition of Experiments in St. Petersburg and the Independent Sketch". ^ The Art Bulletin, Volume 70, No. 4, December, 1988. 677-698

4. "^ Ilya Repin, Barge-Haulers on the Volga (1870-73) Archived 1 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine". The Museum of Russian Art. Retrieved 18 January 2010.

5. ^ "Study of a Barge Hauler for the painting 'The Barge Haulers on the Volga' 1870-1873". Christie's, November 1997. Retrieved on 27 February 2010.

6. Emerson, Caryl. ^ The life of Musorgsky. In: "Musical lives". Cambridge University Press, 1999. 127. ISBN 0-521-48507-X

7. Amery, Colin & Curran, Brian. "St Petersburg". Frances Lincoln, 2006. 134. ^ ISBN 0-7112-2492-7

8. Stasov, Vladimir Vasilyevich. "Letter to the Editor of 'St. Petersburg Gazette' (1873)". ^ Saint Petersburg Gazette, no. 176, 18 March 1873

9. Cohen, Aaron J. "Imagining the unimaginable: World War, modern art, & the politics of public culture in Russia, 1914-1917". ^ Studies in war, society, and the military. University of Nebraska Press, 2008. 25. ISBN 0-8032-1547-9

10. "^ Nineteenth-Century Russian Art: Ideological realism". dartmouth.edu. Retrieved on 18 January 2010.

11. Chandler, Josh. "^ Vladimir Vasilievich Stasov and Soviet Socialist Realism". germslav.byu.edu. Retrieved on 27 February 2010.

12. Miller, Robin Feuer. ^ Dostoevsky's unfinished journey. Yale University Press, 2007. 11. ISBN 0-300-12015-X

13. Parker Fran. "Russia on canvas: Ilya Repin". Pennsylvania State University Press, 1980. 26. ^ ISBN 0-271-00252-2

14. ^ http://www.uusisuomi.fi/kulttuuri/36729-tasta-suomalaiskuvasta-nousi-jattikohu-1958

15. "^ Государственный Русский музей". art.1september.ru. Retrieved on 31 July 2010. Archived 19 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine

Bibliography

Alpatov, Mikhail. Russian Impact on Art. New York: Philosophical Library, 1950.

Valkenier, Elizabeth Kridl. "The Writer as Artist's Model: Repin's Portrait of Garshin". Metropolitan Museum Journal, 28, 1993. 207-16

Media related to Burlaks (Repin) at Wikimedia Commons

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Barge Haulers on the Volga Artist Ilya Repin Year 1870-1873 Medium Oil-on-canvas Dimensions 131.5 cm × 281 cm (51.8 in × 111 in) Location State Russian Museum, St. Petersburg Barge Haulers on the Volga or Burlaki (Russian: Burlaki na Volge , Бурлаки на Волге ) is an 1870-1873 oil-on-canvas painting by artist Ilya Repin.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
This page contains online resources for the region of the Baltics. Countries that are currently covered in these resources include Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. If you are an educator that would like to request a specific topic for an online module or resources guide, please email us at cseees@osu.edu.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This page contains online resources for the region of the Baltics. Countries that are currently covered in these resources include Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. If you are an educator that would like to request a specific topic for an online module or resources guide, please email us at cseees@osu.edu.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
This page contains online resources for the region of Central Asia. Countries that are currently covered in these resources include Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan. If you are an educator that would like to request a specific topic for an online module or resources guide, please email us at cseees@osu.edu.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This page contains online resources for the region of Central Asia. Countries that are currently covered in these resources include Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan. If you are an educator that would like to request a specific topic for an online module or resources guide, please email us at cseees@osu.edu.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Central and Eastern Europe | Center for Slavic, East European and Eurasian Studies

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This page contains online resources for the regions of Central and Eastern Europe. Countries that are currently covered in these resources include Czechia, Poland, Slovakia, Romania, Ukraine and more. If you are an educator that would like to request a specific topic for an online module or resources guide, please email us at cseees@osu.edu.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
This page contains online resources for the region of Southeastern Europe. Countries that are currently covered in these resources include Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia. If you are an educator that would like to request a specific topic for an online module or resources guide, please email us at cseees@osu.edu.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This page contains online resources for the region of Southeastern Europe. Countries that are currently covered in these resources include Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia. If you are an educator that would like to request a specific topic for an online module or resources guide, please email us at cseees@osu.edu.

# data[].attributes.headline
Child poverty across eastern Europe and Central Asia soars by 19 percent, as Ukraine war and rising inflation drive four million children into poverty

# data[].attributes.subject
Child poverty across eastern Europe and Central Asia soars by 19 percent, as Ukraine war and rising inflation drive four million children into poverty

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
GENEVA/NEW YORK, 17 October 2022 - The war in Ukraine and rising inflation have driven an additional four million children across eastern Europe and Central Asia into poverty, a 19 per cent increase since 2021, according to a new UNICEF study published today.

The impact of the war in Ukraine and subsequent economic downturn on child poverty in eastern Europe and Central Asia - which features data from 22 countries* across the region - shows that children are bearing the heaviest burden of the economic crisis caused by the war in Ukraine. While children make up 25 per cent of the population, they account for nearly 40 per cent of the additional 10.4 million people experiencing poverty this year.

The Russian Federation accounts for nearly three-quarters of the total increase in the number of children living in poverty due to the Ukraine war and a cost-of-living crisis across the region, with an additional 2.8 million children now living in households below the poverty line. Ukraine is home to half a million additional children living in poverty, the second largest share, followed by Romania, with an additional 110,000 children, the study notes.

"Beyond the obvious horrors of war - the killing and maiming of children, mass displacement - the economic consequences of the war in Ukraine are having a devastating impact on children across eastern Europe and Central Asia," said UNICEF Regional Director for Europe and Central Asia Afshan Khan. "Children all over the region are being swept up in this war's terrible wake. If we don't support these children and families now, the steep rise in child poverty will almost certainly result in lost lives, lost learning, and lost futures."

The consequences of child poverty stretch far beyond families living in financial distress. The sharp increase could result in an additional 4,500 children dying before their first birthdays, and learning losses could be equivalent to an additional 117,000 children dropping out of school this year alone, the study notes.

The poorer a family is, the greater the proportion of their income committed to necessities such as food and fuel. When the cost of basic goods soars, the money available to meet other needs such as health care and education falls, the study notes. The subsequent cost-of-living crisis means that the poorest children are even less likely to access essential services, and are more at risk of violence, exploitation and abuse.

For many, childhood poverty lasts a lifetime. One in three children born and raised in poverty will live their adult lives in poverty, leading to an intergenerational cycle of hardship and deprivation, the study notes.

The challenges faced by families living in or on the brink of poverty deepen when governments reduce public expenditure, increase consumption taxes or put in place austerity measures in a limiting effort to boost their economies in the short-term, as this diminishes the reach and quality of support services that families depend on.

The study sets out a framework to help reduce the number of children living in poverty and prevent more families from falling into financial distress:

Provide universal cash benefits for children and ensure minimum income security.

Expand social assistance benefits to all families with children in need, including refugees.

Protect social spending, especially for the most vulnerable children and families.

Protect and support the delivery of health, nutrition, and social care services to pregnant mothers, infants, and pre-schoolers.

Introduce price regulations on basic food items for families.

UNICEF has recently partnered with the EU Commission and several EU countries to pilot the EU Child Guarantee initiative to mitigate the impact of poverty on children and provide them with opportunities to thrive in adulthood. With more children and families now being pushed into poverty, a robust response is warranted across the region.

UNICEF is calling for continued and expanded support to strengthen social protection systems in high- and middle-income countries in eastern Europe and Central Asia; and the prioritization of funding for social protection programmes, including cash assistance programmes for vulnerable children and families.

"Austerity measures will hurt children most of all - plunging even more children into poverty and making it harder for families who are already struggling," said Khan. "We have to protect and expand social support for vulnerable families before the situation gets any worse."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Child poverty across eastern Europe and Central Asia soars by 19 per cent, as Ukraine war and rising inflation drive four million children into poverty

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
On the International Day for the Eradication of Poverty, UNICEF warns that the ripple effects of the increase in child poverty could result in a steep rise in school dropouts and infant mortality

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
After Russia launched its on February 24, 2022, international agencies such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN) expressed significant concern about the war's impact on global agricultural commodity markets: the disruption to Ukrainian agricultural production and exports and the expected knock-on effects to the world price of staples such as wheat and to the food security of developing countries.

While one would expect an organization such as the FAO to be informed on food questions, the sheer number of stories in the popular media suggest the wider world had been unaware that Ukraine is so important to the world's food supply.

In fact, since the in 1991, Ukraine has returned to its pre-revolutionary position as a major agricultural exporter of key commodities. It has a significant global market share by volume in wheat (10%), barley (13%), corn (15%), and sunflower oil (50%) and is ranked the fifth, second, third, and first largest exporter respectively of these crops.

Wheat harvest on a collective farm near Lviv, Ukraine, 1991.

Ukraine has close to 104 million acres of agricultural land, of which 79 million are currently cultivated, an area larger than Italy, making it one of the most highly cultivated countries in the world. It has several advantages in producing agricultural commodities: a favorable climate and high-quality soils, half of which are the fertile or black soils; lower costs of production than its European and North American competitors; and access to deep seaports on the Black Sea.

Ukraine's emergence as a principal player in global agricultural markets has evolved over the past two decades. Before its breakup, the USSR was an importer of grain largely due to a decision in the early 1970s to expand the livestock sector as a means of increasing consumption of meat and dairy products.

Through subsidies, as well as price and trade controls, meat production increased by over 60% between 1970 and 1990. However, the Soviet Union could not produce enough animal feed to support its growing livestock sector and, as a result, it became a major importer of animal feed to the benefit of North American and Australian farmers. During the late-Soviet period of 1987-91, 35 million tons of grain were imported per year.

Soviet propaganda in Ukraine promoting the agricultural developments of the ninth Five Year Plan from 1971-1975. (Image by daves_archive1)

Following the collapse of the Soviet Union and its subsequent economic transformation, expansion of the livestock sector was reversed as subsidies were largely eliminated. Russia, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan all became net meat importers. At the same time, between them they ended up exporting 36 million tons of grain per year by 2010, with Ukraine accounting for 40% of those exports.

The grain trade turnaround in Ukraine has been impressive, but during the transition in the 1990s, its agricultural sector witnessed a significant drop in production as it moved away from a legacy of distorted prices, inefficient collectivization, and government intervention. It was not until the late 1990s that structural reforms in the agricultural sector really began to occur, with privatization and restructuring of collective farms.

Looking back to the collapse of the Soviet Union, it would have been rather optimistic to have forecast Ukraine's rise to being a major agricultural exporter, but land reform and technological change made it possible.

A carriage transports hay near Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast, Ukraine in 2012.

Land reform resulted in the development of large-scale, privately-operated farms with owners investing in new technology and introducing best management practices. The net result has been increased crop area, especially for corn and oilseeds, and higher productivity.

By 2018, cereal yields had increased by almost 40%. Ukraine re-established itself as the "breadbasket" of Europe. In the language of economist David Ricardo, Ukraine is now truly exploiting its "comparative advantage."

With Russia currently controlling a large portion of Ukraine's cultivated agricultural land in the south, as well as blockading ports on the Black Sea, a significant amount of grain for export is stranded in Ukraine.

Map of the situation in Ukraine as of June 7, 2022. Yellow represents territory held by Ukrainian forces and red represents Russian held territory.

There has also been a significant reduction in the planting of spring crops this year. Prior to the invasion, 90% of Ukraine's exports went through the Black Sea ports at 5 million tons per month, a rate currently down to 0.5 million tons per month, most of which is being transported by rail to Ukraine's western border.

Not surprisingly a market shock of this magnitude has affected both the volatility and level of grain prices. In turn, the increase in grain prices is having a significant effect on global food prices and hence food security. The G7 countries predict 43 million people are being pushed towards famine.

The UN World Food Program estimates that the cost of buying food will rise by $23 per month - a significant increase to those living on $1.90 per day, the World Bank definition of poverty. Countries in the Middle East and North Africa such as Egypt, Lebanon, and Tunisia are very dependent on grain imports from both Ukraine and Russia. The risk of food price inflation could stir up political and social unrest.

Empty shelves at a supermarket in Germany, 2022. (Image by 7C0)

In addition, other exporting countries are adopting "beggar-thy-neighbor"-type controls on grain exports to protect their own populations that will simply intensify the food price spike.

Importantly, even before the invasion, global food markets were under pressure from the effects of the pandemic, climate change and an energy price shock. Disruption to Ukrainian agricultural production and trade is simply adding to what The Economist magazine recently described on its front-page as

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
After Russia launched its invasion of Ukraine on February 24, 2022, international agencies such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN) expressed significant concern about the war's impact on global agricultural commodity markets: the disruption to Ukrainian agricultural production and exports and the expected knock-on effects to the world price of staples such as wheat and to the food security of developing

# data[].attributes.headline
Polish supermarkets must donate unsold food or face fines

# data[].attributes.subject
Polish supermarkets must donate unsold food or face fines

# data[].attributes.body
https://notesfrompoland.com/2020/03/02/polish-supermarkets-must-donate-unsold-food-under-new-law/

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Polish supermarkets must donate unsold food or face fines

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The new law applies initially only to large stores, but smaller shops will soon also be included.

# data[].attributes.headline
Woman fined for taking food thrown out by supermarket wins court battle in Poland

# data[].attributes.subject
Woman fined for taking food thrown out by supermarket wins court battle in Poland

# data[].attributes.headline
Can the Grain Shipments Agreement Deliver Peace?

# data[].attributes.subject
Can the Grain Shipments Agreement Deliver Peace?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
BY VICTORIA CLEMENT

Unable to transit the Black Sea under threat of Russian attack, more than 20 million tons of Ukrainian grain have been trapped in Ukrainian ports since Russia's invasion began in February. Ukraine estimates that another 70 million tons from this year's harvest will be similarly trapped.

Russia and Ukraine together supply 30 percent of the world's wheat. In addition, corn, barley, and sunflower oil contribute to the 15 percent of global calories that the two countries export.

Without this food, supply chains, already suffering from the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, will have difficulty returning to normal functioning. Some countries have been hit by high grain prices, others by food shortages that will take months to alleviate. Vladimir Putin has thus expanded the front in this war to include the Horn of Africa and regions in South Asia suffering from drought. "Hunger," says former Russian president Dmitry Medvedev, is Russia's "silent weapon."

Ukraine, in the meantime, mined Black Sea waters to prevent a Russian attack, further complicating the possibility of shipments being restored.

In May, Lithuania's Foreign Minister Gabrielius Landsbergis offered a solution in a phone conversation with Turkish foreign minister Mevlüt Çavuşoğlu. Landsbergis proposed initiating a " coalition of the willing " to help escort Ukrainian grain exports out of Odesa. Landsbergis knew that the issue could not be addressed at the NATO level, but also recognized that the political situation did not preclude a NATO member such as Turkey from becoming involved.

The UN-backed agreement, titled " Initiative for Safe Shipment of Grain and Foodstuffs from Ukrainian Ports," was signed in Istanbul's Dolmabahçe Palace on the Bosphorus on July 22 by representatives of both Russia and Ukraine. The agreement aims to guarantee safe passage of essential foodstuffs from the blocked Black Sea ports of Odesa, Chornomorsk, and Yuzhny.

The tone of the signing ceremony was hushed. The representatives of the two countries did not even sign the same documents, as Kyiv's officials did not want to sit alongside the Russians. In the event, the two sides signed their own sets of identical papers. The Turkish defense minister, Hulusi Akar, countersigned each set separately, emphasizing that the agreement did not represent a treaty between the warring parties but instead with Turkey and the UN. Turkey is to have oversight of the agreement's execution, including inspection of empty ships returning to Ukraine's ports to ensure they are not carrying weapons back to Ukraine.

But the optimistic remarks delivered by the UN Secretary General António Guterres and Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, who sat between the conflicting parties, seemed strikingly out of place. Guterres proclaimed the compact to be one of hope and possibility, and thanked Erdoğan for his persistence in facilitating the deal. Erdoğan announced that the pact will " renew hopes for peace."

In Turkey, the local press has said less about hungry Africans in need of grain and more about Erdoğan's diplomatic triumph. The foreign press reflected a more cautious tone, as many noted that trusting Russia is not easy-for obvious reasons. Still, U.S. Department of State spokesperson Ned Price and Pakistani Prime Minister Shehbaz Sharif applauded the efforts, and Arab outlets proclaimed a " de facto cease-fire."

Erdoğan was undoubtedly only too happy to accept any praise, domestic or international. Erdoğan has multiple audiences to address. On the one hand, he is playing to the international community, from which he seeks an abeyance of criticism while he launches further attacks in Syria. On the other, he is courting a domestic audience that he needs to win over, and quickly: he will be up for reelection in June 2023, a date that holds special significance, as it marks the centennial of the founding of the Turkish Republic.

Erdoğan faces skyrocketing inflation, low wages, a general discontent over basics like roads and infrastructure, and deep resentment over the prosecution of citizens for everything from treason to slandering the president. Many predict that he will fail in the 2023 election. For Erdoğan, every bit of good news-such as the signing of the grain deal between Russia and Ukraine-helps.

All the glowing expressions notwithstanding, it is hard to imagine that anyone at the signing ceremony was under the illusion that peace might be in the offing. Russia's real intent, in fact, was likely expressed two days before the signing ceremony in Istanbul by Russian foreign minister Sergei Lavrov, who announced that the "geographic objectives of the Russian special operation" had changed, and that Russia would expand its operations to include more of Ukraine's southern region. Lavrov's statement suggests that Russia had anything but peace on its mind as it went to Istanbul.

It would then be a mistake to interpret this limited agreement on the shipment of food as representing progress toward peace. Hours after the grain deal was signed, in fact, Russia attacked Odesa with cruise missiles, putting the deal at risk and underscoring the fact that Putin cannot be trusted.

This development has potentially tragic consequences. Even the overwhelming need to avoid deepening famine in already starving regions of the world may not meet with success so long as safe passage out of Ukraine's blocked Black Sea ports remains uncertain.

The first shipments of grain left Odesa this week, en route to Lebanon. The grain may reach its destination. Yet peace remains a distant prospect.
The opinions expressed in this article are those solely of the author and do not reflect the views of the Kennan Institute.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Can the Grain Shipments Agreement Deliver Peace?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
BY VICTORIA CLEMENT Unable to transit the Black Sea under threat of Russian attack, more than 20 million tons of Ukrainian grain have been trapped in Ukrainian ports since Russia's invasion began in February. Ukraine estimates that another 70 million tons from this year's harvest will be similarly trapped.

# data[].attributes.headline
Polish parliament approves payments to support parents returning to work

# data[].attributes.subject
Polish parliament approves payments to support parents returning to work

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Polish parliament approves payments to support parents returning to work

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A new benefit, informally named “granny payments”, would support grandparents caring for children while parents work.

# data[].attributes.headline
Inside the Gates of Soviet Russia (1921, Pathé)

# data[].attributes.subject
Inside the Gates of Soviet Russia (1921, Pathé)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Inside The Gates Of Soviet Russia (1921)

# data[].attributes.headline
Sarah Cameron, The Hungry Steppe (Famine in Kazakhstan)

# data[].attributes.subject
Sarah Cameron, The Hungry Steppe (Famine in Kazakhstan)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Hungry Steppe: Famine, Violence & the Making of Soviet Kazakhstan

# data[].attributes.headline
From Mines to Vines: The Allies’ Path to Restoring Ukraine’s War-Scarred Terrain

# data[].attributes.subject
From Mines to Vines: The Allies’ Path to Restoring Ukraine’s War-Scarred Terrain

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Ukraine's fertile soil, known as chernozem, has underpinned generations of farmers; vast farmlands have long been Ukrainians' pride. This agricultural prowess has not only fed Europe, it has also shaped Ukraine's economy and culture.

Today these lands are marred by the harsh realities of war. Land mines and unexploded ordnance hide beneath the ground, posing grave risks to people and hindering refugees from returning. The pressing need to clear these lands is not just a humanitarian concern but also an economic imperative.

Despite President Zelensky's commitments in his ten-point peace plan to safeguarding Ukraine's food security and environment, the matter of land contamination remains a significant issue, with no concrete solutions available to date.

With the war now settling into a less dynamic phase, there is opportunity to address the challenge of reviving the productivity of Ukraine's reclaimed lands while ensuring the safety of the country's farmers. At the top of the list of concerns in this regard is demining.

According to Ukraine's Ministry of Foreign Affairs, about 30 percent of Ukraine's total land area has been mined. While Ukrainian businesses and foreign investors have already proposed using the contaminated agricultural land creatively, none of the proposals has quite recognized the magnitude of the problem of demining or how demining on a large scale is to be achieved.
Demining Requires International Cooperation
The history of major conflict clean-ups in the twentieth century underscores the pivotal role of international cooperation in demining. Following World War II, Europe embarked on the task of clearing millions of landmines, with such countries as France, Belgium, and Germany contributing manpower to this effort.

In Afghanistan, since the 1979 Soviet invasion and ongoing conflicts, such groups as UNMAS (United Nations Mine Action Service) and the Halo Trust have led demining efforts, yet significant areas remain at risk. Cambodia has also witnessed substantial progress in mine clearance since the 1990s, thanks to the collective efforts of NGOs and the UN.

During the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s, NATO and EU countries played crucial roles in demining as part of wider peacekeeping missions.
Ukraine's Legal Affordances
Ukraine's legal framework provides a relatively clear process for involving foreign entities in the demining process. The landmark law is Ukrainian Law On Mine Counteraction in Ukraine, or the MCU Act. It defines the legal and organizational principles for conducting mine action and specifies roles for the state and nonstate entities in regulating this sphere.

The key elements of the MCU Act that touch on international cooperation are two:

-Identifying the mine counteraction operators (MCOs) as entities authorized to carry out tasks in this field, including international and foreign organizations.

-Outlining the state regulation and management in the field of mine action, which involves formulating and implementing national mine action programs, developing national standards based on international standards, ensuring quality control and information management in mine action, and, finally, maintenance of the MCO database.

The MCU Act further establishes the criteria for entities to become MCOs and details the kinds of international technical assistance permitted, including charitable and other types of aid. It establishes that international cooperation in mine action is to be facilitated by the National Authority on Mine Counteraction (NAMC) through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine, including the implementation of joint projects, international assistance for capacity building in demining, and information exchange systems.

The NAMC's operational basis is laid out in the Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine On the Establishment of the National Authority on Mine Counteraction.

Notably, NAMC's leadership predominantly comes from the ranks of military officials, including the minister and deputy minister of defense, suggesting a heavily militaristic approach to mine action. This structure is further cluttered with deputies from various ministries, while Ukraine's Security Service-contingent on agreement-adds a layer of intelligence oversight, raising concerns about excessive security influence. Overall, the NAMC's composition raises concerns about its potential for bureaucratic entanglements.

The MCO database is held and operated by NAMC on the basis of RCMU No. 1150, dated November 3, 2021.

Interestingly, the authorities of the NAMC were defined after regulations regarding the MCO were passed, which contradicts both the usual flow of legislative process and formal logic. Despite the resulting lack of clarity on certification procedures and which entity should issue compliance certificates, the ongoing successful application and certification of MCOs demonstrate the potential for effective implementation of these measures.
From Mines to Vines: A Collaborative Approach
To ensure stable growth of the agricultural sector, Ukrainian authorities must create transparent and inclusive processes for demining, in this way fostering an environment familiar to the allies.

Western defense contractors with significant global influence and expertise would then be more encouraged to support Ukraine's demining efforts.

The next task for Ukraines legislative branch is engagement of these defense contractors in all stages of the demining process. This, in turn, will ensure alignment with international best practices and prioritize the restoration of the agricultural sector, the development of new economic opportunities, and the well-being of Ukrainian citizens.

Through unified efforts, Ukraine can reclaim its agricultural legacy, ensuring a secure and prosperous future for its people.
The opinions expressed in this article are those solely of the author and do not reflect the views of the Kennan Institute

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
From Mines to Vines: The Allies' Path to Restoring Ukraine's War-Scarred Terrain

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Ukraine's fertile soil, known as chernozem, has underpinned generations of farmers; vast farmlands have long been Ukrainians' pride. This agricultural prowess has not only fed Europe, it has also shaped Ukraine's economy and culture. Today these lands are marred by the harsh realities of war.

# data[].attributes.headline
Five Stalks of Grain by Adrian Lysenko, Illustrated by Ivanka Theodosia Galadza

# data[].attributes.subject
Five Stalks of Grain by Adrian Lysenko, Illustrated by Ivanka Theodosia Galadza

# data[].attributes.headline
Five Stalks of Grain Lesson Plans (KU CREES)

# data[].attributes.subject
Five Stalks of Grain Lesson Plans (KU CREES)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
"The Nose" is a short story written by Ukrainian author Nikolai Vasilievich Gogol. It tells the tale of civil servant, Platon Kovalyov, who awakes one morning in March to discover that his nose is missing. When he ventures out into the city of St. Petersburg to contact the police, he sees his nose walking, talking, and wearing the uniform of a State Counsillor. The absurd tale of the missing nose presents a comical critique of 19th century Russian society.

"Prince Ivan, the Firebird, and the Gray Wolf" is one of the most well-known Russian fairytales. Ivan, the youngest of the Tsar's three sons sets out on a journey to capture the firebird that was stealing his father's golden apples. The story tells of Ivan Tsarevich's trials and triumphs during this quest.

The Safest Lie is a fast-paced, inspiring account of nine-year old Anna Bauman, one of thousands of Jewish children rescued from the Warsaw, Poland ghetto. The novel's inspiration is based on the life of Irena Sendler, the Catholic social worker and spy who rescued more than 2,500 children from the Warsaw ghetto during World War II. Her story was little known until four high school students from Uniontown, Kansas wrote a play entitled "Life in a Jar" based on her inspirational work saving children

Consider a visit to the inspiring exhibit on the life of Irena Sendler at the Lowell Milken Center for Unsung Heroes in Fort Scott, KS. Contact conardnorm@gmail.com to schedule a tour.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
"The Nose" is a short story written by Ukrainian author Nikolai Vasilievich Gogol. It tells the tale of civil servant, Platon Kovalyov, who awakes one morning in March to discover that his nose is missing. When he ventures out into the city of St.

# data[].attributes.headline
Bread + Medicine: Saving Lives in a Time of Famine

# data[].attributes.subject
Bread + Medicine: Saving Lives in a Time of Famine

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Content warning

Bread + Medicine: Saving Lives in a Time of Famine tells a story about the illnesses that arise when there is mass starvation. It includes depictions and discussions of human suffering, death, recovery, and aspects of medical practice in the 1920s.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Bread + Medicine: Saving Lives in a Time of Famine tells a story about the illnesses that arise when there is mass starvation. It includes depictions and discussions of human suffering, death, recovery, and aspects of medical practice in the 1920s.

# data[].attributes.headline
From breadlines to pea soup: food and politics in socialist Poland

# data[].attributes.subject
From breadlines to pea soup: food and politics in socialist Poland

# data[].attributes.headline
How the War in Ukraine Affects Food Insecurity

# data[].attributes.subject
How the War in Ukraine Affects Food Insecurity

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Arun K. Bhunia, Academic Editor and Massimo F. Marcone, Academic Editor

Abstract

The war in Ukraine has caused severe disruption to national and worldwide food supplies. Ukraine is a major exporter of wheat, maize, and oilseeds, staples that are now suffering a war-triggered supply risk. This paper describes the background of the problem and illustrates current trends by outlining some of the measures that may be deployed to mitigate the conflict's impacts on achieving SDG 2 (Zero hunger), especially focusing on ending hunger, achieving food security, improving nutrition, and promoting sustainable agriculture. In order to understand the main research strands in the literature that are related to food security in the context of wars, the authors adopted a bibliometric literature review based on the co-occurrence of terms technique, conducted with 631 peer-reviewed documents extracted from the Scopus database. To complement the bibliometric assessment, ten case studies were selected to narrow down the food insecurity aspects caused by the war in Ukraine. The co-occurrence analysis indicated four different thematic clusters. In the next stage, an assessment of the current situation on how war affects food security was carried out for each one of the clusters, and the reasons and possible solutions to food security were identified. Policy recommendations and theoretical implications for food security in the conflict context in Ukraine were also addressed.

Keywords: food security, Ukraine, war, agriculture, economics, public policies

1. Introduction

The armed conflict in Ukraine poses a considerable challenge to food markets worldwide. On 17 July 2023, the UN Secretary-General, Antonio Guterres, noted the following: "The production and availability of food is being disrupted by conflict, climate change, energy prices and more". These words show that addressing food security is complicated by conflicts, including active military operations in the territory of Ukraine, climate change, and energy prices [ 1]. In accordance with the most recent definition by FAO [ 2], Food Security (FS) has been defined as follows: " A situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life".

Before 2014, humanity was successfully overcoming the problem of food security in small steps; there has been a continuous decline in food security indicators since then. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on food security has also been devastating, with an estimated increase in the number of people suffering from hunger in 2020 equal to the previous five years combined. This means that almost one in three people in the world (2.37 billion) did not have access to adequate food in 2020 [ 3]. The FAO's 2023 report notes that the international community has not had time to recover from the global pandemic and is now struggling with the consequences of the war in Ukraine, which has further undermined food and energy markets [ 4]. Global food security challenges and its drivers include conflicts and wars in Ukraine and other countries, slowdowns and downturns, and climate change [ 4].

Since February 2022, the war in Ukraine has caused numerous consequences, including severe stress in food security, with impacts on the national and global levels. The reasons for this severe stress are rising prices and supply chain disruptions [ 5]. Most importantly, Ukraine is one of the world's main breadbaskets [ 6]. Ukraine exports approximately 20% of all wheat produced in the world. As for corn and sunflower, Ukraine accounts for 10% and 45% of global production, respectively [ 7].

Ukraine is among the largest exporting countries of sunflower seeds, oilseeds, rapeseed, corn, and wheat [ 8]. For example, Ukraine accounts for about a third of cereal supplies in the Middle East and North Africa region [ 9]. East Africa is also heavily dependent on cereal imports, 45 per cent of which come from Ukraine [ 9]. Fragile countries such as Libya, Pakistan, Yemen, and Lebanon receive 30% of their wheat imports from Ukraine [ 2], indicating that a large percentage of the population lives in food insecurity.

In 2021, Ukrainian farmers grew the largest harvest in agri-production history; as a result, the exports to the EU increased by 50%, leaving behind the trade with China and Russia [ 10].

According to the results from Table 1 , the harvesting of cereals and oil crops in Ukraine increased overall during the time frame 2018-2021, for all presented categories except soya beans. In order to better understand the relative differences in production volumes, the dynamics of cereal and oil crop production are shown in Figure 1 .

Table 1

All Agricultural Holdings
Years

Harvesting of Volume of Production, Thousands of Tons
(Yield, Tons per ha of the Harvested Area)

Wheat

Maize

Soybeans

Winter Rapeseed and Colza (Spring Rapeseed)

Sunflower Seeds

There was a decrease in harvesting for all presented agricultural holdings in 2020 ( Figure 1 ); however, 2021 was very productive overall and especially for maize.

The largest importers of wheat from Ukraine are Egypt, Indonesia, Turkey, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Tunisia, Morocco, Yemen, Lebanon, Philippines [ 12].

In the first 8 months of 2021, Ukraine exported products of the oil and fat industry that were worth USD 4.1 billion, which is 11% more than in the same period in 2020. This information was provided by the Deputy Minister of Economy of Ukraine, Taras Kachka, in an official announcement on the ministry's website [ 13].

Before the war, Ukraine provided 46% of the sunflower oil exports, 9% of wheat exports, 17% of barley exports, and 12% of corn exports to the world markets, according to data from the US Department of Agriculture [ 14]. Despite the hostilities, food manufacturers are resuming work in the de-occupied territories, introducing new capacities in the western and central regions. The industry is restrained by export restrictions, a reduction in the purchasing power of the population, and an increase in the cost of production due to logistical difficulties and an increase in the price of energy carriers. However, some manufacturers maintain production volumes, reorienting themselves from the Ukrainian to the European market [ 15].

As of 30 June 2022, the Agricultural Price Index was 34% higher in comparison to January 2021. Maize and wheat prices were 47% and 42% higher, respectively, when compared to January 2021, while rice prices are about 8% lower. According to the World Bank's April 2022 Commodity Markets Outlook, the war in Ukraine has altered global patterns of trade, production, and consumption of commodities in ways that will keep prices at historically high levels through the end of 2024, exacerbating food insecurity and inflation [ 16].

Food prices were already high before, and the war is driving food prices even higher ( Figure 2 ). Commodities that have been most affected are wheat, maize, edible oils, and fertilizers. Global commodity markets face upside risks through the following channels: reduction in grain supplies, higher energy prices, higher fertilizer prices, and trade disruption due to the shutting down of major ports [ 16].

International wheat prices had a steep increase in May 2022 in response to the announcement of a wheat export ban by India. As exports from Ukraine remain hindered by war disruptions, and after India's larger wheat shipments in recent months played an important role in partially offsetting lost exports from Ukraine, the country's export restriction exacerbated global availability uncertainty. According to the UN FAO, the disruptions caused by war in Ukraine have raised the average food price index to its highest level ever ( Figure 3 ). Thus, the FAO Food Price Index, which tracks international prices for the world's top-selling food commodities, increased by an average of 14.3% in 2022 compared to 2021, the highest since records began in 1990. The FAO Cereal Price Index in 2022 increased by 17.9% due to factors such as significant market disruptions, rising energy and input prices, adverse weather conditions, and continued high global food insecurity, FAO summed up [ 17].

The war has significantly disrupted the transport of commodities. Almost all of Ukraine's grain exports went through Black Sea ports, which were not operational before the "Initiative on the Safe Transportation of Grain and Foodstuffs from Ukrainian ports" was signed in Istanbul, Turkey, on the 22nd of July 2022. It was expected that Ukraine would export up to 20 million tonnes of wheat during the season (summer 2022), which corresponds to about 10% of global wheat exports.

However, in 2023, the situation remains critical. According to information from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine, in the first 10 days after the breakdown of the Grain Deal, shelling launched towards Ukrainian territory destroyed 180,000 tonnes of grain and damaged 26 port infrastructure facilities and five civilian vessels [ 18].

The war will also disrupt agricultural production in Ukraine in the coming seasons. Spring planting for crops such as maize, barley, and sunflowers typically occurs from April to May, while winter wheat is planted from September to mid-November. Shortages of labor and inputs (such as fuel and fertilizers), destruction of farming equipment, and safety concerns of growers will have a severe impact on Ukraine's agricultural (and especially wheat) production. Estimates on how much Ukraine's agricultural production will decline in the upcoming season vary from 25 to 50 percent [ 19].

In May 2022, it was estimated that one-third of Ukrainians suffered from food insecurity [ 12]. Additionally, with the beginning of the crisis, the number of ships carrying agricultural products dramatically declined, which in turn resulted in considerable impact on food prices [ 12]. Furthermore, the ripple effects of the war encompassed Ukraine's closure of harbors and interruptions of the oilseed crushing process [ 2]. That is why a shortage of food exports in Ukraine is accompanied by soaring food prices [ 12].

Due to the war in Ukraine, ripple effects have led to record levels of food insecurity. The number of people experiencing acute food insecurity or at high risk as of June 2022 (million) increased by 7.3 in Asia and the Pacific, 6.3 in the Middle East, North Africa, and Eastern Europe, 9.7 in West Africa, 9.6 in Southern Africa, 10.5 in Eastern Africa, and 3.6 in Latin America and the Caribbean [ 20].

However, in order to meet the current demand for wheat, 25 million tonnes need to be replaced by alternative sources [ 21]. At COP 27, The "Green Grain Paths" Ukrainian initiative was presented, which raised the issue of the global threat to the world's food security and the creation of partnerships at every stage of the grain supply chain.

The FAO's 2023 report predicts that nearly 600 million people will be chronically undernourished in 2030, indicating a huge gap before the SDG goal of eradicating hunger is met. By comparison, this figure is about 119 million more than in a scenario where there was neither a pandemic nor war in Ukraine, and about 23 million more than if there had been no war in Ukraine [ 22].

The ongoing fighting in Ukraine could trigger a global food crisis, as 36 of the 55 countries already experiencing a food crisis depend on exports from Ukraine and Russia. Before 2022, both countries produced about 30% of the world's supply of wheat and barley, a fifth of corn, and more than half of sunflower oil [ 23]. Roughly 22% of Ukraine's farmland-including 28% of winter crops and 18% of summer crops-is not under Ukrainian official control, according to NASA Harvest's analysis [ 24]. The "Initiative on the Safe Transportation of Grain and Foodstuffs from Ukrainian ports" (Black Sea Grain Initiative) stabilized spiraling food prices around the world and prevented hunger affecting millions of people [ 25].

Due to this reliance on exports from both countries, the war in Ukraine is affecting food security globally. The concept of food security encompasses four dimensions: food availability, access, stability, and utilization. The addition of a further dimension to the concept, like sustainability or agency, has been discussed among scholars [ 26] and has been recognized as an official dimension by the FAO since 2022. Food insecurity has various consequences-whether for individuals and those suffering from hunger or malnutrition, which leads to physical and mental health problems that might affect the economy and cause poverty, or for food security itself, causing more conflicts due to the strain it puts upon people [ 27]. Therefore, closing knowledge gaps on mitigating food insecurity is urgently needed in light of the Ukraine situation. Furthermore, it has high importance in helping the world reach higher strategic goals like SDG2 or SDG16.

To conclude, the war in Ukraine has led to severe disruptions in terms of agricultural production [ 12]. The Black Sea Grain Initiative (BSGI) along with the UN Memorandum of Understanding with the Russian Federation to facilitate Russian food and fertilizer exports have become lifelines for global food security and the stability of world food prices. These measures helped to bring food prices down by 23 percent from their maximum in 2022 [ 28].

Based on previous experiences and studies, the war itself can have long-term influences on the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of soil, and using this land for growing food might potentially lead to health problems [ 29]. In this sense, apart from describing the background of the problem, this study has two main goals: (1) to unveil what the literature has been addressing in food insecurity in the context of war, and (2) to cross-check the theory against some current trends and data, assessing the impact of the ongoing conflict on agricultural production in the affected area, and consequently, estimating the impact on food availability.

In order to achieve these goals, the authors opted for a bibliometric analysis of the literature, where a search string was created to understand what scholars have been covering in the field. After a screening process, a total of 635 peer-reviewed papers were selected and used to proceed with the co-occurrence technique. In the second stage, the authors judiciously selected nine case studies to illustrate how the impact of war in Ukraine puts food security in danger on local and global scales. This also allowed us to indicate measures that may be deployed to mitigate the conflict's impacts on achieving SDG 2 (Zero hunger), with a focus on ending hunger, achieving food security, improving nutrition, and promoting sustainable agriculture.

2. Methods

The present research considers a bibliometric analysis and the case study research approach developed from a literature review [ 30, 31], as it is relevant to gathering broad evidence on the impacts of wars on food security. The approaches can then also be used to analyze the narrower context of the conflict in Ukraine.

In this context, the bibliometric analysis was conducted for specific terms related to war and food security on Scopus, a widely known scientific database of peer-reviewed academic documents containing more than 5000 journals and 24,000 publications. The bibliometric analysis is considered a quantitative computer-assisted review methodology commonly used to identify the main studies, authors, and journals or to understand the bibliometric networks evidencing, for example, the major discussions of a research field [ 32, 33].

The data collection took place in August 2022, where the documents used to compose the sample were collected through a search string containing terms connected to 'war' and food security, such as 'food' OR 'grain' OR 'cereal' OR 'agriculture' OR 'crop*' OR 'agricultural'. Figure 4 shows how the authors worked with the exclusion criteria before moving forward with the bibliometric analysis.

The search string initially returned 732 documents and, after applying the exclusion criteria, as stated in Figure 4 , 631 documents remained and were used to proceed with the co-occurrence analysis. Table 2 shows the search string used and the number of entries obtained to proceed with the bibliometric analysis.

Table 2

Database

Search String

Number of Documents

Scopus

(TITLE ("war") AND TITLE ("food" OR "grain*" OR "cereal*" OR "agriculture" OR "crop*" OR "agricultural")

Before screening process:
732 entries
After screening process:
631 entries

The investigation was performed using the VOSviewer software [ 34], and the co-occurrence of terms was the technique selected to explore the research streams that researchers have been discussing on food security in the context of war. The results are presented in the next section in a network graph (see Figure 5 ), where the diameter of the bubbles indicates the frequency of the occurrence of a specific term, while the link width indicates the strength of the connection between two terms. The terms that appear close to each other are related to the frequency of co-occurring. Therefore, they are expected to be associated, generating a thematic cluster due to their co-occurrence frequency.

In this sense, the bibliometric analysis becomes relevant for this study for several reasons. For example, the bibliometric analyses based on the co-occurrence of terms could help scientists to identify research trends in a specific field, evidencing its big picture, as well as helping the researcher to map the knowledge of each one of the clusters found in order to delve into a specific area of the studied field. Therefore, the co-occurrence technique could help scientists to reduce the complexity of a field, supporting the conduct of discussions based on how different concepts converge and relate to each other (see [ 32, 33, 35].

This paper also considers a set of 10 case studies to narrow the discussion on the impact of war on food security in the Ukrainian context. The case study selection was based on the expert-driven literature review to find relevant well-cited papers that are published in top journals and that could enhance the discussion on the field as well as tackle the goals of this study. The selection of case studies was judiciously conducted in order to overcome some limitations of the bibliometric analysis and deepen the discussion of food insecurity aspects caused by the war in Ukraine as well as guaranteeing thematic relevance, variety of scopes, and international interest. It is worth considering that the case studies are decoupled from the bibliometric analysis, being a second methodology used in the study. In this sense, this approach not only enhanced the study's robustness and credibility, but also tackled potential constraints of quantitative methods such as the bibliometric analysis.

Finally, this study also relied on secondary data to understand the impact on food availability in the affected area. In this sense, the authors gathered relevant information from relevant organizations such as the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations [ 2], the European Commission [ 9] World Food Programme [ 12], The World Bank [ 16], and some Ukrainian statistics divisions to measure and understand the magnitude of the impact of the shortage of grains due to the war.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Food Security in Times of War

As an outcome of the bibliometric analysis, four different clusters (C) were identified and used in order to assess the current situation on how war affects food security ( Figure 5 ).

C1: The red cluster focuses on the social dimensions of the interlinkage between food security and war. War, as one of the main causes of food insecurity, causes destruction, displacement, control of food, and starvation, which makes governments often unable or reluctant to address food shortages, and instead they try to prevent the exacerbation of the situation [ 36]. During and after war, many veterans and displaced people, especially those with a higher duration of displacement, experience food insecurity and low nutritional status [ 37, 38]. In a study from Widome et al. [ 37], veterans with a lower income and military pay grades were more likely to smoke and drink alcohol, and they slept less than food-secure humans.

Moreover, trade wars or international food trade barriers due to political conflicts lead to food insecurity [ 39]. As a result, countries banning food trade experience a surplus of food, leading to an increase in the global environmental cost of agricultural production [ 40]. Other results include food distribution inequality, violation of basic human rights, and the maintenance of social disorder [ 41].

Internal factors such as economic recession, environmental deterioration, political instability, and inter-ethnic conflicts are other reasons for food insecurity [ 39]. Famine manifestations in people can include nutritional deficiency, low weight, anemia, delay in children's physical development, and childhood diseases. Vitamin deficiency is also one of the main deficiency-related diseases among food-insecure people [ 42]. Reduction in the production of fruits and vegetables results in a dramatic rise in prices, a reduction in human consumption, and an increase in human vitamin C deficiency [ 43]. As far as it leads to nutritional deficiency, there is a clear connection to C2 (human history, nutrition, and war). It is important to note that every type of war can affect food security in a different manner, depending on the extent of the region affected and of the destruction [ 44].

Suggestions made by authors in this cluster to address food insecurity at a global level include respecting food as a basic human right, merging local capacities [ 35], creating a sustainable global cropping system [ 39], and more equitable seed distribution to rehabilitate agriculture disorder [ 41]. The government's measures to address food insecurity at the national level include overseas agricultural investment, food import from multiple origins [ 45], food independence by replacing available foods with scant foods [ 40], and taking initiatives aimed at offering people the healthiest diet possible during food shortages [ 42]. The nationalization of agricultural land is considered an impractical way to address urgent food shortage problems [ 46].

C2: The green cluster emphasizes the nutritional dimension of food security and war, showcasing historical examples.

The analysis presented in the paper is closely connected to the historical context and empirical evidence provided in these excerpts, which underscores the critical importance of addressing food security in conflict contexts [ 47]. These historical references to World War I and World War II serve as poignant reminders of the devastating consequences of food shortages during conflicts, setting the stage for understanding the contemporary challenges faced by Ukraine in the context of its ongoing conflict [ 48, 49].

Moreover, the information regarding the direct and indirect impacts of war on agricultural crop production offers valuable insights into the complexities of the issue [ 50]. The destruction of infrastructure is highlighted as a direct cost of war, resulting in a tangible reduction in crop production. Additionally, the contamination of food and the environment with substances such as uranium, which is used in bullets and shells during wars, underscores the far-reaching consequences of warfare on food safety and quality [ 51]. This multifaceted analysis contributes to a comprehensive understanding of the challenges Ukraine faces in ensuring food security amidst conflict.

Lastly, these insightful excerpts are highly relevant to the paper's policy recommendations. By highlighting both historical precedents and contemporary evidence of the wide-ranging impacts of food insecurity during conflicts, the paper can make a compelling case for specific policy actions. For instance, it may recommend strategies to protect agricultural infrastructure, mitigate the environmental impact of war, and address nutritional deficiencies among affected populations [ 46]. In essence, these excerpts, rich with references, provide crucial background information and empirical evidence that support the paper's analysis of food security in the context of the conflict in Ukraine, enriching the overall discussion and policy recommendations.

C3: The blue cluster represents the complex relationship between agriculture and food production with food availability, and, consequently, their impacts on human health and well-being. Other factors addressed in this cluster are the industrialized world and the impacts of climate change, along with wars, displacement of people, and agricultural land abandonment.

Generally, developing countries depend on agriculture as a primary driver of the economy as well as the main provider of nutrition for people. However, when a military conflict takes place in a country, it usually leads to disruption in agricultural production, primarily in lands closest to the war areas [ 55]. Farmers fear for their lives and might abandon their land until the war is over (Scopus, Vulnerabilities of Wheat Crop Farmers in War Zone, n.d.), while also facing psychological stressors and financial corruption [ 56]. The conflict may cause a change in the agricultural behavior of the population, which may disrupt the ecological system and threaten wildlife without creating an actual increase in crop production or food security [ 57].

There are also the issue that various kinds of weapons used in war zones leave behind the harmful waste of heavy metals or even nuclear waste. This leads to damage such as irreversible pollution. As far as it results in the contamination of food, there is a clear connection to C2 (human history, nutrition, and war). Moreover, it leads to the destruction of the ecosystem and animal life such as insects, which are important for pollination and crop production in those areas [ 58, 59]. Along with the effects of war, global climate change may also contribute further to food insecurity [ 60].

C4: The yellow cluster illustrates the impact of war and political conflict on various aspects of the economy and vice versa and how this shapes the public policies in politics, health, education, and other domains.

3.2. Food Security in Conflict Context in Ukraine

When a military conflict takes place in the country, multiple factors have to be considered. Therefore, the impact of war on food security in the Ukrainian context would be different compared to other conflict situations in the world. In order to understand the situation of food insecurity aspects caused by the war in Ukraine, an analysis of 10 case studies was conducted. These case studies were selected based on the expert-driven literature review. The results of this study are presented below.

CASE STUDY 1: "Impacts of the conflict in Ukraine on global food security" [ 69].

In particular, the study examines the possible impact of the war in Ukraine on Ukraine's production and export of agricultural commodities, especially grains and oilseeds. It also outlines the impact of trade sanctions against Russia on the export of cereals and oilseeds. At the same time, this research investigates the possible impact of higher energy prices on global agricultural production and trade.

Implications for Food Security

The study concludes that from a food security perspective, there is enough food on the global level. However, higher food prices could become a problem and put food availability under some pressure for a part of the population that has a low income, spends a large part of their income on cereals, and is highly dependent on imports of Ukrainian and Russian cereals (for example in Egypt, Turkey, and the Middle East). For the EU, food prices rose by 5% for crops and 2% for food; however, given the relatively low proportion of income spent on food, this should not be a problem for the average citizen.

CASE STUDY 2: "Implications of the Russia-Ukraine war for global food security" [ 70]

This research investigates how conflicts can affect the capacity of food systems and supply chains to function appropriately due to production declines (producers are being engaged in war, are unable to produce, or are fleeing the country), destroyed agricultural yields and water infrastructure, or disruptions in agricultural inputs in the foreign markets, as well as how these can affect the capacity of consumers to access sufficient food because of their declining purchasing power. At the same time, the paper outlines what happens with the capacity of international food aid when trying to meet growing food needs in times of crisis.

This study suggests solutions to listed problems, such as establishing an international community strategic food reserve or including new rules in international humanitarian law that provide sufficient protection to food systems-related infrastructures and activities.

Implications for Food Security

After a decline during the past decade, global hunger is rising again, and the ongoing war in Ukraine is expected to increase this trend (experts estimate that 7.6 to 13.1 million people are threatened).

The reason for this is the volatility of major food commodities and fertilizers, which may affect production decisions and spur speculative behavior. It will affect international society, but countries most dependent on imports of Ukrainian and Russian cereals, such as Egypt, Lebanon, and Tunisia (whose wheat imports from Ukraine are 85%, 81%, and 50% of their total wheat imports, respectively), will be the most impacted by war-related disruptions.

This war is also affecting the ability of international agencies to provide food aid to countries that are suffering from famine or other armed conflicts because of rising costs, with the risk of excluding millions of people from current food aid programs.

CASE STUDY 3: "Potential medium-term impacts of the Russia-Ukrainian war on the Dutch agriculture and food system: An assessment" [ 71]

This research assesses the potential impacts of the war in Ukraine on different agricultural sectors in the Netherlands, both with and without taking into account the European Union or national policy response. The focus is on the medium-term impacts (period 2021-2025), considering 2021 as a pre-Ukraine war reference point. In this study, the authors also explore potential impacts on employment. The assessment addresses the impacts on primary production, as well as on upstream and downstream industries. The results show the impact on the Netherlands' use (including consumption) and on the Dutch agricultural net trade position.

Implications for Food Security

The impacts found as a result of this research for the different scenarios suggest that the medium-term impact of the Ukraine war on Dutch agriculture is relatively limited (less than 1% of the total value added over the period 2022-2024 in the five considered sectors). Moreover, energy prices and agricultural commodity prices were already increasing because of other factors (the COVID-19 pandemic, the role of droughts, etc.).

At the same time, the uncertainty with respect to energy prices and energy-related inputs (fertilizer, pesticides) is likely to be one of the most pronounced impacts of the Ukrainian war on Dutch agriculture in the short to medium term. An energy price increase is likely to have worldwide impacts on agricultural production and consumption and will create a passing on effect on agricultural product prices.

CASE STUDY 4: "Quantifying War-Induced Crop Losses in Ukraine in Near Real Time to Strengthen Local and Global Food Security" [ 72]

In order to estimate the direct and indirect effects of the war and the expected yield of winter crops in Ukraine, a 4-year panel (2019-2022) of 10,125 village councils in Ukraine was used. Satellite imagery (by Sentinel-2, Planet) was used to provide information on direct damage to agricultural fields (burning, the explosion of ordnance, rockets, or aircraft, and soil compaction) to classify crop cover using machine learning, and to compute the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) (by sensors Landsat and MODIS) for winter cereal fields as a proxy for yield. This research focuses on the supply side in order to investigate the effects of the war in Ukraine on food security, unlike the other studies that focus rather on the demand.

Implications for Food Security

The result of this study shows that food production can be analyzed using satellite imagery to generate measures of agricultural production as outcome variables as well as indicators of conflict, considering that causality runs from conflict to food security (opposite to what is most prevalent in developing countries, that the value of agricultural endowments triggers conflict). Particularly in Ukraine, taking area and yield reduction together suggests a war-induced loss of winter crop output of up to 25% if the current winter crop can be harvested fully. Having this information can help to improve decision making by policymakers and private parties to minimize war-induced losses.

CASE STUDY 5: "The conceptual principles of state policy of Ukraine in the field of food security in terms of European integration" [ 73]

The article (1) examines organizational and economic features (problems) of insufficient food supply in Ukraine; (2) substantiates the structural components of the program of balanced production of food and food raw materials; (3) determines measures of state policy on the food security of the population of Ukraine; (4) develops a methodological approach to substantiation and implementation of state policy on the implementation of the principles of ensuring food safety and quality in Ukraine; (5) substantiates the strategy of ensuring the physical and economic accessibility of food.

Implications for Food Security

As a result of this research, the structural components of the program of balanced production of food and raw materials were formed (increasing the level of income, providing cheap food, increasing the supply of food, and the use of special tools). The mechanism of the methodological approach construction is formed on the principle of problems-directions-measures. The proposed strategic tools (structural, special, and local measures) enable solutions for the tasks of improving nutrition at the local level and gaining additional positive impact on the formation of a model of sustainable agricultural development, which can influence global food security.

CASE STUDY 6: "The reinvasion of Ukraine threatens global food supplies" [ 74]

This study outlines that the reduction in the vast quantities of edible food that are wasted in rich countries every day, as well as the replacement of animal-based foods with plant-based options, could feed an additional number of people and mitigate climate change. It also questions the existing model of global trade and systems of agricultural production, which is dependent on oil for fertilizers, transport, and agrichemicals; this model encourages the consumption of energy-dense ultra-processed foods.

Implications for Food Security

According to this research, the war in Ukraine, together with pre-war factors (e.g., COVID-19), caused the already rising global food prices to reach an all-time high. The consequences will be felt by everyone, but some populations are especially vulnerable (Lebanon, Yemen, Syria, Afghanistan). There are also many poor people in rich countries who will suffer. Several actions are required in order to combat food insecurity, such as replacing all animal-based foods with plant-based ones, which could feed an additional 350 million people, and changing the existing model of global trade in order to increase food stocks in countries that have disinvested in domestic production in favor of cheaper imports. At the same time, the systems of agricultural production need to be less energy-dense.

CASE STUDY 7: "The War in Ukraine, Agricultural Trade and Risks to Global Food Security" [ 75].

This research investigates global food supply chains. The war in Ukraine, together with rising prices in late 2021, have affected import-dependent countries in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region and sub-Saharan Africa, which rely heavily on Russian and Ukrainian wheat. However, global demand for wheat is expected to be met in the current marketing year (2022/23), since countries such as Australia, Brazil, and the USA will increase exports to fill the gap left by Russia and Ukraine.

Implications for Food Security

According to this research, the war in Ukraine increases the risk of food insecurity for import-dependent countries with low per capita incomes. The key to dealing with crises and mitigating the risks of food shortages could be a reduction in bureaucratic and tariff barriers to trade by global supply chain structures. Also, targeted political efforts are needed to ensure that Ukraine and Russia remain integral parts of the world agricultural trading system. On the other hand, transitions to (more) closed food economies are not advisable, as this would remove players from international markets, could lead to food shortages in many countries, and might take focus away from environmental and health-related issues.

CASE STUDY 8: "We need a food system transformation-In the face of the Russia-Ukraine war, now more than ever" [ 76].

This paper discusses moving towards changes in global food consumption habits and the food supply chain. The research shows how transformation towards a healthy, fair, and environmentally friendly food system reinforcement can bring short-term relief and avert the existential threat our food system poses to the health of people and the planet. It confirms that the need for sustainable solutions is still present while facing the Russia-Ukraine war.

Implications for Food Security

The authors of this study suggest that global food insecurity has its origin not in a shortage of supply but in high economic inequalities and maldistribution. Even though global food production is more than sufficient to feed an even higher world population, it is not supplied to those with limited financial means. This paper proposes three levers for solving short-term problems and long-term sustainable development: 1. Accelerate the shift toward healthier diets with fewer animal products in Europe. 2. Increase the production of legumes and strengthen Farm2Fork. 3. Reduce the amount of food waste. "Farm to Fork" is, namely a scheme led by the European Union, to promote the sustainability of farming processes, i.e., from production (the farm) until it reaches the plate of the end-consumer (the fork).

CASE STUDY 9: "What the war in Ukraine means for energy, climate and food" [ 77].

This paper shows how war in Ukraine influenced the markets and geopolitics of energy, oil, and gas prices and the reconsideration of countries' energy supplies. Particularly, it outlines the possibility of rising energy prices and the potential loss of grain supplies from Ukraine and Russia to reinforce inflationary effects and drive up prices for food and other commodities.

Implications for Food Security

According to Christopher Barrett, in the short term, the prices of wheat and other grains have increased due to hoarding and bidding wars. But global food stocks are sufficient to cover the loss. Even though there could be disruptions to fertilizer markets because fossil fuels are a major feedstock, the effect should be mitigated by substitutes. However, the cost of rising petrol and electricity prices to the larger food supply system could be substantial. As a result, some of the greatest casualties of the war in Ukraine will be people who are already severely struggling in other places (Yemenis, Syrians, and Nigerians).

CASE STUDY 10: "Caught off guard and beaten: The Ukraine war and food security in the Middle East" [ 44].

The study provides a detailed analysis of the food-related vulnerability of the Middle East (Yemen, Libya, Lebanon, Sudan) in the wake of the Ukraine war. It shows the varying impacts of it, including a deepened food sector crisis, worsened by political-economic instabilities, limited domestic agriculture, and the lack of reliable grain reserves. At the same time, the paper highlights country-level response strategies related to regional aid and cooperation that have emerged in the Gulf countries.

Implications for Food Security

The author of this study outlined that the war in Ukraine is hitting the Middle East very hard due to the relatively high dependence levels and the baseline political, economic, and environmental vulnerabilities. For example, around 80% of the 30 million Yemeni population is dependent on aid. At the same time, countries having significant storage capacity and available reserves were better able to avoid or delay shortfalls or price hikes despite high dependence (e.g., the Gulf countries and Egypt). As a short-term solution, food subsidy systems for the most vulnerable have softened some of the impacts of the price hikes. In oil- and/or gas-exporting countries, the increase in carbon fuel prices after the war in Ukraine meant that additional revenues could be used in the mitigation of the food crisis (e.g., in Algeria, Libya). At the same time, environmental vulnerabilities can weaken the ability of local agriculture to provide food. As a result, many Middle East countries, especially with political-economic instability (Yemen, Libya, Lebanon, Sudan), will be relying on international cooperation in the short and medium term, including shipments under the Black Sea Grain Initiative.

It should be noted that the case studies illustrate a variety of situations and contexts where food security is endangered because of the ongoing war in Ukraine or is avoided due to various means used to achieve it. These are summarized in Table 3 .

According to the results obtained by the analyses of a set of 10 case studies, the war in Ukraine can affect food security due to many reasons. Among them are production declines (producers are being engaged in war, unable to produce or flee the country), destroyed agricultural yields and water infrastructure, and agricultural inputs disrupted in foreign markets. The conflict is also affecting the ability of international agencies to provide food aid to countries that are suffering from famine or other armed conflicts [ 70]. An energy price increase will also influence energy-related inputs (fertilizer, pesticides), which is likely to have worldwide impacts on agricultural production, and as a result, will affect agricultural product prices that are also being influenced by prewar factors (e.g., COVID-19) [ 71]. There is a strong connection to cluster C4 (economics and public policies) that illustrates the impact of war on various aspects of the economy and vice versa.

Based on the research, solutions to the listed problems can be suggested. One such solution is an improvement in decision making by policymakers and private parties to minimize war-induced losses by forecasting food production using satellite imagery [ 72]. Carefully selected structural components of the national program of balanced production of food (e.g., increasing the level of income, providing cheap food, increasing the supply of food, the use of special tools) can allow for solutions for the tasks at the local level and impact sustainable agricultural development, which can influence global food security [ 73]. On the global level, we can provide a reduction in food waste and accelerate the shift toward healthier diets with fewer animal products (including increased production of legumes) [ 74, 76]. At the same time, a change in the existing model of global trade is suggested by [ 74] in order to increase food stocks in countries that have disinvested in domestic production in favor of cheaper imports. This is also in line with the strengthened Farm2Fork conception by [ 76]. On the other hand, the authors of [ 75] have different opinions on this question. They outline that those transitions to (more) closed food economies are not advisable, as this would remove players from international markets, could lead to food shortages in many countries, and might take focus away from environmental and health-related issues. The authors suggest a reduction in bureaucratic and tariff barriers to trade by global supply chain structures. In order to protect food systems-related infrastructures and activities, the authors of [ 70] propose that the international community establish a strategic food reserve or include new rules in international humanitarian law. There is no doubt that systems of agricultural production need to be less energy-dense [ 74]. It relates to cluster C4 (economics and public policies) by showing how war shapes public policies in politics, health, food trade, and production.

The author of [ 44] argued that alongside classic responses such as trade controls, supply diversification, public support, and aid, the relatively comfortable position of Arab Gulf countries will play a crucial role in mitigating some of the impacts of food crises on the Middle East through regional cooperation and aid-related food security and fiscal stability. At the same time, local agriculture remains an important food security tool in some Middle Eastern countries, but it should be securitized using sustainability and efficiency criteria (particularly the issues of water availability and use efficiency). However, the aggravated food insecurity in some of the countries, particularly Yemen, as a result of the war in Ukraine is difficult to resolve in the short or medium terms. Despite having agricultural potential, decades of water over-abstraction, mismanagement, and cultivation of cash crops have left Yemen's agricultural sector quite weak. The food crises in Middle Eastern countries will deteriorate the situation further if no lasting peace materializes and if donors as well as neighboring countries do not increase their aid [ 44].

The case studies' results complement the findings from the bibliometric analysis, evidencing that those aspects such as food security and government, nutrition and war, food safety and health, and economics and public policies can also be found in the context of the war in Ukraine.

At the same time, the results provide a better understanding of the fact that the war in Ukraine also unleashed a new type of complex global food crisis with supply interruptions and rising costs of key agricultural inputs such as fuel, transport, and fertilizers. The results indicate that this war is not only generating food insecurity in Ukraine, but also globally, due to the shortage in grain production and supply and the higher prices.

4. Conclusions

This study aimed to explore the extent of the food insecurity problem due to the war in Ukraine by unveiling the research streams in which scholars have been conducting research related to the impact of war on food security aspects. Ten case studies that directly tackle the food security problem in the context of the war in Ukraine helped to reveal relevant secondary data that could support the bibliometric exploration, which could further contribute to policymaking.

The results from the bibliometric analysis indicate the existence of at least four main thematic clusters that scholars are covering on the food security aspects in the general war context (not only in Ukraine): food security and government aspects (C1), human history, nutrition, and war (C2), agriculture, food safety, and health (C3), and economics and public policies (C4). The case studies complement the findings in these clusters, evidencing that these aspects can also be found in the context of the war in Ukraine, which is further evidenced by the secondary data gathered.

This study also has implications that the authors agree upon for their relevance for policy making. Firstly, the results indicate that the war is not solely generating food insecurity in Ukraine, but also globally, due to the shortage in grain production and the higher prices. Secondly, it has been evidenced that the war could compromise the capacity of food systems and supply chains. This could reduce the capacity of consumers to have access to sufficient amounts of food and important micronutrients, which could lead to malnutrition. Moreover, the shortage of food production can also be a consequence of the reduced import or production of fertilizers and agrichemicals. Finally, the situation unveiled the necessity of consistent food policies to tackle the situation on a local and global scale, especially related to the necessity of sustainable food systems in order to guarantee the health of people and the planet.

This study has limitations which could be related to the methods deployed. The bibliometric analysis based on the co-occurrence analysis operates under the assumption that the mere frequency of term co-occurrence signifies strong conceptual relationships, disregarding potential nuances in contextual meaning. Additionally, the quality and comprehensiveness of the data sources can impact the accuracy of results, potentially introducing biases or incomplete insights. The subjectivity involved in term selection and the dynamic nature of language further add complexities to the interpretation. Also, reliance on 10 expert-selected case studies may limit the generalizability of findings and introduce selection bias, potentially impacting the broader applicability and representativeness of conclusions. The authors believe, however, that these limitations could bring relevant ideas for future studies.

Firstly, the authors believe that gathering qualitative data through interviews with relevant stakeholders could contribute to elaborating the policymaking aspects previously suggested. In addition, a deep understanding of the reality of farmers in Ukraine and an exploration of their necessities could help the Ukrainian government to formulate specific policies to alleviate the problems related to food production and the food supply chain. Thirdly, an assessment conducted by the Ukrainian government to understand the health conditions of the Ukrainian citizens can help find those who need urgent support in terms of malnutrition, whether it involves the daily amount of food consumed or the important micronutrients. Fourthly, the authors believe that future research could seek to understand the current policies in place and find relevant gaps that have not been tracked by Ukrainian and European Union authorities in order to guarantee the proper functioning of food systems and the health of the planet and population at the same time.

Acknowledgments

This paper has been funded by the Inter-University Sustainable Development Research Programme and is part of the "100 papers to accelerate the implementation of the UN Sustainable Development Goals" initiative. The support from the German Federal Environment Foundation (DBU) to the project "Ukraine Nature", from which some information is drawn from, is also gratefully acknowledged.

Funding Statement

This research received no external funding.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, W.L.F.; methodology, W.L.F. and J.H.P.P.E.; software, J.H.P.P.E.; validation, J.B., M.F. and J.H.P.P.E.; formal analysis, M.F., T.L., C.B. and A.L.; investigation, M.F., A.L. and C.B.; resources, T.L.; data curation, J.H.P.P.E. and J.B.; writing-original draft preparation, M.F.; writing-review and editing, W.L.F. and J.H.P.P.E.; visualization, J.H.P.P.E. and T.L.; supervision, W.L.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Footnotes

Disclaimer/Publisher's Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

References

Articles from Foods are provided here courtesy of Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How the War in Ukraine Affects Food Security

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The war in Ukraine has caused severe disruption to national and worldwide food supplies. Ukraine is a major exporter of wheat, maize, and oilseeds, staples that are now suffering a war-triggered supply risk. This paper describes the background of the ...

# data[].attributes.headline
Food Security in High Mountains of Central Asia

# data[].attributes.subject
Food Security in High Mountains of Central Asia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Abstract

The ubiquitous incised valleys and steep slopes leave mountain agriculture exposed to direct impacts of multiple natural hazards, including landslides, debris flows, floods, rockfall, and snow avalanches (Sidle 2020, Nie et al. 2021, Caiserman et al. 2022). Steep terrain limits radiation, especially on their shaded aspects, exacerbating already short growing seasons. Mountain topography induces local effects on precipitation and temperature regimes, as well as unique climate change impacts, including interannual variability in snow and drought cycles (Dietz et al. 2013, Guo et al. 2018). Many areas of the Pamir and the Hindu Kush have experienced recent long-term droughts, causing low crop yields, likely indicative of climate trajectories (Rousta et al. 2020, Hussaini et al. 2021). These environmental shocks and uncertainties, together with the isolation of mountain villages and their inherent social stresses, create food insecurity in mountain regions because of periodically failed or reduced crops, restricted access, and uncertain water supplies.

In the present article, we assess food security from multiple perspectives. We draw on our knowledge from Central Asia, particularly the Pamir, in Tajikistan, to illustrate how different factors uniquely affect food security, and we discuss their interactions, some challenges, and sustainable trajectories for improving the food security of poor mountain dwellers.

Climate patterns and constraints

Although climate change has been broadly implicated in food security challenges across the Pamir (e.g., Kassam 2009, Hussain et al. 2021), climate patterns are far from consistent. Precipitation in the region is characterized by spatial and interannual variability rather than consistent trends (figure 1a, 1b), which do not follow the model of increasing precipitation with elevation. Spatial temperature trends exhibit a clearer pattern than precipitation, decreasing with elevation. Above approximately 2000 meters (m) above sea level, the average annual temperature is below 0 degrees Celsius, which highlights the severe climate of the Pamir. Although the temperatures in most areas are increasing, the trends vary widely across the region (Finaev et al. 2016, Haag et al. 2021). There is little warming below 2000 m in western Tajikistan, where the large-scale agricultural lands exist. The overall variations in temperature and precipitation are not surprising, given the complex orography, which affects atmospheric processes and the local climate (e.g., Curio and Scherer 2016). Many climate-trend studies in the Pamir have yielded variable and contradictory results (Mirzokhonova et al. 2018), making assessments of climate change on food security uncertain.

Constraints on the climate

Climate and food security

Given the complex dynamics and spatially variable climate in the Pamir, the current and future effects on food security are highly variable, and there is no one-size-fits-all strategy for adaptation. Warming may support mountain farmers in parts of the Pamir, facilitating cultivation and food production in midelevation terrain, provided soil moisture, nutrients, and irrigation water are ensured. However, variation in the frequency and severity of droughts, untimely rains, and hazards pose challenges for mountain farmers and pastoralists and threaten food security (Chapagain and Raizada 2017). Drought affects pastures, reducing the amount of quality forage available to livestock. In the dry, Eastern Pamir and Wakhan Corridor, already degraded pastures will likely experience further stress because of warmer summers and increased grazing pressures, negatively affecting already tenuous food security. Large diurnal temperature fluctuations, typical of drylands, exacerbate the limited growing seasons. In contrast, the lower foothills in western Tajikistan have not experienced significant warming, and precipitation increased in some areas, likely benefiting agriculture, with the exception of untimely floods.

Agrobiology and biodiversity

Biodiversity: Native vegetation and crops

The mating systems of plants, along with anthropogenic disturbances (e.g., fragmentation, climate change), affect genetic diversity (Eckert et al. 2009, Guan et al. 2021). Inbreeding reduces genetic diversity, whereas outbreeding increases diversity. Genetic drifts can occur in rare and fragmented plant populations, leading to a loss of alleles, reducing genetic diversity (Honnay and Jacquemyn 2007). Although longer growing seasons and higher carbon dioxide levels in a warming climate may benefit some species, the rising temperatures can promote invasive plants, insects, and pests (table 2); however, high elevations appear less prone to these impacts (Alexander et al. 2016). Although several studies have reported positive effects of climate change (increased temperatures and precipitation) on wheat production in the region, progressive warming can induce soil salinity and flowering sterility (Sommer et al. 2013). Pulses, major sources of protein in poor mountains, have recently suffered from droughts, requiring careful varietal selection (Hussaini et al. 2021).

Adaptation strategies

Planting adapted vegetation is recommended as a key practice to conserve soil and water (Shea 2014). An ongoing study in the Pamir on varietal screening of wheat indicates that two indigenous varieties, Surkhak e Ishkashimi and Safedak e Ishkashimi, outperformed exotic varieties of winter and spring wheat from China and Pakistan. Adapted crops reduce the negative impacts of climate change and promote more stable production. Introducing new crops or reinstating heritage crops (e.g., traditional legumes such as brown lentil, horse bean, and red bean) promotes diversified agriculture, with benefits for biodiversity, ecosystem services, carbon storage, and the agroecosystem's adaptation to stresses.

Biodiversity and food security

Water issues

Climate is the primary regulator of water regimes that affect food production, but in the Pamir, water availability plays a more complex role (figure 2). Within Tajikistan, about 95% of agricultural land is irrigated; therefore, changes in water supplies greatly affect food security. The timing of water delivery to streams is critical because the summer months are dry.

Water supply dynamics

High plateaus and glaciated areas of the Eastern Pamir (more than 4000 m above sea level) have the lowest annual precipitation in the region. These arid lands support yak grazing and are among the most food insecure areas worldwide (Vanselov et al. 2012). Increasing temperature trends above 2000 m above sea level during the past 20 years typically occur in early winter and may therefore not greatly affect water supplies and food production because of frigid temperatures. At lower elevations in western Tajikistan, little temperate change coupled with increasing precipitation will likely augment water supplies and therefore agricultural production. Changes in the timing of rain and snowmelt pose concerns where higher elevations are experiencing declines in snow water in autumn, and the midelevations are shifting from snow to rain. Warming temperatures across the Central Pamir, coupled with snow water decline, may induce water stress during dry years, affecting food security.

Connectivity of water sources to streams

Hydrological connectivity in mountain ecosystems is critical for the delivery of water from sources to streams, affecting the timing and amount of water supplied to fluvial systems. As various cryosphere sources change in a warming climate, understanding how these changes affect their connectivity to agricultural water supplies in summer is critical. Although hydrological connectivity has been recognized for decades and has been applied in linking runoff to streams in other environments, only minor attention has been paid to hydrological connectivity in the cryosphere (Ma et al. 2017), with no implications for agricultural water. Therefore, quantifying the connectivity of meltwater from glaciers and remote snowpacks to streams and rivers is important to assess their contributions.

A preliminary assessment in the Pamir that overlaid glaciated areas on a digital elevation model with streams delineated showed that only approximately 75% of glaciers are directly connected to channels. Melt from the unconnected glaciers and some of those feeding disconnected first-order channels may enhance rangeland soils but will not appreciably contribute to stream discharge that feeds downriver irrigation supplies supporting food security.

Irrigation efficiency and the potential for climate-smart water management

The irrigated area in Tajikistan is estimated as 758,700 ha, but with an increasing population, the per capita area irrigated is decreasing, which is contributing to food insecurity (ALRT 2022). Therefore, water-efficient and better managed irrigation systems are needed to produce more food within the limited arable land. The major obstacles appear to be a lack of government financial support, the farmers' limited knowledge to maintain irrigation systems, low production of infertile soils, and unsustainable management of dry arable lands.

Water and food security

Water supplies in Tajikistan are paradoxically related to food production; abundant water is produced from snowmelt and glaciated areas, but these waters are released at different times, in spring through early autumn, depending on the elevation, with snowmelt highly variable from year to year. Furthermore, the precipitation and temperature trends that provide the source and release of water from the cryosphere vary throughout the Pamir, mandating site-specific estimates of available water during the late summer dry period, critical for food production. Although deep-rooted native plants adapt better to interannual changes in snowmelt, most cultivated crops require sustained irrigation, especially in mid- to late summer. The greatest long-term risks to food security appear to be in the Central Pamir and the Wakhan Corridor, where warmer temperatures and less precipitation (or no changes) will exert stresses on irrigation supplies and may even affect the migration of native plants (Khan et al. 2022). In the distant future, when the melting of small glaciers disconnects them from streams (or they completely melt), the downstream water supplies to farms will be greatly altered; however, most major glaciers in the Pamir are currently not at risk. Minor shifts from snow to rain may be occurring in midelevations of north and Central Pamir. These will affect the timing of water supplies; snowmelt is distributed over multiple weeks during spring and early summer, whereas rainfall contributes to runoff mostly in real time and requires immediate use or storage to take full advantage for food production.

Soil constraints

Colluvial, fluvial, and aeolian deposits

Improved and adapted agricultural management

To maintain local supplies of nutritious foods and enrich soil fertility in mountain regions, diversifying crops with legumes is essential (Israilovich et al. 2019). However, recently, more than half of Tajikistan's irrigated lands have been planted in cotton, diminishing the diversification potential. The most fertile and flat areas are used for cotton and wheat, with little land remaining for other crops, negatively affecting food security.

Improving the pasture conditions in the arid, high Pamir is difficult and is complicated not only by harsh climate but also by anthropogenic pressures. Although the extent of the impact is questioned (Kraudzun et al. 2014), the removal of shrubs (including massive root systems of, e.g., Ceratoides papposa) for fuelwood along with overgrazing near villages has exacerbated wind erosion in Eastern Pamir (Breckle and Wucherer 2006, Watanabe and Shirasaka 2018). In the midelevation Pamir-Alay range, pastures are rapidly eroding because of the development and extension of deep gullies cut into glacial valley fills. Although overgrazing may exacerbate this natural process, little can be done to ameliorate such gully development, except for controlling runoff from roads and cattle trails.

Soil and food security

A major constraint on food production in the Pamir is the lack of arable soil. Incised valleys afford little flat to gently sloping land where soils can be cultivated, and many sites are affected by hazards. On steep hillslopes, the soils are typically rocky, shallow (or nonexistent), and infertile, making them unsuitable for most agriculture (figure 4b). Steep slopes where some soil exists may support native fruit and nut trees as sources of food.

Agricultural sustainability in Tajikistan is also compromised by soil erosion. Even in the Pamir foothills, where extensive croplands exist, arable land is disappearing via gully development. At higher elevations, natural water erosion processes exacerbated by overgrazing and poor cultivation compromise food security. The expansive Eastern Pamir plateau, with its poor and declining vegetation cover, is experiencing a downward spiral of soil loss by wind, making already marginal pastures unproductive. In such high elevations where crops cannot be grown, yak grazing is the mainstay of food production.

Geomorphic and cryosphere factors

Geomorphic constraints and associated natural hazards

Flood hazards

In the high mountains, floods generate in several ways, with diverse impacts on food security. The most common causes of floods are extended and widespread rainfall, intense rainfall, rain on snow, and rapid snowmelt. Floods caused by widespread rainfall respond more slowly to rain, with the greatest impacts downriver, where wider floodplains become inundated; the depth, extent, and length of inundation determines the implications for food security (figure 4f). High-intensity storms fall on smaller areas and, if they are located over a steep headwater catchment, can cause destructive flash flooding within narrow riparian zones. Rain on snow and rapid snowmelt can generate both downriver inundation and flash floods in headwaters.

Snow avalanche hazards

Millions of cubic meters of snow accumulate in avalanche deposits along the foothills, where most farms exist. Although avalanches often occur in winter, they also occur in early spring, when sowing wheat or potatoes has commenced. The high velocity and weight of the snow destroys all planted crops in the avalanche path, and the farmers have no opportunity to recover these affected croplands (figure 4a). Furthermore, many large avalanches strip away the soil, which leaves the avalanche areas unproductive for years. Because mountain communities depend on these lands for subsistence, avalanche hazards threaten food security.

Another often overlooked aspect related to the food security-avalanche nexus is the impact of snow deposits on road connections and traffic in mountains. Mountain villages depend on roads for food and other supplies. Avalanches block roads several times every year in winter and early spring, delaying delivery of supplies. Depending on the number and size of avalanches, it can take several days to more than a week for authorities to clear roads and enable traffic flow. In northern Afghanistan, 5.5% of the road network is affected by at least two large avalanches every year (Caiserman et al. 2022).

Glacial and permafrost hazards

Natural hazards and food security

There is little information linking natural hazards to food security, but in the Pamir, these are intrinsically intertwined because of the proximity of croplands to steep hillslopes and rivers. Given that real-time prediction of hazards such as landslides, debris flows, rockfall, and snow avalanches is difficult even in highly instrumented areas, the prospects for assessing farmland vulnerability to such hazards in the rural Pamir are best informed by past inventories, the substrate, weather, and terrain characteristics. The vulnerabilities associated with the hazard-food security nexus are more prevalent in the Pamir than in similar terrain in developed countries, where affected valleys often have mitigation infrastructure to reduce the impacts. Given the importance of small-scale agriculture in the Pamir, avalanches, debris flows, and floods represent challenges that endanger food security every year.

Social and economic considerations

Food security issues and changes affecting high mountain communities

What are the key economic challenges?

Highlights of the socioeconomic-food security nexus

Moving toward an integrated approach

Tackling food insecurity in the Pamir and other mountain regions is a daunting task with many moving parts. The challenges facing poor mountain dwellers are more complex than those in other areas where improving agricultural production and biodiversity are core interventions. Although these aspects are important, high mountains with severe climates, numerous hazards, and land constraints require a broader approach to address acute and increasing food insecurity. These issues, coupled with the uncertain climate and its associated water supplies, place this region among the most vulnerable because of short growing seasons and dry summers. In the present article, we map the stressors affecting food security in the Pamir in the continuum from natural to anthropogenic to assess the potential pathways for reversing the current downward spiral (figure 5).

The residents of the high Pamir are most vulnerable to food insecurity because of the severe climate, the short growing seasons, their poor diets, the small size of their land holdings, overgrazed pastures, and access problems. The complicating socioeconomic issues include extreme poverty, rising fuel costs, fuelwood gathering, currency devaluation, regional conflict, and the small number of jobs. More diverse diets are needed to reverse childhood stunting and malnutrition. In the high rangelands, where crops cannot be cultivated, a focus on sustainable pasture management and livestock is needed. In addition to climate and biophysical barriers, the Pamir residents experience immense socioeconomic stresses.

Combining sound scientific information on static and dynamic environmental constraints with socioeconomic trajectories is needed to develop the most productive pathways to foster food security. Understanding the intertwining nature of these issues, including developing relevant feedback loops to adaptation measures such as land management, socioeconomic reforms, planning, and infrastructure (figure 6) is critical to craft sustainable approaches that support food security in mountain communities. This robust, place-based information cannot be achieved by a one-size-fits-all model.

Acknowledgments

We greatly appreciate the insightful and constructive reviews of this article by two anonymous reviewers and a BioScience editorial board member. The feedback we received from these reviewers greatly improved the manuscript. Although no specific project supported this article, it was enhanced by knowledge gained from several past and ongoing investigations at the Mountain Societies Research Institute, at the University of Central Asia, including the SDD nexus Network project "Higher Education Excellence in Development Cooperation-exceed" funded by the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD); the "Pathways to Innovation" project funded by International Development Research Centre, Canada, and by the Aga Khan Foundation Canada; the "Addressing Climate Change in Afghanistan (E3C)" project, funded by the European Union; "Thrive Tajikistan: Partnership for Socio-Economic Development," funded by the US Agency for International Development and the Aga Khan Foundation; and the "Climate Impacts on the Water-Food-Energy Nexus to due Changing High Mountain Hydrology in Tajikistan" project, funded by the US Agency for International Development.

Author Biography

Roy C. Sidle is a hydrogeomorphologist serving as director of the Mountain Societies Research Institute and professor of Earth and Environmental Sciences at the University of Central Asia, in Khorog, Tajikistan, and Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan. Aziz Ali Khan is a botanist and research associate; Arnaud Caiserman is a physical geographer, assistant director and senior research fellow; Aslam Qadamov is an agricultural scientist and postdoctoral research fellow; and Zulfiqor Khojazoda is a junior research fellow all with Mountain Societies Research Institute, at the University of Central Asia, in Khorog, Tajikistan.

References cited

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Food security in high mountains of Central Asia: A broader perspective

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Abstract. Addressing food security in high mountains is a multidimensional conundrum because of complex climate patterns and environmental attributes. Thes

# data[].attributes.headline
Supermarket in Poland buys farmer’s misshapen beetroots to tackle food waste

# data[].attributes.subject
Supermarket in Poland buys farmer’s misshapen beetroots to tackle food waste

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Supermarket in Poland buys farmer’s misshapen beetroots to tackle food waste

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Over a thousand tonnes of beetroots were set to be thrown away.

# data[].attributes.headline
Q&A | UN warns crises may force 70% of Kyrgyzstanis into poverty

# data[].attributes.subject
Q&A | UN warns crises may force 70% of Kyrgyzstanis into poverty

# data[].attributes.headline
Broken Breadbasket: Food Security in Ukraine - Lesson Plan

# data[].attributes.subject
Broken Breadbasket: Food Security in Ukraine - Lesson Plan

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Agricultural Literacy Curriculum Matrix

Lesson Plan

Global Food Security

Purpose

Students will explore the causes of hunger, both domestically and globally; evaluate potential solutions for solving world hunger; and forecast the impact of a growing world population on current food supplies. Grades 9-12

Estimated Time

Two 50-minute class periods

Materials Needed
Interest Approach Activity 1 Activity 2 Activity 3

Vocabulary

famine: when people face a complete lack of access to food and other basic needs and experience mass starvation, death, and destitution

food desert: defined as urban neighborhoods and rural towns without ready access to fresh, healthy, and affordable food

food insecurity: a situation that exists when people lack secure access to sufficient amounts of safe and nutritious food for normal growth and development and an active and healthy life

food security: the state of having reliable access to a sufficient quantity of affordable, nutritious food

Green Revolution: beginning in the mid-20th century, a large increase in crop production in developing countries achieved by the use of fertilizers, pesticides, and high-yield crop varieties

hunger: an uncomfortable feeling in your stomach that is caused by the need for food; when a person cannot get enough of the right kinds of foods to be healthy

malnutrition: a condition resulting when a person's diet does not provide adequate nutrients for growth and maintenance

Millennium Development Goals: endorsed by the United Nations in September 2000, eight measurable goals were declared as a commitment to build a safer, more prosperous, and equitable world with a target date of 2015

Sustainable Development Goals: adopted in September 2015, this set of 17 goals seeks to end poverty, protect the planet and ensure prosperity for all as part of a new sustainable development agenda; each goal has specific targets to be achieved over the next 15 years

undernourishment: not getting enough food or not getting enough variety of healthy food for good health and growth

Did You Know?

With proper tools and investment, agriculture output in Africa could increase over 200% by 2030.¹

In countries around the world, cost is the primary factor in food choice.²

Malnutrition affects every country on Earth and more than one-quarter of the world's population.³

The increasing demand for affordable meat, milk, and eggs means the world will need 60% more animal-sourced foods.⁴

Background Agricultural Connections

What is food security? The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations defines food security as all people, at all times, having physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. Using this definition, the FAO identifies four dimensions of food security:

Physical AVAILABILITY of food

Economic and physical ACCESS to food

Food UTILIZATION

STABILITY of the other three dimensions over time5

Conversely, food insecurity exists when people lack secure access to sufficient amounts of safe and nutritious food for normal growth and development and an active and healthy life.

The Millennium Development Goals endorsed by the United Nations as a commitment to build a safer, more prosperous, and equitable world, included a hunger target (1c). This target was to halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger. The FAO reports that developing nations as a whole have nearly met the 1c target. However, wide differences persist across regions. "Some have made rapid progress in reducing hunger: Latin America as well as the Eastern and South-Eastern regions of Asia have all achieved both the MDG 1c hunger target...The MDG 1c target has been reached in the Caucasus and Central Asia and in the Northern and Western regions of Africa. Progress has also been recorded in the Caribbean, Oceania, Southern Asia, and Southern and Eastern Africa, but at too slow a pace to reach the MDG 1c target. Finally, Central Africa and Western Asia are moving away from the hunger targets, with a higher proportion of undernourished in the population now than in 1990-92." 6

On January 1, 2016, the 17 Sustainable Development Goals of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development - adopted by world leaders in September 2015 at an historic UN Summit - officially came into force. Over the next fifteen years, with these new Goals that universally apply to all, countries will mobilize efforts to end all forms of poverty, fight inequalities and tackle climate change, while ensuring that no one is left behind. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) build on the success of the Millennium Development Goals and aim to do more to end all forms of poverty via calls to action by all countries and all peoples. The SDGs are not legally binding, but governments are expected to take ownership and establish national frameworks for the achievement of the 17 goals.

Chronic hunger- consuming less than a minimum level of kilocalories-can lead to malnutrition whereby a person's diet does not provide adequate nutrients for growth and maintenance. In some instances, a widespread scarcity of food known as famine is caused by several factors including crop failure, population imbalance, or government policies. This phenomenon is usually accompanied or followed by regional malnutrition, starvation, epidemic, and increased mortality.

Although food security is a global problem, it is also a problem that is prevalent domestically. According to a 2015 report by USDA's Economic Research Service, "14.0 percent of U.S. households were food insecure at least some time during [2014], including 5.6 percent with very low food security, meaning that the food intake of one or more household members was reduced and their eating patterns were disrupted at times during the year because the household lacked money and other resources for food." 7 Children were food insecure at times during the year in 9.4 percent of US households with children (3.7 million households), meaning these households were unable at times during the year to provide adequate, nutritious food for their children.

One of the factors contributing to US household food insecurity is the existence of urban neighborhoods and rural towns without ready access to fresh, healthy, and affordable food. These food deserts are found throughout the United States where grocery stores are nearly non-existent in a specific area, and consumers must rely on restaurants and convenience stores for food. Fresh, nutritious food is often replaced by processed foods or is simply not available. This lack of access to fresh food can lead to poor diets and may result in higher rates of obesity and other dietary-related illnesses.

Engage

1. Project the World Food Programme HungerMap Live for the class to see.

2. On poster paper or a whiteboard, write "WHY?"

3. Engage students in a discussion as to why undernourishment is present in a particular country. The map shows the distribution of the global population that is suffering from inadequate dietary energy.

4. Invite students to write their answers to the question. Factors to be considered include geographical location, politics, the state of natural resources, conflict, education, technology, poverty, food distribution, and natural disasters.

Explore and Explain
Activity 1: Household Food Security Activity Note: This activity replicates a 2015 survey conducted by USDA regarding food security in US households. Although the "responses" indicated by the response cards are based on fact, this activity does not imply that the responses are specific to your students. Please use your discretion in conducting this activity, especially in cases where the results may be too close to reality for your students.

1. "For this activity, one of you will ask questions from an actual US government survey designed to measure levels of household food security."

2. "One of you will interpret the results of the survey."

3. "Some of you will respond to the survey questions based on answers given to you on note cards. Your collective responses will reflect the state of food security in the United States., as it was measured in 2010. Because questions of food security are very personal, we won't ask you to respond on behalf of your actual household."

Ask for 20 volunteers. Distribute the Food Security Handout: Cards among these students.

Each student represents roughly 6 million US households. Have these students stand in line, facing the same direction.

If there are more cards than students, place each extra card on the ground, in line with the standing students, to represent the remaining households.

Have the first volunteer proceed with the survey. In response to each question, students will remain in place or take one or two steps forward to illustrate their responses.

Once the survey is complete, have the second volunteer interpret the results (see Food Security Handout: Results for details).

4. As individual students OR as a class, go to the Map the Meal Gap website and scroll to the Food Insecurity Rates map.

5. Assign a county to each student to explore, OR explore the county in which the school is located. Ask the following questions of students:

What is the food insecurity rate in the county?

What is the average cost of a meal?

In order to meet the food needs of the insecure population in the county, how much additional money is required in this county?

6. Show students the Food Access Research Atlas.

7. Zoom in on the map to identify the nearest food deserts to the town in which your school is located. Select the Low Income & Low Access Layers and the Component Layers to identify the areas of low income and access near your school.

8. Lead a class discussion about hunger, food insecurity, low income, and low food access in your town, county, and state. What factors influence the food insecurity rates?

Activity 2: Feeding the World

1. Assign students to read A Five-Step Plan to Feed the World by National Geographic.

2. Instruct them to write pro or con responses to the five-step plan for feeding a world of 9 billion people.

3. Lead a group discussion in which students share their written responses.

4. Show students the video Revolutionizing the Way We Grow Food (10:20 duration). Instruct students to note Caleb Harper's solutions for growing enough food to feed the world's increasing population.

5. Lead a class discussion, asking students to evaluate the feasibility of Mr. Harper's solutions.

Activity 3: The Future of Food

1. Assign the following readings to students prior to class:

2. Using the information from Consequence Wheel/Future Wheel reference, explain to students how to construct a future wheel. It is important to remember that this forecasting technique follows an "if, then" format. "If" this event occurs, "then" this is the result. For example, "if" the population reaches 9 billion by 2050, "then" food shortages will occur. OR, "if" new food production technologies are invented, "then" food shortages will be alleviated. It is possible that both scenarios are included in one future wheel as a result of brainstorming consequences.

3. Divide the class into groups of four students. Assign the topic/issue of "9 Billion Mouths to Feed in 2050" for the center of their future wheels. Give students time to brainstorm as many consequences ("if/then") as they can create.

4. Each group of students will draw their future wheel and share their future predictions, as time allows.

Elaborate

Watch Population & Food: Crash Course Geography #16. This video illustrates the link between population and food energy to begin seeing the complexities of a growing population and providing enough food and water for everyone while supporting a sustainable environment.

Enlist students to plan a service project that addresses hunger issues in your area.

If there is a food bank in close proximity to your school, invite an employee or volunteer to speak with your students about hunger and food insecurity in your area.

Challenge students to draw von Thünen's Rural Land Use Model for a specific food desert location (use the Food Access Research Atlas ) and identify the accessible, healthy foods that urban gardens might provide as a solution to the desert.

Arrange a classroom gallery walk using Peter Menzel's Hungry Planet posters (see Companion Resources). Instruct students to evaluate the amount of money families spend on food and what foods families eat in different countries. Compare these countries based on their levels of development (economic, social, political, and environmental).

Note: This enriching activity was highly recommended by lesson pilot teachers. You may want to incorporate it into your curriculum as time allows.
Show students the documentary, A Place at the Table (available on Netflix). Following the viewing, ask students the following questions. Encourage them to consider the geographical, cultural, and social factors involved.

What facts did you learn about hunger? Which one is the most startling, and why?

In 2010, Feeding America-the nation's leading domestic hunger-relief charity-conducted a hunger study in which they found that 23% of the adults interviewed have attended college or a technical school. What resources or procedures, in addition to education, might help solve hunger issues?

Eighty-five percent of families that are food insecure have at least one working adult in the household. Do you find that surprising? Why or why not?

In the film we learn that in the '60s, there was a huge push to end childhood hunger that resulted in free breakfast and lunch programs, senior meal programs, and the expansion of food stamps. As a result, by the late '70s, hunger was basically eradicated. Why do you think hunger has come back as such a pressing issue in our country?

One in three children born in the year 2000 will develop Type 2 diabetes (formerly called "adult onset"). What are some of the factors that add to the reasons why diet-related illness is increasing in young people at such an unprecedented level?

Evaluate

After conducting these activities, review and summarize the following key concepts:

Production and distribution of food is affected by the relationships between geography, politics, and economics.

Developed and under-developed countries face both similar and very different economic challenges that affect agriculture and food security.

The Green Revolution increased agricultural productivity around the world and created significant environmental consequences.

Sources

1. http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/africa/lions_on_the_move

2. Elanco Animal Health. International Consumer Attitudes Study. Updated June 2013. Data on File.

3. http://www.thechicagocouncil.org/sites/default/files/2013_Advancing_Global_Food_Security%283%29.pdf

4. http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/174172/icode/

5. http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/al936e/al936e00.pdf

6. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4646e/index.html

7. https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/err194/53740_err194.pdf

Contributors:
Activity 1 was adapted with permission from The Johns Hopkins Center for a Livable Future FoodSpan Food Security Activity.

Doug Andersen (UT), Nancy Anderson (UT), Paul Gray (AR), Ken Keller (GA), Lisa Sanders (MN), Sharon Shelerud (MN), Allison Smith (UT), Kelly Swanson (MN)

Recommended Companion Resources

Organization

National Agriculture in the Classroom

We welcome your feedback! If you have a question about this lesson or would like to report a broken link, please send us an email. If you have used this lesson and are willing to share your experience, we will provide you with a coupon code for 10% off your next purchase at AgClassroomStore.

Agricultural Literacy

Education Content Standards

Common Core Connections

Education Content Standards

Social Studies - Geography (GEOGRAPHY)

APHG Topic 5.11: Challenges of Contemporary Agriculture

IMP-5.B.3 Challenges of feeding a global population include lack of food access, as in cases of food insecurity and food deserts; problems with distribution systems; adverse weather; and land use lost to suburbanization.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.authors[].name
Debra Spielmaker, Administrator and Yasuko Mitsuoka Grow, Designer

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Students will explore the causes of hunger, both domestically and globally; evaluate potential solutions for solving world hunger; and forecast the impact of a growing world population on current food supplies. Grades 9-12

# data[].attributes.headline
Social Justice Books: Food and Water Justice Booklist

# data[].attributes.subject
Social Justice Books: Food and Water Justice Booklist

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Food and Water Justice - Social Justice Books

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Elementary | Middle School | High School / Adult Learn more at Food First.org. Teaching for Change carefully selects the best multicultural and social justice books for children, young adults, and educators. Learn about our criteria for selecting titles. Feedback on these lists and suggestions for additional titles are welcome.

# data[].attributes.headline
The Ukrainian and Russian Notebooks: Life and Death Under Soviet Rule By Igort

# data[].attributes.subject
The Ukrainian and Russian Notebooks: Life and Death Under Soviet Rule By Igort

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Written and illustrated by an award-winning artist and translated into English for the first time, Igort's The Ukrainian and Russian Notebooks is a collection of two harrowing works of graphic nonfiction about life under Russian foreign rule.
After spending two years in Ukraine and Russia, collecting the stories of the survivors and witnesses to Soviet rule, masterful Italian graphic novelist Igort was compelled to illuminate two shadowy moments in recent history: the Ukraine famine and the assassination of a Russian journalist. Now he brings those stories to new life with in-depth reporting and deep compassion.

In The Russian Notebooks, Igort investigates the murder of award-winning journalist and human rights activist Anna Politkovskaya. Anna spoke out frequently against the Second Chechen War, criticizing Vladimir Putin. For her work, she was detained, poisoned, and ultimately murdered. Igort follows in her tracks, detailing Anna's assassination and the stories of abuse, murder, abduction, and torture that Russia was so desperate to censor. In The Ukrainian Notebooks, Igort reaches further back in history and illustrates the events of the 1932 Holodomor. Little known outside of the Ukraine, the Holodomor was a government-sanctioned famine, a peacetime atrocity during Stalin's rule that killed anywhere from 1.8 to twelve million ethnic Ukrainians. Told through interviews with the people who lived through it, Igort paints a harrowing picture of hunger and cruelty under Soviet rule.

With elegant brush strokes and a stark color palette, Igort has transcribed the words and emotions of his subjects, revealing their intelligence, humanity, and honesty-and exposing the secret world of the former USSR.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Ukrainian and Russian Notebooks by Igort - Written and illustrated by an award-winning artist and translated into English for the first time, Igort's The...

# data[].attributes.headline
Food and Drink in Russian and Soviet History (Syllabus)

# data[].attributes.subject
Food and Drink in Russian and Soviet History (Syllabus)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Food and Drink in Russian and Soviet History

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Introduction This undergraduate course examines the history of food and drink from the ninth to the twenty-first century. By using food as an analytical lens, it sheds new light on major historical developments in Russian and Soviet history. Among the questions that this course sets to answer are: H

# data[].attributes.headline
Bloomsbury Food Library - Teaching Resources

# data[].attributes.subject
Bloomsbury Food Library - Teaching Resources

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Guiding users through the wealth of content available on Bloomsbury Food Library our exclusive and specially-commissioned research and learning tools are designed with teachers, students, and researchers in mind.
INTRODUCTORY ARTICLES
This exclusive series of Introductory Articles covers key subject areas within Food Studies from a global perspective to support students new to the field, and provide instructors with useful resources that they can utilize to expand their curriculum. Written especially for the Bloomsbury Food Library, each article offers a comparative overview of important topics, outlining the key scholarship and areas of debate, alongside a thorough bibliography of key reading to support further studies.
LESSON PLANS We will be adding new Lesson Plans each year. If you would like to write or request a new Lesson Plan, please contact bloomsburyfoodlibrary@bloomsbury.com.
Providing inspiration to bolster courses, lesson plans help to promote the efficiency of teaching and learning using the vast array of material that is available on Bloomsbury Food Library. With links to additional reading, discussion topics, and homework assignments, the following plans can also be seen as navigational tools for assisting users to make the most out of the variety of content available on the site.
Topics BIBLIOGRAPHIC GUIDES
Thematic bibliographic guides provide an introductory overview of core readings to a particular topic. Theoretical interpretations and their application in food studies are explained, with Bloomsbury Food Library material linked for quick access to content.
Topics :
Our goal is to provide solutions to support digital learning, teaching, and research across a variety of disciplines. Subject Guides provide instructors, students, and librarians with a simple shortcut to help them find the material they need across a number of topics. Links can easily be added to a course syllabus or reading list. Explore these gateways for discovery and deepen the research experience with our resources.

Download PDF versions of the Subject Guides by clicking on the links below.
Drink and Alcohol Food Politics
Sustainability and Environment
Gender and Sexuality Media and Marketing Food and Religion Food Heritage Food Justice and Social Movements Please note that we will be adding new Subject Guides throughout the year. If you would like to request a Subject Guide, please contact bloomsburyfoodlibrary@bloomsbury.com

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Bloomsbury Food Library - Research and Learning Tools

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Browse lesson plans and bibliographic guides from Bloomsbury Food Library,the widest-ranging existing collection of food-related studies content

# data[].attributes.body
The website has a large collection of primary sources from the Soviet period.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
1917: Peasant Revolution 1921: Famine of 1921-22 1921: The Antonov Rebellion 1924: Scissors Crisis 1929: Collectivization 1936: Second Kolkhoz Charter 1939: All-Union Agricultural Exhibition 1943: ...

# data[].attributes.headline
Poland’s second-largest solar farm opens at former coal mine

# data[].attributes.subject
Poland’s second-largest solar farm opens at former coal mine

# data[].attributes.headline
Biggest solar power plant in Western Balkans completed in Novaci in North Macedonia

# data[].attributes.subject
Biggest solar power plant in Western Balkans completed in Novaci in North Macedonia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Comments
0
Comments:
0
Mey Energy completed a 55 MW photovoltaic facility in Novaci in North Macedonia. It is currently the largest in the region.

The Western Balkans are slow in the deployment of solar power, but the list of utility-scale photovoltaic units is gradually becoming bigger. Right after a 45 MW facility in Bosnia and Herzegovina entered a trial phase, North Macedonia again became the country with the largest one in the region. Mey Energy said it finished its 55 MW solar power plant in the municipality of Novaci, in the heart of the country's coal industry.

The system was built next to the Suvodol open pit. The company founded in 2020 announced it would start producing electricity before the end of the month. The Novaci unit has an estimated annual output of 85 GWh, equivalent to the electricity needs of 30,000 domestic households.

Novaci PV facility was built in ten months

The investment is worth EUR 40 million, according to the statement. The PV facility spans 57 hectares and consists of 101,000 panels. It includes over 856 kilometers of cables. Construction started in November. Mey Energy said its contractors are all from North Macedonia.

The new utility added that its Novaci unit will have a lifespan of 25 years. It said it would sell the electricity on the free market, primarily within the country.

Transmission line was nearby because of coal plant

The solar power plant was built on private land. The location was favorable due to its proximity to the 110 kV network as it is near the REK Bitola thermal power plant. It is run by state-owned company Elektrani na Severna Makedonija (ESM), which is racing to phase out coal by 2030 while replacing a substantial part of the system with solar power.

Some of the PV projects that investors in the Western Balkans are developing are actually measured in hundreds of megawatts, though most are in the early phases. Nevertheless, Novaci won't be the biggest for long. There are solar power plants under construction in BiH and Kosovo* of 150 MW each in peak capacity. Another one, of 140 MW, is being built in Albania.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Biggest solar power plant in Western Balkans completed in Novaci in North Macedonia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Mey Energy said it commission a 55 MW photovoltaic facility in Novaci in North Macedonia before the end of the month.

# data[].attributes.headline
EBRD and EU support construction of Pihlaka solar farm in Estonia

# data[].attributes.subject
EBRD and EU support construction of Pihlaka solar farm in Estonia