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1. Who am I?

2. Who do I pretend to be?

3. Who do people think I am?

4. Who do I wish I could be?

5. How has race or ethnic identity played a role in any of these responses?

1. To answer your first question is a little tough, because I'm not sure who I am. If I'm just giving a simple answer, I'm just a girl trying to get by in life and provide for my family. I'm just someone who tries hard and goes even harder when I feel like I'm failing in life. That's who I am. But if we're talking about going in depth, I'm just a human being living her best life and smiling to hide the pain. Every day is a struggle for me and it gets harder and harder when the clock is ticking.

2. Oh man, I'm pretending to be this person who has her shit together (excuse my French). But I pretend that I'm living life to the fullest - that I'm taking it day by day, but honestly? I don't want to exist anymore. Turned pretty dark right? I apologize. It's just, if you've truly walked in my shoes, you'd probably feel the same. So I pretend to smile so no one asks what's wrong, I pretend to give thanks that I've woken up tot a brand new day and I pretend that I have it all.

3. People think I'm this strong, open-minded person. They believe that I'm the oldest of a strong family and that the reason I'm pushing myself so hard everyday is because of the.. People believe that I'm this mom who knows what the heck she is doing when half the time my inner voice is screaming at me. People will believe what I want them to. So for right now, I want you to believe that I'm a mother of an 8yr old boy and I'm fighting life to provide for him.

4. I wish I could be exactly that! I wish I could be this God fearing woman who takes life by the chains and says, "Freak it! I'm alive and I'm happy!" I wish I could be the goal-oriented, open-minded, kind hearted person everyone always portrays me to be. I wish I can be truly happy and say that I am actually living.

5. Race and ethnicity plays a HUGE role as to why my answers sound so depressing. Because of my race/ethnicity, I have to keep my head above water and my smile strong. It's who I am - I am Samoa! But deep down, I'm just Briahna.

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1. What was your first experience with race?

2. How old were you?

3. What emotions do you associate with the experience?

4. Have you ever talked about the experience?

5. How have your early experiences with race shaped your worldview?

So this question is a tad confusing. Are you asking first experience with race as in, when did I fully become Samoan or are you asking about a racist act that was made towards me? Because if it is both, I have experience for them. My first experience with race was when I was in 3rd grade. I was 8 (I think we all were), but being an 8 year old and not thinking about where I came from never crossed my mind until this day. I remember it vividly - I was on the playground playing tetherball and I heard someone say, "isn't her hair ugly?" "why is her nose and forehead so big?" "she's a lot bigger than us, she shouldn't be playing it's not fair."

At the time, I didn't think anything of it. But growing in a household full of "comedians" there was always a joke I overheard and that was "You know someone is Samoan when their nose is bigger than their face and their forehead is a fivehead instead." Hearing those comments from these kids brought up those moments and it made me feel discouraged and ashamed. It made me feel as if my friends hated how I looked because I was different.

I spoke to my dad at the time because well, he was my best friend. I told him that the kids at my school might also be my family because of the joke. And my dad told me that "people outside of your race shouldn't be making jokes like that and if they say mean things again, go snitch to the teacher.'

I never knew stereotypes were a thing - as a kid, I never paid attention to any of that. I mean what 8-year-old kid would?

But from that day, I remember hearing more and more jokes about my hair, my nose, and especially my forehead - it runs in my family, on my dad's side. LOL! But having that first experience did shape my worldview from there on out. It made me not pay attention to what was being said about me. It made me not hear the negative remarks about who I am. And since then, I never cared what anyone said about me, whether it was regarding my race or just my looks.

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What connections can be made between having a positive sense of self and our experiences with identity and race? Brainstorm regarding your thoughts on how these concepts are connected

I believe the connection between having a positive sense of self and experiences with identity and race is kind of complex and has many different aspects to understand.

Like take my race for example - we Samoans take pride in being Samoan. As confusing as it may sound, our identity is literally who we are - We are SAMOA! Being Samoan makes me feel powerful and untouchable sometimes. And I'm sure some of you know the stories behind why. LOL. But if I'm being honest, it's not the reason why. I take pride in being Samoan because of how we are brought up.

In my culture, we are raised in the "fa'a Samoa" way. We are all about family and community. Blood does not make you family, loyalty does. But you NEVER turn your back on family no matter what. That goes for related and non-related. Being Samoan is like our shield and armour. I wish some races/ethnic groups carry this same mentality.

Don't be afraid to be different from the crowd. Feel comfortable in your own skin and show them that you are the shit because you choose to be and you aren't afraid of anything. My identity is SAMOA and I am proud.

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The concept of Ubuntu is uniquely African. After reading the assigned reading and analyzing the short video by Dr. Nelson Mandela, do you think that the spirit of Ubuntu is alive and well today in African American culture? Explain your answer and give an example as to why you have chosen your position.

I believe that the spirit of Ubuntu is definitely alive and well-portrayed in the AA community. Living in a predominately AA neighborhood, I see Ubuntu everywhere. My neighbor across the street literally helps our other 'across the street' neighbor with their yard every Tuesdays and Wednesdays. Mrs. Patty, the helper, is always sweeping Ms. Chen's driveway and sidewalk area. Ms. Chen and her family barely moved in the neighborhood about 2 years ago, and the welcomeness that she showed this family was very heart-warming to see.

But of course, being Ubuntu isn't just about being HELPFUL, it's a lot of things. Its also TRUST. The way the AA community has trust in everyone, and making sure everyone is well taken care of or even okay, it's amazing to not only witness but be apart of it.

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Theme 2: 7 Concepts of Afrocentric Psychology

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Theme 2: 7 Concepts of Afrocentric Psychology

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Choose and define the concept that you feel is most present in the African American community. Provide an example of how you have witnessed the concept you have chosen.

MA'AT:

I believe out of the 7 concepts, the one that I would choose is Ma'at. I feel like this is deeply rooted in the AA community because take a look at the Civil Rights Movement - everyone came together to look for the truth and justice from system racism and discrimination. For example, when Martin Luther King Jr. advocated for the truth by realizing the realities of racial injustice, demanding societal change and living in a community where every race can be side to side with each other. Although a part of MLK's dream speech came true, there is still the struggle for civil rights and representation. The concept of Ma'at shows because of the AA's resilience and the fight for truth.

INCLUSIVE METAPHYSICAL EPISTEMOLOGY:

I believe this is the concept that's shown the least in the AA community. This is the one concept that is defined by recognizing both cognitive and affective ways of knowing, rational thinking, and intuitive understanding. I'm sure you're like, WHAAAT? English, please. Remember how I said earlier, there's still a fight for social justice and equality? Well this is the concept that AA lacks because although we are fighting for those rights for the AA community, there is a strain between what they FEEL is right to what they KNOW is right and how they, as a community, should approach the fight.

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Choose one of the 7 Principles of Nguzo Saba and define it on your Padlet. Then explain why it resonates with you and how you feel you have seen this value in action in the African American community. Provide an example.

UJIMA:

I think it's pretty easy to choose this principle. Ujima is about working together and being responsible. It states that building and maintaining your community is important. Look back at my first padlet - my answer for the 3rd theme - WE ARE SAMOA! This principle is literally my community. We take pride in who we are and we ALWAYS look out for our community. But I've also seen it in the AA community. I go to visit my great-grandma in San Francisco every now and then, but when we go, let me just say it's a blast. Now you're probably wondering, what does this have to do with the AA community? Well my great-grandma goes to an AA church in SF and these folks have been the most amazing group of people I've ever come across in SF. Every weekend their church puts on a Food Drive for the local homeless and always provides shelter when they can. This is the best example of witnessing Ujima in the AA community.

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Theme 1 - Multidimensions of Ethnic Self Identification

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Theme 1 - Multidimensions of Ethnic Self Identification

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1. NATAL MEASURES

1. Ancestral Heritage: I believe it is important to understand and acknowledge your ancestral heritage. You have to know your past to understand where you belong. To know your language, traditions, customs, and history as to why you came to be where you are.

1. Example: In my culture, we get together every Sunday and we have what we call, "tonai" in English translates to Sunday dinner.

2. Family: There's a saying that goes, you don't choose your family but your family chooses you. I think I may be wording it wrong so if anyone knows the correct quote, help me out. But I believe to understand you, you have to know your family. Having those traditions is what brings you together and helps you want tot pass on that tradition.

1. Example: We do certain traditions where each family of the family gets together and chooses someone to represent them and perform a dance or some sort of presentation. We call this Family Night and it's usually hosted at a church hall - but we get together as a WHOLE family and perform for each other.

2. BEHAVIORAL MEASURES:

1. Music: Music is a BIG thing in my culture. Literally, everyone in my family either can sing and/or play an instrument. Hearing music within my race brings joy to my heart. Although I say with regret that I don't understand or speak my native tongue, I love listening to the music from my homeland.

1. Example: I don't believe you have to enjoy the music that comes from your ethnicity, but I believe one should understand the stories behind them. Every song holds a story that is being told through notes, but one must understand what's being said in order to fully understand the story.

2. Food and Clothing: Clothing in any race is a form of expression and my ethnic group definitely holds clothing to a high standard. And I'm sure you all met or know a Samoan. We do not play when it comes to food. Food is like the epitome of who we are.

1. Example: Taking you back to church, in our culture, one must wear a pelutasi, dress, to church. our clothes show our sign of respect not only for ourselves but for the people surrounding us. Food? Like I said it's the one thing we don't mess around with. i believe food is the ONE thing EVERY culture shares.

3. SUBJECTIVE MEASURE:

1. Self-Reflection on Cultural Heritage: My first thought about being Samoan I did not want to be it. My answer here was because of what happened in the 3rd grade and why my peers felt it was okay to make those kinds of remarks. But growing up and tying myself into my culture, I learned to love who I am.

1. Example: Although I don't understand or speak my language, it's the sole reason why I feel I need to self-reflect. I want to learn to speak/understand my language. I want to be able to say the basic sayings and yell out, "I DID IT!!"

2. Sense of Belonging and Community Affiliations: As I already mentioned many times before, we Samoans take pride in our culture. We love the idea of sharing our culture and being able to teach others the important values and traditions we hold.

1. Example: When we would have our Family Nights, we would invite our friends or acquaintances to join us. We would explain to them the importance of being together as a family and just being able to let them know that they belong with us too.

4. SITUATIONAL-CONTEXTUAL MEASURE

1. Cultural Adaption in Social Settings: Sharing my culture with outsiders is something I love to do. But sometimes, depending on the setting, the way I grew up can be different from a friend of mine with a different cultural background.

1. Example: I've been with my husband going on 4 years and there are certain things that he still needs to wrap his head around when it comes to understanding my culture. For instance, being the oldest, I have no choice in certain things I attend or do. Being the oldest, I must show my respect and do my duties to my family and be prepared for whatever is asked of me.

2. Language Use: As someone who has repeatedly stated that they don't know their own native tongue, it would be weird to choose this. But here I am. I believe my native tongue is beautiful...I can sing and read it, just don't ask me what I am saying.

1. Example: When my parents are around older folks, they speak in our native tongue. So when I am present, I have to use body language to help me understand what they are saying and when they switch between Samoan and English, I try to pick up every word being said.

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Theme 2: Multigroup Ethnic Identity Self Measure:

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Theme 2: Multigroup Ethnic Identity Self Measure:

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My Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure score is 45. To me this score means that I take pride in being Samoan. I feel a sense of belonging and connection to my Samoan side. Being Samoan influences me in so many ways that I didn't realize it until the basic questions from the MEIM. I have spoken about not being able to speak my native tongue and I believe that without that certain aspect of my culture, I'm not a true Samoan. I'm just someone who wants to be apart of the Samoan culture without having to do the grunt work. I participate in every tradition that is known for a Samoan, but depriving myself of the knowledge of my language is making me feel as if my score should not be that high.

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My score after taking the Rosenberg test was a whopping 6. Yes, I don't think I ever scored that low on an assessment like this before. But answering the questions honestly, I understand why it is so low. My self-esteem is pretty much non-existent. Yes, I am proud of my cultural background but that doesn't mean I am proud of who I am as a person. Dating back to my first padlet post, I never felt like I belonged here and I never felt like I was in a position to ever feel belonged. I know some might say, well you scored pretty high on the MEIM - culture pride and self pride are two different things. I know I need to work on my self-esteem but it's hard to fix an issue when many other issues become unwrapped.

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I identify as a person of color, and I believe that I am currently in the Immersion/Emersion stage. Even though I take pride in being Samoan, there are still so many things that I need to learn. When I'm around other people who share the same racial background as me, aside from family, I always like to ask certain questions like, "Did you grow up this way too?" "did you have to do things a certain way because it's the 'right way'? When I am around people who have been through the same struggles and hardships as me, it makes me feel like I truly do belong. It makes me feel like, I don't need to feel alone or stressed out because I am not the only one. People outside of my race wouldn't understand the same stories I have as someone who shares my similarities. But in order to maintain my pride and togetherness, I still am learning more about my ethnic and racial background.

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Reading this article made me feel a little closer to Samoa. It made me realize a deeper understanding of my culture and appreciate the elements of being Samoan that shape who I am. For instance, when it mentioned the fa'amatai. It reminds me of the bond I share with my family and how we always make sure we are all ok and we value our well being of each other. Also, as someone who is a huge lover of food, speaking bias here, I believe Samoan food is the bomb.com! Reading this article makes me miss doing the traditions and celebrations I would normally partake in with my family. But because my life revolves around my job and school, I'm barely around to witness any of it. But this article certainly made me want to come back to my roots and take pride in being Samoan! CHEE-HOO!!

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Samoan Culture and Traditions: The Spirit of Fa'a Samoa * FamilySearch

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Check out our list of Samoan traditions that capture Samoan culture and the spirit of fa'a Samoa. Fa'a Samoa in Samoan means "The Samoan Way."

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In our world today, there are examples of all 4 types of racism everywhere you look. But I believe INDIVIDUAL RACISM is secretly happening everywhere. Yes, there are laws that prevent this kind of thing from happening, but let's be honest here - laws were made to be broken. Companies will find a way to not hire someone because of their race, but they won't do so. Instead, they will look at every tiny detail in your file or resume.

To live in a post-racial society, we must come to terms with the fact that racism no longer exists. And I'm pretty sure we all know that is false. Take, for instance, the death of George Floyd - he was a simple black man getting cigarettes from a convenience store, who got the cops called on him due to counterfeit money, and then life resulted in death. The story of George Floyd hit everyone's heart from all over the world. Coming to terms with police brutality is where racism lives.

To define race is a very complex yet easy answer. Race is the category we put ourselves in. Say for example someone comes up to you and asks, "Oh what's your race?" I would answer them by saying I'm a Pacific Islander. This is my answer because although I talk highly about being Samoan, that's my ethnicity. Pacific Islander is every one that shares the same beliefs, traditions, and culture as me. Take a box of crayons and someone with OCD. That person will group all the reds, blues, yellows, etc into different groups. I believe that is what race is today. We're all grouped together not just based on the color of our skin but by the people we most affiliate ourselves with.

The source that helped me understand race as a whole is here ----> https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/race-is-a-social-construct-scientists-argue/ - This article talks about how current science believes that race is a social construct rather than a biological construct. They say that categorizing people as "white" or "black" in genetics studies does not fully reflect the range of our genetic make-up. The article shows a contradiction in how scientists agree that applying race as a tool to understand our DNA is not a precise way. It contains examples, such as the discovery of more matches than differences when comparing the DNA of people of different ethnic backgrounds. Indeed, the article suggests that instead of referring to race in genetics research, we should use terms like "ancestry" or "population."

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How George Floyd Was Killed in Police Custody (Published 2020)

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The Times has reconstructed the death of George Floyd on May 25. Security footage, witness videos and official documents show how a series of actions by officers turned fatal.

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So pretty much the audio talks about things that I'm sure some of us are guilty of. Racial microaggression is the secret saying of talking to someone you know and thinking they're from somewhere else or talking too properly for someone of their racial background. We've seen it in movies all the time and it's become a comedic relief for some. I've had many people question me when they find out that I'm Samoan. I get the, "Well you don't look like the typical Samoan?" And my response is always the same..."Well, should I look like the Rock or something?" Microaggression isn't just a silent racist remark, it can cause mental health issues for some - depression, and anxiety. It can make someone question whether they belong.

I still stand on my opinion of we don't live in a post-racial society. Inequality still exists, prejudice and discrimination. It is happening all around us and if you think we do live in a post-racial society, you're turning a blind eye to what's happening around you. And it is not just the AA community facing the racial microaggression, everyone is - Asians, Mexicans, Pacific Islanders, etc. I believe that people who aren't of the "white race" are still facing racism today.

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I think the Black Families are unique in many ways, the same way as Samoans view the definition of family. It's not just he blood that ties us together, but our history, the consequences we as a race faced. And Black Families have been through it all throughout history, so they not only have shared experiences but Black family demonstrates resilience, fostering cultural pride through strategies like cultural socialization.

i think racial socialization affects parents and children in Black Families immensely they have to prepare themselves for anything that comes their way due to their race. There have been a few skits that portray this kind of practice. Teaching kids of AA descent that when they are getting pulled over, make sure to have BOTH hands on the wheel and to always follow the law. having to go through this kind of teaching affects the mental health of those suffering from it. Why is it that we need to teach our kids this stuff just because we don't want people to get the wrong idea based on our skin color? We don't and we shouldn't have to live life this way.

The factors that have impacted Black Families the most since slavery would be being forced away from their families and the separation each generation had to endure. Trying to keep traditions alive and passed on made it difficult for Black Families because of this. Another factor is the systemic racism they face from education to employment. It's a challenge for Black Families to try and live an easy life when there are so many obstacles being thrown their way. But one thing people should learn about Black Families is their resilience and the strength they carry to keep moving forward. Despite being dealt a bad hand, Black Families find a way to preserve their culture and create new traditions.

One thing that stood out to me was the resilience and the power Black Families carry upon them. Despite having faced slavery, racism, and discrimination, Black families DO NOT let their guard down. Black families push and push until they can't push themselves any further. It's a lesson that every family needs to be taught. Don't let the bigger man take you away from who you truly are.

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The three main points from this article that helped me truly understand Black Families are:

FAMILY MATTERS - With the AA community, family is a huge aspect in their life. So marriage, having kids, the whole nine that makes a family holds importance to AA. But trying to marry within the same race and culture, some find it difficult. Everyone has a preference and for Black women, some find it difficult because there are not enough Black men who are suited to their liking to go around.

KIDS AND GETTING HELP - Staying in the topic of having that 'perfect' family, I believe black kids are dealt questioning family than any other race. Sometimes its not the mom and dad who raise them, but the paternal parents or maternal parents. But I still find it cool that even though a child doesn't have their biological parents to raise them, the immediate family steps up and takes the responsibility.

JOBS - This is the one thing that I find hard is that Black families truly struggle with trying to find a job or even given the same opportunity as the person next to them. It's not just about being treated fairly but being seen as equal.

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Footnotes

[1] Rothstein, R. (2017) The color of law: A forgotten history of how our government segregated America. Liveright Publishing.

[3] Alexander, M. (2010). The new Jim Crow: Mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. The New Press.

[4] Drake, S. C. & Cayton, H. R. (1945). Black metropolis: A study of negro life in a northern city. University of Chicago Press.

[5] Franklin, D. L. & James, A. D. (1997). Ensuring inequality: The structural transformation of the African-American family. Oxford University Press.

[6] Tucker, M. B. & Mitchell-Kernan, C. (Eds.). (1995). The decline in marriage among African Americans: Causes, consequences, and policy implications. Russell Sage Foundation.

[7] Edin, K. & Kefalas, M. (2011). Promises I can keep: Why poor women put motherhood before marriage. University of California Press.

[8] Wilson, W. J. (1987). The truly disadvantaged: The inner city, the underclass, and public policy. The University of Chicago Press.

[9] Darity, W. A. & Myers, S. L. (1995). Family structure and the marginalization of Black men: Policy implications. In Tucker, B. M. & Mitchell-Kernan, C. (Eds.), The decline of marriage among African Americans: Causes, consequences, and policy implications (pp. 263-308). Russell Sage Foundation.

[10] Coles, R., & Green, C. (Eds.). (2010). The myth of the missing Black father. New York: Columbia University Press. doi:10.7312/cole14370

[11] Boyd-Franklin, N. (2006). Black families in therapy: Understanding the African American experience. Guilford Press.

[12] Pinderhughes, E. B. (2002). African American marriage in the 20 th century. Family Process, 41(2), 269-282.

[13] Jones, J. & Mosher, W. D. (2013). Fathers' involvement with their children: United States, 2006-2010. National Center for Health Statistics. https://www.cdc.gov
/nchs/data/
nhsr/nhsr071.pdf

[14] Taylor, R.J., Hernandez E., Nicklett, E.J., Taylor, H.O., & Chatters, L.M. (2014). Informal social support networks of African American, Latino, Asian American, and Native American older adults. In Whitfield, K.E., Baker, T.A. (Eds). Handbook of minority aging (pp.417-434). Springer.

[16] Shonkoff, J. P. & Phillips, D. A. (Eds.). (2000). From neurons to neighborhoods: The science of early childhood development. National Academies Press.

[17] Hart, B., & T.R. Risley (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experience of young American children. Paul H Brookes Publishing.

[18] Kaushal, N., Magnuson, K., Waldfogel, J. (2011). How is family income related to investments in children's learning? In Duncan, M.R., & Duncan G. (Eds.) Whither opportunity: Rising inequality, schools, and children's life chances (pp. 187-206). Russell Sage Foundation.

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Family, Economic, and Geographic Characteristics of Black Families with Children - Child Trends

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1] Rothstein, R. (2017) The color of law: A forgotten history of how our government segregated America. Liveright Publishing. [3] Alexander, M. (2010). The new Jim Crow: Mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. The New Press. [4] Drake, S. C. & Cayton, H. R. (1945).

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Theme 2: Imposter Syndrome and Women of Color in the Workplace

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Theme 2: Imposter Syndrome and Women of Color in the Workplace

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Imposter Syndrome is a feeling that everyone has. It's the feeling as if you're a phony or a fraud because of the abilities you don't possess or possibly doubt. Having an I.S. can significantly affect a student's educational and work journey. To have that feeling as if you need to be just as smart as everyone in the class can take a deep toll on someone's mental health. Putting yourself through that fight every day will break down your mentality and it'll make you feel as if you don't know who you are anymore. When it comes to the workplace it's definitely the same but not as bad. Folks go through what I.S. called the Superwoman/Man role. When we're at our place of work, we feel like we can do anything and everything our boss asks of us.

I.S.'s effect on AA women can be broken down into so many things. Their self-esteem can drop at a drastic rate due to them questioning their abilities and feeling like they aren't qualified for the job. Being a woman is already hard enough on us in this society, but being a Black woman today? I wouldn't know from experience but seeing some of my family members who are in the AA community have dealt with so much turmoil and racial slurs. I feel like AA women fight even harder at life because of the idea of not being fully satisfied due to the obstacles they had to go through.

I believe race and gender shape the experience of AA women in the workplace. Like I said above, having to be both Black and a woman is already a challenge in its own. AA women feel as if their opinion doesn't matter when it comes to decision-making at work. AA women feel as if they don't matter. They need to switch the way they speak because they're surrounded by folks who wouldn't understand their tone of tongue.

The one strategy that would help the issue with AA women in the workplace would be to teach and show people that we are all equal. I say we because as a person of color, Samoan, I too face some discrimination within the workplace. However, I feel it is important to showcase guidance and promote equality to show support of the situation and truly educate those who don't understand that AA women in the workplace are indeed as equal as anyone.

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The psychological consequences of experiencing subconscious racial slights as a person of color can have a huge impact on one's self-esteem, cause emotional distress, and make someone feel as if they're wrong for being who they are. There are so many factors that play into the psyche consequences.

Some of the stereotypes that a person of color would face when racial microaggression is thrown at them is clutching one's purse when you see them because you think they're going to want your belongings. Trying to dehumanize a person of color because they don't fit the standard of "normality" according to society. Making one feel less beautiful because of the color of their skin, the color of their eyes, or their hair texture. Racial microaggression is the silent racism that exists in today's world.

Other issues that people of color are facing, considering intersectionality, is the idea that they have to be this supreme being when it comes to sports. Black men have the mindset that they HAVE to be good at basketball or football because it's a sport that they are known to achieve high scores in. It brings depression and doubt to someone who tries to fit into this stereotype. Having to go through these types of stereotypes will truly make someone feel out of place and feel as if being who they want to be isn't the right choice.

The concept of intersectionality, racial microaggressions, bias, or white privilege affects one's understanding of "sense of self" or ethnic identity and can leave someone questioning whether they want to be a part of the racial group they are in. Take, for example, a guy named Alex who is not only African American but also a part of the LGTBQ community. As Alex comes to terms with his racial identity and his self-identity of being LGTBQ, he now realizes the challenges he will face because of his combination of both. Another is very common and we see it everywhere - a girl named Sarah realizing that her "white skin" allows her freedom to do as she pleases and get treated a certain way without having to face any trouble. Being a witness to any of these theories can help strengthen one's self-reflection, empathy, and authenticity.

A strategy to help someone understand how racial microaggression can affect those around them is through education. Just educate people to know that if it doesn't sound right, don't say it. Think before you speak. Educate yourself and truly learn, "How does this affect my friend if what I said sounded like a compliment?" Just learn to control your tongue and truly understand what's being said.

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This article truly brought to light what racial microaggression is. Although from the reading, videos, and audio clips provided I did have some knowledge of the term. This article states that racial microaggression is the insult or derogatory remarks made to someone from a minority group but it's unintentional.

There are 3 types of microaggressions - microassult, microinsult and microinvalidations. Microassult is the name-calling, the racial slurs and just avoiding people of the opposite race. Microinsult is the form most people of color encounter - the purse clutching or mistaking a person of color holds this type of job because of their skin. And last, microinvalidation is making someone feel less of because of their race.

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There is an insidious form of racism and racial discrimination that has been gaining the attention of psychologists and researchers in recent years: racial microaggression.

Racial microaggressions are everyday insults or derogatory messages directed toward minorities and people of color, often from well-intentioned people who believe they've done nothing offensive. ¹ Any minority group can experience microaggressions, which may be based on gender, race, ethnicity, nationality, religion, socioeconomic status, or disability. ² While a microaggression may seem harmless, a lifetime of microaggressions can be quite devastating to a person's mental health. ³

"Racism can result in a host of mental health concerns including things like increased anxiety and symptoms of depression," says Dr. Joy Bradford, a licensed psychologist, speaker, and the host of the mental health podcast, Therapy for Black Girls.

To understand the range of these incidents, it's important to learn the different forms of microaggressions and how they can play out in everyday life. ⁴

Three forms of racial microaggressions:

Microassaults: These conscious, deliberate, and explicit racist attacks-both verbal and nonverbal-are meant to denigrate or hurt the victim. Name-calling, using racial slurs, avoiding and/or discouraging interracial interactions and displaying a swastika are all examples of microassaults.

Microinsults: While often unconscious and much more subtle, a microinsult demeans and belittles the victim through racial slights or comments that seem innocuous but are insulting to a person of color. For example, a person of color being mistaken for a service worker, or a woman clutching her purse when walking past a person of color, with the message being, "You are a criminal."

Microinvalidations: These comments and behaviors can exclude and invalidate people's thoughts, feelings, or experiences in life. For instance, asking an Asian American where they are really from, implies that they are not from the United States and are therefore a foreigner.

How racial microaggressions impact mental health

Research continues to show that racism and discrimination contribute to poor health among minorities and people of color, resulting in increased rates of depression, prolonged stress and trauma, anxiety, even heart disease and type 2 diabetes. ⁶⁻⁸

One study examined the racial climate and microaggressions at college campuses and found that African American students experienced more depression, self-doubt, frustration, and isolation that impacted their education as a result. ⁵

""The experience of having to question whether something happened to you because of your race or constantly being on edge because your environment is hostile can often leave people feeling invisible, silenced, angry, and resentful," says Dr. Bradford.

"Additionally, the increased stress related to things like microagressions in the workplace and experiences with discrimination can lead to physical concerns like headaches, high blood pressure, and difficulties with sleep, which of course impact our mood as well."

How to respond to microaggressions

According to Dr. Bradford, there are ways to cope with racial microaggressions. Here, she provides the following advice for anyone experiencing microaggressions:
Seek support.
"One of the most important ways to manage our mental health in the face of racism is to make sure that we have supportive people to help us in processing our experiences," says Dr. Bradford. "This can be in the form of colleagues, a therapist, or family and friends. It's important to have a space where you can give voice to what's happening to you."
Don't internalize racism.
It can be tempting to want to change something about yourself or your behavior in order to be more accepted, but "it's important to stay grounded in the fact that you are not the issue, racism is the issue," adds Dr. Bradford.
Know when it's time to leave a situation.
Certain situations can and will be challenging, like in the workplace, but it's important to understand when you need to distance yourself from a toxic situation. "Remaining in a situation where you're experiencing repeated acts of racism and discrimination can be incredibly taxing and harmful," says Dr. Bradford. "It's important to recognize when you've hit your limit and need to prioritize yourself."

How to prevent microaggressive behavior

Preventing racial microaggressions from occurring in the first place begins one person at a time. 2 If you find yourself exhibiting microaggressive behaviors, here's what you should do next:
Examine your beliefs.
Take some time to examine the beliefs you grew up with and ask yourself: Do those beliefs and values still resonate with me? Use this time for self-reflection and assess whether they still ring true for you now, as an adult.
Acknowledge other people's feelings.
While important to take stock of your own emotions, it's also our responsibility to acknowledge how others feel by validating the fact that their feelings matter. As you go about your day, practice being more mindful about how what you say and do might affect those around you.
Embrace empathy.
Put yourself in other people's shoes. Ask yourself how you would feel if you were in their situation. By exploring another person's perspective, you can glean insight into your behaviors. Just as your experience and feelings are true for you, their experience and feelings are true for them.
Try not to get defensive.
If you've been called out for doing or saying something hurtful, resist getting defensive. Instead, embrace curiosity and ask questions that can help you understand a person's point of view. Try not to downplay the situation, and listen carefully as they share their experience. Remember, they are taking a risk and being vulnerable by sharing this information with you.

We all have a role to play in responding to and preventing microaggressions. By taking the time to learn, ask questions, and be accountable for our actions, real progress against racism, in all its forms, can be made.

For more information on Dr. Joy Bradford and her work with Therapy for Black Girls, click here.
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References:

1. Sue, Derald Wing, Christina M. Capodilupo, Gina C. Torino, Jennifer M. Bucceri, Aisha M. B. Holder, Kevin L. Nadal, and Marta Esquilin. Racial Microaggressions in Everyday Life. American Psychologist, May-June 2007. https://www.cpedv.org/sites/main/files/file-attachments/how_to_be_an_effective_ally-lessons_learned_microaggressions.pdf

2. Clay, Rebecca. Did You Really Just Say That? American Psychological Association, January 2017. https://www.apa.org/monitor/2017/01/microaggressions

3. Wong, Gloria; Derthick, Annie O.; David, E. J. R.; Saw, Anne; Okazaki, Sumie. The What, the Why, and the How: A Review of Racial Microaggressions Research in Psychology. Race and Social Problems, October 24, 2013. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4762607/

4. Sue, Derald Wing, Christina M. Capodilupo, Gina C. Torino, Jennifer M. Bucceri, Aisha M. B. Holder, Kevin L. Nadal, and Marta Esquilin. Racial Microaggressions in Everyday Life. American Psychologist, May-June 2007. https://www.cpedv.org/sites/main/files/file-attachments/how_to_be_an_effective_ally-lessons_learned_microaggressions.pdf

5. Solorzano, D., Ceja, M., & Yosso, T. Critical Race Theory, Racial Microaggressions, and Campus Racial Climate: The Experiences of African American College Students. Journal of Negro Education, 2000. https://www.middlesex.mass.edu/RLOs/748/Critical-Race-Theory.pdf

6. Torino, Gina. How Racism and Microaggressions Lead to Worse Health. Center for Health Journalism, November 10, 2017. https://www.centerforhealthjournalism.org/2017/11/08/how-racism-and-microaggressions-lead-worse-health

7. Hicken, Margaret T.; Lee, Hedwig; Morenoff, Jeffrey; House, James S.; Williams, David R. Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Hypertension Prevalence: Reconsidering the Role of Chronic Stress. American Public Health Association, January 2014. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3910029/

8. Walls, Melissa L.; Gonzalez, John; Gladney, Tanya; Onello, Emily. Unconscious Biases: Racial Microaggressions in American Indian Health Care. American Board of Family Medicine, March-April 2015. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4386281/.

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Understanding Racial Microaggression and Its Effect on Mental Health

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There is an insidious form of racism and racial discrimination that has been gaining the attention of psychologists and researchers in recent years: racial microaggression.

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"In the end, you don't so much find yourself as you find someone who knows who you are." –Robert Brault.

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Learning about the AA community, I always knew of the hardships they faced because well, it's posted everywhere - social media, news, etc. But you never hear about how the community evolves after the fact. Black neighborhoods have shown resilience towards topics like slavery, systemic racism, and segregation. The love they hold for their traditions, customs, and values lets a person know you can not tear them down. The power and the drive the Black community holds is amazing and it goes to show that no matter what you do to try and tear them down, they are rooted and awaiting to rise back up.

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Every strength has a weakness and I believe the weakness within Black communities is the historical impact that slavery and segregation hold. Take it back to I believe unit 5 where we learned about family and kinship. Black families face society in a different light than any other race. Down to the inequality of job opportunities, the stereotypes of how each man or woman in the group should be, and facing racism just because of the color of their skin. The Black community is faced with challenges before they even start the race. Black communities are looked down upon because of the stereotypes that are forced within their group. It is intertwined with sayings like ghetto or too loud. With accusations like, 'I don't want to get robbed' or 'they might steal from me.'

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I believe the three ways in which Black neighborhoods and communities play a role in the progressive movement would be to strive for educational opportunity. The idea of having resources and programs that will help the community in the future is something that help the Black community strive even further. Another way is to show love and support through economic empowerment. Going to the local corner store or buying items from a small business, taking action like this is will lift the spirits of the people of the community. And the final way is through political involvement. Go out there and vote and read about your rights and the laws. Making a decision on how the community should be treated is what gives the Black community and neighborhood that push and power.

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Black communities face so many threats outside of their neighborhood, but what's happening inside is never discussed. One thing that I've learned from being around Black communities is the internal division they face. Sometimes people of the same community don't share the same thoughts or opinions and it gets in the way of the true problem - it's like saying you're hungry with a plate in front of you, but yelling at the cook. Another is falling for the stereotypes and narratives that people say. Don't let the words of someone who has never stepped foot in your shoes tell you who you are. Lastly, resources or lack thereof. Not being able to grab onto education, jobs or even healthcare, the Black community not faces internal threat but threat from society.

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The article's author, Jaseth Beason describes in great detail the struggles that African Americans face throughout life. This source helped me understand this post's theme because it addresses Black folks' struggles in America. I enjoyed how Beason speaks about her own personal life and how she was affected by the community she was in - overlooked for promotion. I love how she speaks about Rosa Parks and Marcus Garvey to convey the importance of coming together.

Just like I spoke in one of the posts, the strategy in which we should promote is EDUCATION. Educate people that AA communities are just as equal as the next one. Without the proper resources and the tools to help, the AA community will continue to struggle.

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The struggle of Black citizens has been a hard topic to discuss in America. For centuries, White nationalists have been manipulating and denying minorities of their rights. For far too long, the struggles of Black people have been overlooked by authority. I also see this discrimination when it comes to employment. Black workers are less likely to be employed in jobs that are consistent with their high levels of education. Sadly, I can testify to that because I have been working at an institution for five years and I am yet to be promoted, even though I am the one next in line to be promoted. My boss's excuse is that I need to stop complaining about the issues I have in my department. Unfortunately, the issues I face each day are discrimination. It is evident that racism is embedded in our system. This failing system is also against Black students. In order to fight against racism, one must recognize that less attention and fewer resources are allotted to Black communities.

Studies show that children who have been in minority communities are at a higher risk of mental and physical health problems ranking from learning disability. People pretend not to see the facts that are abrasive against colored people. We are capable of being responsible for our actions just like Rosa Parks and the woman who recorded the brutal murder of George Floyd, and the abuse of Black lives. It is my dream to have all lives come together as one nation on earth.

Jaseth Beason

We can come together to mirror the situation that we are facing today by sending positive messages across America about the importance of human life and rights. Education can enlighten people to know more about their rights. We need more positive involvement in this God-given society to remove the stigma, discrimination, negative profiling, and labeling among Black people. The ongoing violence on minorities, for example police brutality, where innocent Black people are murdered in the streets with no remorse or justice. On social media, it is plastered that minorities only have access to poor health insurance plans and they are the ones that are mostly affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. The hardship, violation and accusation has shadowed the Black communities for centuries and it is still prevalent today.

White nationalists disrupt functioning communities with drugs, which causes families to be homeless and further incarcerated. Due to these despicable situations, Black families are forced into dysfunctional cycles. Take a look at the prison system today. More Black men than White men are in prison.

During the time when our ancestors weren't allowed to read, they would hide and help each other out with their reading. When they were caught reading a book, they were seriously punished. They showed tremendous dedication and commitment for this generation toward education.

Marcus Mosiah Garvey Jr. was a Jamaican-born political activist. Growing up in Jamaica I read a lot of books about Marcus Garvey. Every year Jamaicans celebrate Garvey as one the national heroes because he fought very hard for equal rights and justice. One of my favorite Marcus Garvey quotes is, "Emancipate yourself from mental slavery, none but ourselves can free our mine." What I learn from Marcus Garvey in this moment is that we have to keep our focus on the important matter which is to not to get distracted by their twisted system, but rather, lifting up yourself in what we believe in.

The fight for education continues today. We were looked at as ordinary people without class and dignity. This struggle extends to social services as social workers police our Black families and allow the system to abuse our children because their parents are poor. Instead of creating job opportunities for minorities, they added more prisons. If more communities were allocated more funding for trade education like plumbing, sport, music and arts, they may stay focused on a more constructive lifestyle to avoid going to prison.

Our children, they are our future generation. We have to build a firm foundation for our children to stand. This capitalism business is one of the major causes within the racial justice system in the United State of America right now. As Black and Latino people, we need to come together and let it work, by being our brother's and sister's keepers.

So I ask this question, is there anything too hard for God? Marcus Garvey encouraged African Americans to stand together against racial injustice with pride and unity. He urged Blacks to be proud of their identity, so that the Black race wouldn't have to depend on other races to survive. This is why I suggest that all Black communities should step up and do something. Pick up where Marcus Garvey left off as a reminder of who we are.

Jaseth Beason: I am a mother of five awesome children and five adorable grand kids. My children and I were born in Jamaica. Unfortunately, I did not get to finish my high school education in my country but I was able to find a job without a degree to carry on my responsibility towards my kids. By attending Bard Clemente College, I realize that I am a golden pen created specially by God. I can account that anywhere there is life, there is hope and faith that brings forth opportunities. Clemente is my opportunity at the age of fifty-three.

We, Too, Are America is made possible through "Democracy and the Informed Citizen," an initiative administered by the Federation of State Humanities Council through a grant from the Mellon Foundation.

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The Struggle of Black People in America - Mass Humanities

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We can come together to mirror the situation that we are facing today by sending positive messages across America. Click here to read more!

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I never understood what gentrification meant. I have heard of it, but never truly grasped the meaning until reading this unit. In my honest opinion, The way I can truly understand the meaning is if I look at it like a puzzle. Each piece represents someone's house, a store, and even a person. This puzzle has a lot of wear and tear so someone new comes along and brings in a new box of pieces and tries to replace the old pieces for their new ones. Gentrification can make the people of the community feel like they don't belong, they don't fit in. This has an impact on the mental health of some if not most AA members to feel as if they're being pushed out of their homes to provide better living for a community that can afford it. It's like that article about Broadway Federal Bank and how it originally started as a way to help African American folks buy houses. Pretty much like the AA community's very own support system, but then the recession hits and the owner, Wayne-Kent Bradshaw had to switch up the roles of the bank to help keep it up. So now instead of helping AA folks buy houses, it helps the people who own apartment buildings stay in business. In a short sentence, AA members always were dealt a bad hand.

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Systemic Racism and its effects on African Americans

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I've learned that I have been a suspect of using racial microaggression. And although I've said certain things in a joking way, I never understood the impact it could have on the person I am saying it to. Also not to steer away from the AA community, the more I learn about the hardships they went through, the more I apply it to my own personal life and how I've heard stories my parents, especially my dad, would tell me. As someone of color, I couldn't imagine having to go through the hardships and turmoil African Americans had to face and are still facing today.

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I've also researched and learned that there are different types of Imposter Syndrome. I thought it was just like how Remy from the movie Ratatouille felt - born with the wrong background, doubting his skills. The different types of Imposter Syndrome are the Perfectionist, the Superwoman/man. the Natural Genius. the Soloist and the Expert. I included the link in which I learned this information from.

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This psychological phenomenon, known as imposter syndrome, reflects a belief that you're an inadequate and incompetent failure despite evidence that indicates you're skilled and quite successful.
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In short, it's a hot mess of harmfulness. It can also take various forms, depending on a person's background, personality, and circumstances. If you're familiar with the feeling of waiting for those around you to "find you out," it might be helpful to consider what type of imposter you are so you can problem-solve accordingly.

Expert on the subject, Dr. Valerie Young, has categorized it into subgroups: the Perfectionist, the Superwoman/man, the Natural Genius, the Soloist, and the Expert. In her book, The Secret Thoughts of Successful Women: Why Capable People Suffer From the Imposter Syndrome and How to Thrive in Spite of It, Dr. Young builds on decades of research studying fraudulent feelings among high achievers.

Through her personal research, Young uncovered several "competence types"-or internal rules that people who struggle with confidence attempt to follow. This categorization's often overlooked in the conversation, but her reading of it can be really helpful in identifying bad habits or patterns that may be holding you back from your full potential.

Below is a summary of the competence types Young identifies so you can see if you recognize yourself. I also provide some examples you might relate to in your day-to-day life, as well as questions you can ask yourself.
Related: How Joining the Great Resignation Helped Me Tackle My Imposter Syndrome
1. The Perfectionist

Perfectionism and imposter syndrome often go hand-in-hand. Think about it: Perfectionists set excessively high goals for themselves, and when they fail to reach a goal, they experience major self-doubt and worry about measuring up. Whether they realize it or not, this group can also be control freaks, feeling like if they want something done right, they have to do it themselves.

Not sure if this applies to you? Ask yourself these questions:

Have you ever been accused of being a micromanager?

Do you have great difficulty delegating? Even when you're able to do so, do you feel frustrated and disappointed in the results?

When you miss the (insanely high) mark on something, do you accuse yourself of "not being cut out" for your job and ruminate on it for days?

Do you feel like your work must be 100% perfect, 100% of the time?

For this type, success is rarely satisfying because they believe they could've done even better. But that's neither productive nor healthy. Owning and celebrating achievements is essential if you want to avoid burnout, find contentment, and cultivate self-confidence.

Learn to take your mistakes in stride, viewing them as a natural part of the process. In addition, push yourself to act before you're ready. Force yourself to start the project you've been planning for months. Truth is, there will never be the "perfect time" and your work will never be 100% flawless. The sooner you're able to accept that, the better off you'll be.

2. The Superwoman/man

Since people who experience this phenomenon are convinced they're phonies amongst real-deal colleagues, they often push themselves to work harder and harder to measure up. But this is just a false cover-up for their insecurities, and the work overload may harm not only their own mental health, but also their relationships with others.

Not sure if this applies to you?

Do you stay later at the office than the rest of your team, even past the point that you've completed that day's necessary work?

Do you get stressed when you're not working and find downtime completely wasteful?

Have you left your hobbies and passions fall by the wayside, sacrificed to work?

Do you feel like you haven't truly earned your title (despite numerous degrees and achievements), so you feel pressed to work harder and longer than those around you to prove your worth?

Imposter workaholics are actually addicted to the validation that comes from working, not to the work itself. Start training yourself to veer away from external validation. No one should have more power to make you feel good about yourself than you-even your boss when they give your project the stamp of approval. On the flip side, learn to take constructive criticism seriously, not personally.

As you become more attuned to internal validation and able to nurture your inner confidence that states you're competent and skilled, you'll be able to ease off the gas as you gauge how much work is reasonable.

3. The Natural Genius

Young says people with this competence type believe they need to be a natural "genius." As such, they judge their competence based ease and speed as opposed to their efforts. In other words, if they take a long time to master something, they feel shame.

These types of imposters set their internal bar impossibly high, just like perfectionists. But natural genius types don't just judge themselves based on ridiculous expectations, they also judge themselves based on getting things right on the first try. When they're not able to do something quickly or fluently, their alarm sounds.

Not sure if this applies to you?

Are you used to excelling without much effort?

Do you have a track record of getting "straight A's" or "gold stars" in everything you do?

Were you told frequently as a child that you were the "smart one" in your family or peer group?

Do you dislike the idea of having a mentor, because you can handle things on your own?

When you're faced with a setback, does your confidence tumble because not performing well provokes a feeling of shame?

Do you often avoid challenges because it's so uncomfortable to try something you're not great at?

To move past this, try seeing yourself as a work in progress. Accomplishing great things involves lifelong learning and skill-building-for everyone, even the most confident people. Rather than beating yourself up when you don't reach your impossibly high standards, identify specific, changeable behaviors that you can improve over time.

For example, if you want to have more impact at the office, it's much more productive to focus on honing your presentation skills than swearing off speaking up in meetings as something you're "just not good at."

4. The Soloist

Sufferers who feel as though asking for help reveals their phoniness are what Young calls Soloists. It's OK to be independent, but not to the extent that you refuse assistance so that you can prove your worth.

Not sure if this applies to you? Ask yourself these questions:

Do you firmly feel that you need to accomplish things on your own?

"I don't need anyone's help." Does that sound like you?

Do you frame requests in terms of the requirements of the project, rather than your needs as a person?

Realize there's no shame in asking for help when you need it. If you don't know how to do something, ask a co-worker. If you can't figure out how to solve a problem, seek advice from a supportive supervisor, or even a career coach.

5. The Expert

Experts measure their competence based on "what" and "how much" they know or can do. Believing they will never know enough, they fear being exposed as inexperienced or unknowledgeable.

Do you shy away from applying to job postings unless you meet every single educational requirement?

Are you constantly seeking out trainings or certifications because you think you need to improve your skills in order to succeed?

Even if you've been in your role for some time, can you relate to feeling like you still don't know "enough?"

Do you shudder when someone says you're an expert?

It's true that there's always more to learn. Striving to bulk up your skill set can certainly help you make strides professionally and keep you competitive in the job market. But taken too far, the tendency to endlessly seek out more information can actually be a form of procrastination.

Start practicing just-in-time learning. This means acquiring a skill when you need it-for example, if your responsibilities change-rather than hoarding knowledge for (false) comfort.

Mentoring junior colleagues or volunteering can be a great way to discover your inner expert. When you share what you know it not only benefits others, but also helps you heal your fraudulent feelings.

No matter the specific profile, if you struggle with confidence, you're far from alone. To take one example, studies suggest 70% of people experience imposter syndrome at some point in their career.

If you've experienced it at any point in your career, you've at one point or another chalked up your accomplishments to chance, charm, connections, or another external factor. How unfair and unkind is that? Take today as your opportunity to start accepting and embracing your capabilities.

This article has been updated to reflect the name change of one of Dr. Young's competence types, and to explain her findings in more detail.

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5 Types of Imposter Syndrome and How to Stop Them

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Imposter syndrome can be a sneaky phenomenon. Research by Dr. Valerie Young suggests there are five types and gives advice for overcoming each.

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One thing that stood out to me about both black male and female relations, when they are put into a corner they are determined to escape. The term 'bravado' is what makes black men and women have that fight-or-flight mentality. Bravado is what happens when one needs to act tough or strong to get out of a situation that's dangerous. Also, when colorism was mentioned I never knew that mate selection had an impact on a community. I've heard people speak about colorism in the sense that, "light-skinned women are more attractive than dark-skinned women" but never understood how that ever affected the community. Now I've realized and learned that history, culture, and money truly shapes how both black male and female choose their relationship.

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I believe the stereotypes black women face in the media can have a major effect on their psyche. Seeing themselves in a way that they feel as if they're property can do damage to their self-esteem and create a sense of unrecognizable self-image. Black women who continue to let these stereotypes shape them leave room to diminish their aspirations and confidence. Seeing women as an object is horrible already but allowing people to treat you as an object is worst. It's allowing society to accept that they are allowed to dehumanize women and that it's okay to treat women as if they have no value.

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Aside from feeling as if you're property due to media stereotypes, there are many other factors that are the reason black women are single and unmarried. Most women aren't looking for partners and they're just trying to focus on themselves and create a future for them. Black women are focusing more on THEIR happiness rather than the happiness they receive when they're with someone else. This is a huge play factor, the pressure. Feeling the pressure to be married at a certain age and be settled down can change the mindset of someone who doesn't want to fall for that. Another reason is money. Even though the one thing that might cost would be the wedding, you have to calculate your partners finances, debt, etc. Society isn't what it was back in the day, married by 25, first child by 30. Black women already have to fight for equality and show that the stereotypes they are facing are untrue.

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I believe there is a stigma in the AA community against the LGBTQ community is because of the way older folks were raised. It all barrels down to religious beliefs and how deeply connected with their faith they are.

I want to throw in my own experience with my mom. When I was in middle school, it was the first time I had the feeling of "I think I like girls" but I knew it was wrong because I grew up in a Christian home where whatever the Bible says we must obey. So I suppressed my wrong feelings and I kept quiet. Reaching high school is when it became more difficult to hide what gender I was into. Not to brag, but I had straight women who fell in love with me and told me they're not bisexual or gay but they feel deep emotions for me. It was during that time when I "experienced" those urges I had for the opposite sex and realized this wasn't just a phase - I was bisexual. I told my mom and the look of disgust and disappointment made me feel as if I was going to burn in Hell. It made me feel awful for having this feeling. But with time and patience and love, my mom has come to terms with being okay to have a daughter who likes both men and women.

Now back to the subject, I believe that's why the AA community is against the LGBTQ community. But it's not just faith. Cultural norms can play a factor; when someone or something doesn't fit the mold, it raises questions. All in all, it's a mix of culture, religion, and how society perceives the idea.

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So as we learned earlier what colorism is, this thesis paper describes how it can truly affect how someone in the African American community is treated because of their skin tone. The writer, Julia goes into depth on how colorism is the one thing that makes Black people discriminate against their own people. Experiencing colorism can make a member of the AA community want to change their skin tone. Julia speaks about a doctor and skin bleaching and that it gets so deep with colorism, some folks think they need to change their skin tone to either fit in or get treated better. Remember the quote I said about how 'light skinned women are more attractive than dark-skinned women?" Julia speaks on how studies should be done as to why Black men think that and what effect is has on Black women.

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The difference between Standard American English (SAE) and African American Vernacular English (AAVE) is that the vocabulary in SAE is molded by generally recognized conversations that were found in formal, academic and professional settings. SAE is known to be the "official" version of English that is taught in schools. Whereas AAVE or Ebonics has a vocabulary that was inspired by West African language, Creole languages and Southern American English. Just like SAE with its own rules of proper grammar, AAVE also has its own set of grammatical rules. Most people think when they hear someone speaking in AAVE, their language is "broken" or is "slang" however, AAVE is just as much a language as SAE is.

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Speaking Ebonics in a classroom sometimes is viewed as 'incorrect' or 'broken.' Educators view speaking with an AAVE can lead to negative perceptions and stereotypes. Most teachers believe speaking in Ebonics can create a block to be successful and can present biases against African Americans. The perspective on being bias against comes with the negative stereotypes, the academic gap and the unequal treatment that African Americans face. Some folks who don't understand the language don't understand that it can be a linguistic system used and appreciated.

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Being a dual language speaker can create a significant change within students in the classroom. They are able to recognize and value the diverse vocabulary of knowledge they have and are able to share that with their teachers. It shows that a person who speaks dual languages is more intelligent and more involved in their education and linguistic skills. Also, students who obtain the skill of speaking dual languages can have a sense of belonging and gain mutual respect from their peers. So, students should definitely embrace and utilize the strengths of being dual language speakers. And I feel that educators should definitely use this to an advantage by creating an environment that empowers students.

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I believe the one thing that helps with the negative stereotypes of African American Vernacular English is education. I feel like education is going to be the answer to fix a lot of issues that happen in the AA community. Schools should teach the importance of AAVE and how it's not a made-up language, but a language that shows history and a language that is rich in culture. AAVE is a language that is deeply rooted within African history and by accepting that, it challenges the stereotypes faced with using AAVE and promotes verbal diversity. Not only educated through the schooling system but people can promote the importance through their community.

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The spoken word this woman performs is amazing. Although it is just a poem, you can hear in her voice and the way she delivers this poem the seriousness and reality of how people who don't understand AAVE have an effect on the African American community. You can tell that she is expressing her pain and resilience on the topic of AAVE which is a language that is rich and significant in her culture. She's demanding respect and she refuses to be ashamed of her identity and heritage.

There is also another source that I came across and would love to fully read about - "Word from the Mother: Language and African Americans" by Geneva Smitherman. Author, Smitherman speaks about how important AAVE is, and she too, asks for respect for her language, AAVE. The author educates the importance, the roots, and the evolution that AAVE has had throughout society.

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The one thing that stood out to me from the readings is the history of AAVE. I knew of AAVE but I didn't know the depth and the importance that AAVE had in the African American community. I too was one of those folks who just thought AAVE was broken and incorrect talk for folks who weren't educated or came from the South. Yes, I know. I was one of those who thought negatively and thought stereotypically about a language that I had no understanding of. But reading about AAVE and seeing it from a different perspective, I now understand that AAVE is a language on its own (or at least it should become one). But AAVE is not only English but it's a way that members of the African American community can speak with others and understand each other without the feeling of being different or wrong.

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This classic text by Geneva Smitherman, pioneering scholar of Black Talk, is a definitive statement on African American Language (AAL). Enriched by her inimitable writing style, the book outlines past debates on the speech of African Americans and provides a vision for the future. As global manifestations of AAL increase, she argues that we must broaden our conception of the language and its speakers, and further examine the implications of gender, age and class on AAL. Perhaps most of all we must appreciate the "artistic and linguistic genius" of AAL, from Hip Hop lyrics to the rhyme and rhetoric of the broader Black speech community.

Smitherman explores AAL's contribution to American English, includes a summary of expressions as a suggested linguistic core of AAL, and features cartoons that educate readers on the broader relationship between language, race, and racism. This classic edition features a new foreword by H. Samy Alim, celebrating Smitherman's continuing impact on Black Language scholarship and her influence on the future of the field.

Word from the Mother is an essential read for students of African American speech, language, culture and sociolinguistics, as well as the general reader interested in the worldwide "crossover" of Black popular culture.

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This classic text by Geneva Smitherman, pioneering scholar of Black Talk, is a definitive statement on African American Language (AAL). Enriched by her inimitable writing style, the book outlines past debates on the speech of African Americans and provides a vision for the future.

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The significance of Santeria is that it is a culture that blends Catholicism with old African customs. It originated with the Yoruba people of West Africa who survived slavery when they crossed the Atlantic. Orishas were highly esteemed deities that portrayed human traits and natural power. As most people who believe in faith understand, this faith served as a cultural anchor that helped people confirm who they are, connect with their ancestry, and find some comfort within the spiritual world. Santeria places a strong value on creating good deeds, character development, and the upkeep of the African culture.

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Since we learn that Yoruba folks are the creators of Santeria, choosing to join the faith states that African Americans want to embrace it and want to establish a true connection with the rituals, traditions, and spiritual practices of their ancestors. Practicing this faith means that they're paying tribute and recognizing the culture's value and richness when it was destroyed during the slave trade. The intertwining of Catholicism and Yoruba orishas creates a truly special blend of African culture. Doing this shows cultural validation and lets African Americans express their true selves and honor their African heritage.

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Within the Yoruba faith, the physical, mental, and spiritual well-being is how they approach the idea of health and healing. Yoruba people have a long history of using spiritual elements and traditional herbal treatments in their healing rituals. The usage of plants and herbs for medical purposes is valued in Yoruba tradition. As written, the "alagbo" or "babalawo" is what they call traditional healers and they have knowledge of how certain herbs and roots help heal. So when the "ebo" or ritual offerings are offered from those who are seeking help, they offer food, animals, or other things that are symbolized as trying to bring harmony and balance back into the faith.

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I never knew that Santeria came from African Culture. Learning about that made me realize just how diverse religion is. Of course. all faiths and religions start from somewhere and get turned into what people pick them up and turn them out to be. (that was a confusing statement) But, I see now how Santeria was really brought out to be. I loved reading how it was a merge between the spirituality of the Yoruba people and Catholicism. I also enjoyed reading that it was created to preserve their culture and their religion. This is how you know you can do all kinds of horrible things to Black folks but they will ALWAYS preserve who they truly are and remain strong in their faith.

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I loved that I came across this video and the way the speaker breaks down the meaning and start of Yoruba. Here he states that the Yoruba people are mostly found in Nigeria in where they practice the religion. Yoruba is also known as the Ifa religion. This video breaks down how to truly understand. The video also mentions how reincarnation is an important concept and that if you die a "good death" you will go to the ancestral realm. There is talk about a supreme god named Aludumari but they're known as Orishas. Orishas are also like a god, but I don't think this religion truly uses the word to describe their significance. Just like in society today with each religion having its own God, Orishas have their roles and symbolism in governing the universe.

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AFRICAN MYTHOLOGY: YORUBA RELIGION AND BELIEFS | The Ifa Religion and the Orisha | African Beliefs

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Based on the article, the reason there are disparities is because of the implicit prejudices that still exist among medical doctors and the possibility of racial discrimination. Some of these prejudices may contribute to the idea that African American women are less painful. The video from the doctor on TikTok spoke about how people perceive African Americans as humans who don't feel pain due to the amount of years of slavery the community had to endure and spoke on how the perceptions others have on African Americans can cause disparities. According to the report, medical professionals' biases about African American women may influence how they treat their pain when prescribing painkillers. Another reason is what I researched for my Critical Analysis Project: System Racism. Disparities in the quality of treatment are caused by structural issues, racial prejudices ingrained in medical procedures, and economic inequalities. According to the article, there may be a lack of cultural competency among healthcare professionals, which is crucial for comprehending and meeting the requirements of a variety of patient groups.

One factor that may lead to differences in pain treatment is a lack of education in cultural competence.

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The factors that are contributing to the disproportionate numbers of African American infants who die in childbirth and African American mothers who die in childbirth are systemic racism, healthcare disparities, implicit bias, stress, and discrimination. The article drew attention to how unconscious prejudice impairs Black women's access to high-quality healthcare and leads to poor outcomes. Access to healthcare is something that African American folks have particular difficulty obtaining and because of that it is difficult for Black women to receive proper prenatal and maternity care. Digging more into the remaining factors, Black women face discrimination and stress has a negative impact on their health. It causes the body to age unnaturally and might affect the pregnancy term - this is also known as "weathering." Because of the implicit bias from these medical doctors, when Black moms come to their aid, it can cause the help to be insufficient or delayed even.

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The death of 18-year-old Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri, prompted a national conversation about race and the justice system, with many concluding discrepancies exist in policing and sentencing that, apart from race, seem unexplainable.

Health is also far from post-racial. While America has made progress on this front, including through the Affordable Care Act, many gaps persist between blacks and whites.

Issues in health and health care that lead to a shorter life span for black Americans start before birth. The average black baby enters the world under different circumstances than the average white baby, and the gap only grows between birth and death.

In 2012, about 13 percent of babies born to black mothers had low birth weights (less than 2,500 grams), compared with 7 percent of babies born to white mothers, according to the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. While the infant mortality rate for white America is 5.2 infants out of 1,000 births dying before age 1, the infant mortality rate for black America is much higher - 11.5 per 1,000 - putting the population subsection nearly on par with Mexico.

It's difficult to isolate one factor as the cause of lower birth weight and higher infant mortality among black babies - many correlating factors contribute to a perfect storm. Black babies are more likely to be born to younger, less-healthy, less-wealthy and less-educated mothers, who additionally are less likely to be married and less likely to receive prenatal care than white mothers.

For black mothers, the ages from 20 to 24 are the most common for giving birth, followed by 25 to 29. White mothers give birth later - 25 to 29 is the most popular range, then 30 to 34 - and are far less likely to give birth as a teen.

In 2012, one-third of live births to whites were to unmarried women, while more than two-thirds of births to blacks were. Single motherhood means a potential for less stability growing up, but more than that, it means less wealth. The poverty rate for families with married couples was about 6 percent in 2013, compared with 30 percent for families with a female head of the household and no husband present, according to the Census Bureau. Meanwhile, children born to married couples are more likely to finish college, find good jobs and have successful marriages, according to The New York Times.

Also, more pregnancies to black women are unplanned. While 70 percent of births to white mothers between 2006 and 2010 were intended, half of births to black mothers were. This disparity contributes to less preparedness, education and health of the mother. Sexually active black women report less contraception usage than white women.

Along the parenting track, breast-feeding has lifelong health benefits for babies, including a reduced risk for hospitalization for lower-respiratory tract diseases in the first year and lower chances for asthma, childhood obesity, Type 2 diabetes and sudden infant death syndrome. For the mother, breast-feeding decreases her risk for breast and ovarian cancer. Despite these and other benefits, black babies are breast-fed at about half the rate as white babies.

Much of that difference can be attributed to less education about the benefits of breast-feeding and fewer options in the workplace for breast-feeding. Prenatal visits present ample opportunities to discuss breast-feeding, but black women are less likely to receive prenatal care. Younger mothers are also less likely to receive prenatal care. Lack of access - meaning a response of, "I couldn't get an appointment earlier in my pregnancy" - was the most common reason for mothers not getting prenatal care, followed by "I didn't know I was pregnant" and "I didn't have enough money or insurance to pay for my visits," according to a 2003 survey funded by the CDC.

Deaths associated with perinatal conditions - fetal death or the death of a newborn in the first week of life - are responsible for 0.306 lost years of life expectancy for blacks. The list of conditions includes deaths from prematurity and low birth weight, maternal complications of pregnancy, birth defects and birth trauma.

Gaps in health care access can persist for a lifetime. Compared to whites, more black children have no usual source of health care, more black children under 6 have no health visits within a year and more black children visit the emergency room, according to the CDC. Black children also have been less likely to get a full series of vaccinations, with 65 percent of infants between 19 months and 35 months receiving all of their shots in 2012, compared with 69 percent of whites.

Eating habits develop at a young age, but often follow us into adulthood. By high school, there is already a divide between blacks and whites in the consumption of healthy foods, with black students more likely to say they didn't eat fruits or vegetables, drink milk or eat breakfast in the last week, according to a 2013 survey from the CDC.

Black students also lagged behind whites and Hispanics in physical activity. While 13 percent of whites and 16 percent of Hispanics said they didn't participate in 60 minutes of physical activity for one of the seven days leading up to the survey, 22 percent of black students said the same. Half of whites were physically active on five or more days, but 41 percent of black students were. More than half of black students watched television for three or more hours a day compared with one-quarter of white students.

These trends continue into adulthood. While 22 percent of white adults met both the aerobic activity and muscle strengthening guidelines from the CDC in 2012, 17 percent of blacks did. At every age, blacks are more likely to be obese than whites, according to data from the Journal of the American Medical Association.

Part of this is because of factors already discussed - a difference in care dating back to the womb - but economic factors certainly play a role as well. Because blacks are more likely to be in poverty, they may have fewer scheduling options when it comes to work and child care, and may find it harder to afford expensive classes or gyms. For fresh and healthy foods, access is an issue. One report found there were 50 percent fewer chain supermarkets in predominantly black communities than in white communities.

Income and educational differences correlate with obesity in women more than in men. Women are more likely to be obese as education and income decreases. For men, obesity prevalence is similar at all income levels, according to research from the CDC.

Obesity contributes to health conditions that disproportionately affect black Americans and lead to earlier deaths, such as diabetes and heart disease. These conditions require consistent health visits and prescription coverage to manage properly, yet more blacks than whites don't have a usual source of health care. These long-term conditions are also expensive. More black Americans said they experienced delays or didn't receive needed medical care or prescriptions due to cost. Factors like these mean blacks are 12 percent less likely than whites to have their blood pressure under control, despite a 40 percent increased likelihood of having high blood pressure.

Cancer-related deaths also account for part of the life-expectancy gap between blacks and whites - accounting for 0.634 years' worth of lost life expectancy for blacks. In terms of years lost before age 75, black Americans lose nearly 1,796.7 years per 100,000 members of the population due to cancer deaths, while white Americans lose 1,420 years. Although genetics may be somewhat responsible for such differences, socio-economic factors such as diet, lifestyle and a lack of preventive care are far greater contributors. Of the U.S.' racial and ethnic groups, black Americans have the highest cancer-related death rates and the shortest survival for most cancers, according to the American Cancer Society.

The most common cancers for black men in the U.S. are prostate, lung, and colon and rectal cancer; for women, they are breast, lung and colorectal cancer. The gaps in preventive care have narrowed in the last decade for procedures that lead to early cancer diagnosis, and more Americans overall undergo these procedures and tests. While in 2000, only 20 percent of white Americans and 18 percent of black Americans ages 50 to 75 had colonoscopies, by 2010, 57 percent of white Americans did and 52 percent of black Americans did. Black and white women have mammograms at about the same rate.

Homicides are responsible for 0.5 years' worth of lost life expectancy for blacks. While whites lose 100 years per 100,000 people under age 75 due to homicides, blacks lose more than 800 years. The difference is most stark for males between 15 and 24 years old.

HIV also contributes to differences in years lost: Whites lose 30 years to HIV, while blacks lose 330 years. In 2010, there were 1.8 deaths for white men per 100,000 and 17 deaths for black men per 100,000 because of HIV. For women, rates were 0.4 deaths for whites compared with 8 for blacks. The differences in HIV won't be going away anytime soon. For women in 2011, 64 percent of all new diagnoses were in African-Americans. For men, 42 percent were in African-Americans.

Differences in HIV education and testing show up early on for blacks and whites. While 87 percent of white high schoolers said they were taught about AIDS or HIV in school, slightly fewer black students said the same - 82 percent. Nearly 20 percent of black students said they had been tested for HIV compared with 11 percent of white students, though the testing disparity makes sense considering differences in sexual activity for students. About 61 percent of black students said they had had sexual intercourse compared with about 44 percent of whites. While ​3.3 percent of whites said they had sex before age 13, 14 percent of blacks said the same.

​Influenza and pneumonia also show differences: nearly 70 years lost for whites compared with 110 years lost for blacks. Vaccines protect against both of these conditions - the influenza vaccine prevents the flu, which is the most common cause of viral pneumonia in adults, according to the American Lung Association. A pneumococcal vaccine protects against the most common cause of bacterial pneumonia. Again, a difference in preventive care leads to more deaths for blacks and more protection for whites.

Some heartening changes could be on the horizon. The percentage of uninsured Americans dropped from 18 percent in 2013 to 13.4 percent after the rush to meet the April 2014 deadline for the Affordable Care Act's first enrollment, according to Gallup. The uninsured rate for black Americans has been higher - it was 17 percent in 2013, compared with 12 percent for whites.

But between October 2013 and June 2014, 1.7 million African-Americans (ages 18-64) gained health insurance coverage. The ACA has also made preventive care more affordable and concentrated on several other areas in which black Americans have lagged health-wise, including a projected expansion​ of maternity coverage to more than 390,000 black women.

But despite recent gains in health insurance, the many racial gaps in health access remain, and will no doubt continue to be a hot topic for policymakers and researchers in 2015.

Tags: race, health, public health, health insurance, women's health, children's health, health care, health care reform, HHS, breast cancer, Affordable Care Act, inequality

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Not all babies are born under equal circumstances, and they don't grow up the same way, either.

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Some solutions that should be implemented to help this issue is changes in policy, education on prenatal healthcare, training on implicit bias, and the training of different cultural backgrounds especially those that revolve around the African American community. Policy changes like expanding Medicaid, it can make it easier for African American mothers during childbirth to receive the correct care needed. Educating African American mothers about the signs and dangers of pregnancy and receiving early ongoing treatment will help them understand the situation they're in. I believe teaching about the culturally sensitive treatment that African Americans need would be beneficial to the community. It will spread awareness of any hidden biases that they face.

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Reading this article it talks about the ongoing issue by exposing significant racial differences in newborn and mother mortality. Black babies are more than twice as likely to die as White babies. I was shocked to read yet another article that states wealth and education does NOT guarantee security because the risks are still higher for Black women who have degrees and higher education. This article discusses the increasing amount of infant deaths and near-death experiences in the US, particularly focusing on African American women.

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The New York Times, April 11, 2018: Why America's black mothers and babies are in a life-or-death crisis

Black infants in America are now more than twice as likely to die as white infants - 11.3 per 1,000 black babies, compared with 4.9 per 1,000 white babies, according to the most recent government data - a racial disparity that is actually wider than in 1850, 15 years before the end of slavery, when most black women were considered chattel. In one year, that racial gap adds up to more than 4,000 lost black babies. Education and income offer little protection. In fact, a black woman with an advanced degree is more likely to lose her baby than a white woman with less than an eighth-grade education.

This tragedy of black infant mortality is intimately intertwined with another tragedy: a crisis of death and near death in black mothers themselves. The United States is one of only 13 countries in the world where the rate of maternal mortality - the death of a woman related to pregnancy or childbirth up to a year after the end of pregnancy - is now worse than it was 25 years ago. Each year, an estimated 700 to 900 maternal deaths occur in the United States. In addition, the C.D.C. reports more than 50,000 potentially preventable near-deaths, like Landrum's, per year - a number that rose nearly 200 percent from 1993 to 2014, the last year for which statistics are available. Black women are three to four times as likely to die from pregnancy-related causes as their white counterparts, according to the C.D.C. - a disproportionate rate that is higher than that of Mexico, where nearly half the population lives in poverty - and as with infants, the high numbers for black women drive the national numbers.

The reasons for the black-white divide in both infant and maternal mortality have been debated by researchers and doctors for more than two decades. But recently there has been growing acceptance of what has largely been, for the medical establishment, a shocking idea: For black women in America, an inescapable atmosphere of societal and systemic racism can create a kind of toxic physiological stress, resulting in conditions - including hypertension and pre-eclampsia - that lead directly to higher rates of infant and maternal death. And that societal racism is further expressed in a pervasive, longstanding racial bias in health care - including the dismissal of legitimate concerns and symptoms - that can help explain poor birth outcomes even in the case of black women with the most advantages.

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The New York Times: Why America's black mothers and babies are in a life-or-death crisis

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The New York Times, April 11, 2018: Why America's black mothers and babies are in a life-or-death crisis Black infants in America are now more than twice as likely to die as white infants - 11.3 per 1,000 black babies, compared with 4.9 per 1,000 white babies, according to the most recent government data - a racial disparity that is actually wider than in 1850, 15 years before the end of slavery, when most black women were considered chattel.

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It's one thing to know that the African American community faces the hardships of living due to the inequality, discrimination, and prejudices they face, but to read that the rules still don't change because you're an expecting mother is beyond my mind. The connection between social and systemic racism, the stress, and the poor health outcomes, showed just how much there needs to be a change. Just as I read the reports and interviews from women like Serena Williams and Beyonce, it helps others understand and comprehend that even the wealthiest Black women struggle with equality and healthcare disparities.

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Reading the material, the theme is realizing the inequality in maternal care for the African American community. I chose this as the theme because every material provided speaks about how through racial disparities, economic struggle, and poor mental support there needs to be a change within the maternity care system. Facing racial trauma, health disparities, economic struggles, and mental inequities, African Americans still show resilience and empowerment. It's a culture that shows strength and I believe is the meaning of strength.

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The theme has an impact on the African American community because it emphasizes the relevance of issues that affect not just minority groups but also the Black maternal crisis in general. Just as I did my research on systemic racism and how healthcare is one of the issues, that contributes to stress, anxiety, and trauma that the AA community is already going through. Take, for example, African Americans being racially profiled, the discrimination they face everywhere, the police brutality...all of these things affect Black folks and to add insufficient maternity care? Changes need to be made and education about the issue needs to be taught.

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As simple as the answer is, education and change would be the strategy to help improve unfair maternity care within the AA community. Educate the importance of healthcare and how within different racial groups not many folks are seen as equal - which needs to change. Discuss how policy changes need to be made so that access to the right maternity care can help Black mothers and their children. Promote the change needed and break down the systemic racism that is being shown within the African American community.

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This article helped me understand more about the disparities that African Americans face within maternal health care. It spoke about the risks that Blacks face throughout their pregnancy, childbirth, and motherhood. Just as I learned before access to healthcare is hard to maintain, so when the need for it is apparent, Black women face issues during their pregnancies they can't receive the right help. The article also says that even though there needs to be a definite change within the healthcare system, showing support can still be a thing - support Black women i n their pregnancy and support programs that help support Black mothers.

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Black Mothers & Pregnant Women Are Struggling In The US

Black women in the United States experience unacceptably poor maternal health outcomes. This sadly includes a disproportionately high rate of death related to pregnancy or childbirth throughout the African-American community. In fact, Black women in the US are three times more likely to die from pregnancy or childbirth than women of any other race. Both societal and healthcare related factors contribute to high rates of poor health outcomes and Black maternal mortality in the US. Here, we'll examine the various risks that Black women face from conception, to birth, and into motherhood.
Pregnancy
Throughout the course of a pregnancy, Black women face a variety of healthcare related disadvantages compared to non-Hispanic or white women. But the reasons for this may not be immediately obvious because Black women's heightened risk of pregnancy-related death spans income and education levels . While Black women are at a higher risk for developing high blood pressure and fibroids during pregnancy, the predominant issue comes down to medical equity and access to quality care. Black mothers also face medical racism and clinical research historically has excluded Black women.
Birth
These risks and complications extend from pregnancy to childbirth and motherhood. A recent study shows that these Black maternal morbidity disparities were concentrated among just a few causes of death. These include postpartum cardiomyopathy, preeclampsia and eclampsia, causing Black maternal mortality rates to be five times those of non-Hispanic women. The study also found that pregnant and postpartum Black women were over two times more likely than non-Hispanic women to die of hemorrhage or embolism.
Motherhood
These types of maternal health disparities don't end with Black mothers. These health risks also often extend to the baby before and after it has been born. The infant mortality rate of Black babies in 2018 was 10.8 deaths per 1,000 live births, compared to a rate of 4.6 white babies per 1,000 live births. Once again, the infant mortality rate among Black families is still significantly higher than non-Hispanic families across income and education levels.

These alarming statistics should not be the reality for millions of Black women and children living in the United States. Issues involving health equity and improving access to reliable and unbiased healthcare is of the utmost importance when it comes to decreasing the Black maternal morbidity rates in this country.

While many of these possible solutions require upper-level systemic changes in American healthcare, there are quite a few things that everyday people can do to help Black mothers and pregnant women. One of the most important things you can do to help pregnant women in need is diaper assistance. In fact, a 2013 study showed that diaper need is often more stressful on new mothers than food insecurity.

NDBN supports a national network of independent basic needs banks that supply communities with diapers, period products, and other essentials not covered by most public assistance programs. Data shows that 25% of the leaders of NDBN member organizations identify as BIPOC. "We have diverse representation in the network," said CEO Joanne Samuel Goldblum. "But we need to challenge ourselves to ensure that we're equitably serving all the communities that make up NDBN."

This is why we have started working with the Black Diaper Bank Coalition (BDBC) to help ensure that more of our grant writing is done specifically to support Black-led organizations as well as a change in the intentional allocation of resources.

See how you can help reduce diaper need in your community, and help Black mothers in need with National Diaper Bank Network. to see how you can make a difference.

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Black Mothers & Pregnant Women Are Struggling In The US - National Diaper Bank Network

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Black women in the United States experience unacceptably poor maternal health outcomes. This sadly includes a disproportionately high rate of death related to pregnancy or childbirth throughout the African-American community. In fact, Black women in the US are three times more likely to die from pregnancy or childbirth than women of any other race.

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The outcomes of policies like this create a negative impact with marginalized communities. Folks within these communities aren't able to obtain the healthcare they need which makes it harder to stay healthy. I researched this topic whole doing my Critical Analysis project, and found that when the healthcare system makes it harder for communities to get to the right doctors or medicine, it causes more health issues as well a shortening their life expectancies. Since racism, segregation and discrimination move through generations like a rolling ball, younger folks who grow up in this system also face the same hardships and struggles.

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Unconscious bias, distrust in the healthcare system, no health insurance, and not enough healthcare education negatively impact the African American community. The biases that AA communities face doctors could treat Black people differently from other racial groups and it could be harder for them to trust the healthcare system. Facing this type of bias can also make it harder to obtain healthcare insurance - making it not only harder to get but also make it expensive. The lack of education within the healthcare system also makes it hard because not know how to prevent issues due to one's health or understand their body and why they're getting sick.

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I believe the strategies that I feel will address the issues raised are cultural training for healthcare providers, health education in communities that need it, and changes in policy to access healthcare. I believe it's important for healthcare providers to be trained in diverse culture because it will prevent the unfair treatment that marginalized communities face, and it will promote better healthcare treatment and a better understanding of whom they are treating. Health education will definitely help communities stay healthy and truly understand their bodies and the medical conditions that they may or may not be dealing with. Lastly, a change in policy is a definite no-brainer. I believe policies should make healthcare insurance more affordable for folks who can't afford "richer insurance." A healthcare system with this type of change could close the coverage gap that is being experienced in marginalized communities.

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The one thing that stood out to me in this unit is the institutional racism that is being shown within the healthcare system. Although marginalized communities face different aspects in life, the unequal policies and access that they face even for healthcare is mind-blowing. Imagine having a medical condition and not knowing where you can go or turn to because you know the very system that is supposed to help you, won't. On a side note, I admire the African American community because through the hardships they face, they are still pushing and showing strength and resilience.

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This article helped me understand that even though we already know that the different treatment in healthcare goes way beyond just that. Think of the folks who live in rural areas which makes it harder to get any help or even retrieve help. This article shares stories that not only Blacks went through, but also Hispanics when faced with unfair treatment in healthcare. Facing this kind of treatment makes it harder for folks to even try to connect with their doctors. They're afraid of not only being dismissed but also experiencing malpractice. This article helped me understand that although the biggest picture is being treated due to color of their skin, but it also depends on the area of where the person lives, how much money they make, and also the type of support they are being show and given.

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Introduction

The COVID-19 pandemic and nationwide racial justice movement over the past several years have heightened the focus on health disparities and their underlying causes and contributed to the increased prioritization of health equity. These disparities are not new and reflect longstanding structural and systemic inequities rooted in racism and discrimination. Although growing efforts have focused recently on addressing disparities, the ending of some policies implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic, including continuous enrollment for Medicaid and the Children's Health Insurance Program (CHIP), may reverse progress and widen disparities. Addressing health disparities is not only important from an equity standpoint, but also for improving the nation's overall health and economic prosperity. This brief provides an introduction to what health and health care disparities are, why it is important to address disparities, what the status of disparities is today, recent federal actions to address disparities, and key issues related to addressing disparities looking ahead.

What are health and health care disparities?

Health and health care disparities refer to differences in health and health care between groups that stem from broader inequities. There are multiple definitions of health disparities. Healthy People 2030 defines a health disparity, as "a particular type of health difference that is linked with social, economic, and/or environmental disadvantage," and that adversely affects groups of people who have systematically experienced greater obstacles to health. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) defines health disparities as, "preventable differences in the burden, disease, injury, violence, or in opportunities to achieve optimal health experienced by socially disadvantaged racial, ethnic, and other population groups and communities." A health care disparity typically refers to differences between groups in health insurance coverage, affordability, access to and use of care, and quality of care. The terms "health inequality" and "inequity" are also sometimes used to describe unjust differences. Racism, which the CDC defines as the structures, policies, practices, and norms that assign value and determine opportunities based on the way people look or the color of their skin, results in conditions that unfairly advantage some and disadvantage others, placing people of color at greater risk for poor health outcomes.

Health equity generally refers to individuals achieving their highest level of health through the elimination of disparities in health and health care. Healthy People 2030 defines health equity as the attainment of the highest level of health for all people and notes that it requires valuing everyone equally with focused and ongoing societal efforts to address avoidable inequalities, historical and contemporary injustices, and health and health care disparities. The CDC describes health equity as when everyone has the opportunity to be as healthy as possible.

A broad array of factors within and beyond the health care system drive disparities in health and health care (Figure 1). Though health care is essential to health, research shows that health outcomes are driven by multiple factors, including underlying genetics, health behaviors, social and environmental factors, and access to health care. While there is currently no consensus in the research on the magnitude of the relative contributions of each of these factors to health, studies suggest that health behaviors and social and economic factors, often referred to as social determinants of health, are the primary drivers of health outcomes and that social and economic factors shape individuals' health behaviors. Moreover, racism negatively affects mental and physical health both directly and by creating inequities across the social determinants of health.

Health and health care disparities are often viewed through the lens of race and ethnicity, but they occur across a broad range of dimensions. For example, disparities occur across socioeconomic status, age, geography, language, gender, disability status, citizenship status, and sexual identity and orientation. Research also suggests that disparities occur across the life course, from birth, through mid-life, and among older adults. Federal efforts to reduce disparities focus on designated priority populations, including, "members of underserved communities: Black, Latino, and Indigenous and Native American persons, Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders and other persons of color; members of religious minorities; lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBT+) persons; persons with disabilities; persons who live in rural areas; and persons otherwise adversely affected by persistent poverty or inequality." These groups are not mutually exclusive and often intersect in meaningful ways. Disparities also occur within subgroups of populations. For example, there are differences among Hispanic people in health and health care based on length of time in the country, primary language, and immigration status. Data often also mask underlying disparities among subgroups within the Asian population.

Why is it important to address disparities?

Addressing disparities in health and health care is important not only from an equity standpoint but also for improving the nation's overall health and economic prosperity. People of color and other underserved groups experience higher rates of illness and death across a wide range of health conditions, limiting the overall health of the nation. Research further finds that health disparities are costly, resulting in excess medical care costs and lost productivity as well as additional economic losses due to premature deaths each year.

It is increasingly important to address health disparities as the population becomes more diverse and income inequality continues to grow. It is projected that people of color will account for over half (52%) of the population in 2050, with the largest growth occurring among people who identify as Asian or Hispanic (Figure 2). Over time, the population has become increasingly racially diverse, reflecting shifting immigration patterns, a growing multiracial population, as well as adjustments to how the federal Census Bureau measures race and ethnicity. Over time, income inequality within the U.S. has also widened. As of 2021, the richest 20% of households accounted for over half of the aggregate household income and had an income of $149,132 or higher compared to the bottom 20% of households who accounted for less than 3% of the aggregate household income and had incomes of $28,007 or less. The top 5 percent of households in the income distribution had incomes of $286,305 or more. Research suggests that the disparate negative effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on lower-paid occupations may have lingering effects that contribute to further widening income inequality over the long term.

What is the status of disparities today?

Disparities in health and health care are persistent and prevalent. Major recognition of health disparities began more than three decades ago with the Report of the Secretary's Task Force on Black and Minority Health (Heckler Report) in 1985, which documented persistent health disparities that accounted for 60,000 excess deaths each year and synthesized ways to advance health equity. The Heckler Report led to the creation of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Office of Minority Health and influenced federal recognition of and investment in many aspects of health equity. In 2003, the Institute of Medicine's Committee on Understanding and Eliminating Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care released the report, Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care, which identified systemic racism as a major cause of health disparities in the United States. Despite the recognition and documentation of disparities for decades and overall improvements in population health over time, many disparities have persisted, and, in some cases, widened over time.

Despite large gains in coverage since implementation of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) in 2014, people of color and other marginalized and underserved groups remain more likely to be uninsured. Racial disparities in coverage persisted as of 2021, with higher uninsured rates for nonelderly American Indian or Alaska Native (AIAN), Hispanic, Black, and Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander (NHOPI) people compared to their White counterparts (Figure 3). Other groups also remained at increased risk of being uninsured, including immigrants and people in lower-income families. Many people who are uninsured are eligible for coverage through Medicaid, CHIP, or the ACA Marketplaces but face barriers to enrollment including confusion about eligibility policies, difficulty navigating enrollment processes, and language and literacy problems. Some immigrant families also have immigration-related fears about enrolling themselves or their children in Medicaid or CHIP even if they are eligible. Others remain ineligible because their state did not expand Medicaid, due to their immigration status, or because they have access to an affordable Marketplace plan or offer of employer coverage.

Beyond coverage, people of color and other marginalized and underserved groups continue to experience many disparities in accessing and receiving care. For example, people in rural areas face barriers to accessing care due to low density of providers and longer travel times to care, as well as more limited access to health coverage. There also are inequities in experiences receiving health care across groups. For example, the KFF/The Undefeated 2020 Survey on Race and Health, found that one in five Black adults and one in five Hispanic adults report being treated unfairly treatment due to their race or ethnicity while getting health care for themselves or a family member in the past year. Nearly one-quarter (24%) of Hispanic adults and over one in three (34%) potentially undocumented Hispanic adults reported that it was very or somewhat difficult to find a doctor who explains this in a way that is easy to understand in a 2021 KFF survey. Other KFF survey data from 2022 found that nearly one in ten (9%) of nonelderly adult women who visited a health care provider in the past two years said they experienced discrimination because of their age, gender, race, sexual orientation, religion, or some other personal characteristic during a health care visit. KFF data also showed that LGBT+ people were more likely than their non-LGBT+ counterparts to report certain negative experiences while getting health care, including a doctor not believing they were telling the truth, suggesting they are personally to blame for a health problem, assuming something about them without asking, and/or dismissing their concerns. The 2023 KFF/The Washington Post Trans Survey found that trans adults were more likely to report having difficulty finding affordable health care or a provider who treated them with dignity and respect compared to cisgender adults.

People of color and other underserved groups face ongoing disparities in health. For example, at birth, AIAN and Black people had shorter life expectancies compared to White people as of 2021, and AIAN, Hispanic, and Black people experienced larger declines in life expectancy than White people between 2019 and 2021, reflecting the impacts of COVID-19 (Figure 4). Black infants were more than two times as likely to die as White infants and AIAN infants were nearly twice as likely to die as White infants as of 2021. Black and AIAN women also had the highest rates of pregnancy-related mortality across groups. Rates of chronic disease and cancer also vary by race and ethnicity. Although Black people did not have higher cancer incidence rates than White people overall and across most types of cancer, they were more likely to die from cancer in 2019. There are also stark disparities in health by income. Research shows that people living in areas with high concentrations of poverty are at increased risk of poorer health outcomes over the course of their lives. KFF analysis also found that LGBT+ people were more likely to report being in fair or poor health and having an ongoing health condition that requires ongoing monitoring, medical care, or medication compared to non-LGBT+ people despite being a younger population.

The COVID-19 pandemic has taken a disproportionate toll on the health and well-being of people of color and other underserved groups. Cumulative age-adjusted data showed that AIAN and Hispanic people have had a higher risk for COVID-19 infection and AIAN, Hispanic, and Black people have had a higher risk for hospitalization and death due to COVID-19. Beyond these direct health impacts, the pandemic has negatively impacted the mental health, well-being, and social and economic factors that drive health for people of color and other underserved groups, including LGBT+ people. As such, the pandemic may contribute to worsening health disparities going forward.

Concerns about mental health and substance use have increased since the onset of the pandemic, particularly among some groups. According to a 2022 KFF/CNN survey, 90% of the public think there is a mental health crisis in the U.S. today. Over the course of the pandemic, many adults reported symptoms consistent with anxiety and depression. Additionally, drug overdose deaths have sharply increased - largely due to fentanyl - and after a brief period of decline, suicide deaths are once again on the rise. These negative mental health and substance use outcomes have disproportionately affected some populations, particularly communities of color and youth. Drug overdose death rates were highest among AIAN and Black people as of 2021. Alcohol-induced death rates increased substantially during the pandemic, with rates increasing the fastest among people of color and people living in rural areas. From 2019 to 2021, many people of color experienced a larger growth in suicide death rates compared to their White counterparts. Additionally, self-harm and suicidal ideation has increased faster among adolescent females compared to their male peers. Findings from a 2023 KFF/The Washington Post survey found that more trans adults reported struggling with serious mental health issues compared to cisgender adults and were six times as likely as cisgender adults to have engaged in self-harm in the previous year (17% vs. 3%). There are also substantial disparities in mental health, including suicidality, among LGBT+ youth compared to their non-LGBT+ peers.

What are recent federal actions to address disparities?

In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been a heightened awareness of and focus on addressing health disparities. The disparate impacts of COVID-19 and coinciding racial reckoning following the police killing of George Floyd contributed to a growing awareness of racial disparities in health and their underlying causes, including racism. Early in his presidency, President Biden issued a series of executive orders focused on advancing health equity, including orders that outlined equity as a priority for the federal government broadly and as part of the pandemic response and recovery efforts. Federal agencies were directed with developing Equity Action Plans that outlined concrete strategies and commitments to addressing systemic barriers across the federal government. In its Health Equity Plan, the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) outlined a series of new strategies, including addressing increased pregnancy and postpartum morbidity and mortality among Black and AIAN women; addressing barriers that individuals with limited English proficiency face in obtaining information, services, and benefits from HHS programs; leveraging grants to incorporate equity consideration into funding opportunities, implementing equity assessments across its major policies and programs; investing in resources to advance civil rights; and expanding contracting opportunities for small, disadvantaged businesses. The plan builds on earlier efforts that included increasing stakeholder engagement, establishing the Office of Climate Change and Health Equity, and establishing the National Institutes of Health UNITE Initiative to address structural racism and racial inequities in biomedical research. Since the release of its Equity Action Plan, HHS has taken actions to extend postpartum coverage through Medicaid and CHIP; issued rules to strengthen patient protections, including nondiscrimination protections; and issued nondiscrimination guidance to ensure that telehealth services are accessible to people with disabilities and those with limited English proficiency.

The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) released an updated framework to advance health equity, expand health coverage, and improve health outcomes for people covered by Medicare, Medicaid, CHIP, and the Health Insurance Marketplaces. The framework outlined five priorities including expanding the collecting, reporting, and analysis of standardized data on demographics and social determinants of health; assessing the causes of disparities within CMS programs and addressing inequities in policies and operations; building capacity of health care organizations and the workforce to reduce disparities; advancing language access, health literacy, and the provision of culturally tailored services; and increasing all forms of accessibility to health services and coverage. The Administration has also identified advancing health equity and addressing social determinants of health as key priorities within Medicaid and has encouraged states to propose Section 1115 Medicaid waivers that expand coverage, reduce health disparities, and/or advance "whole-person care." States have increasingly requested and/or received approval for waivers that aim to advance equity. Further, a growing number of states have approved or pending waivers with provisions related to addressing health-related social needs, such as food and housing, often focused on specific populations with high needs or risks.

The Administration and Congress have taken a range of actions to stabilize and increase access to health coverage amid the pandemic. Early in the pandemic, Congress passed the Families First Coronavirus Response Act (FFCRA), which included a temporary requirement that Medicaid programs keep people continuously enrolled during the COVID-19 Public Health Emergency in exchange for enhanced federal funds. Primarily due to the continuous enrollment provision, Medicaid enrollment has grown substantially compared to before the pandemic, and the uninsured rate has dropped with differences in uninsured rates between people of color and White people narrowing. Coverage gains also likely reflected enhanced ACA Marketplace subsidies made available by the American Rescue Plan Act (ARPA) of 2021 and renewed for another three years in the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022, boosted outreach and enrollment efforts, a Special Enrollment Period for the Marketplaces provided in response to the pandemic, and low Marketplace attrition. Additionally, in 2019, the Biden Administration reversed changes the Trump Administration had previously made to public charge immigration policies that increased reluctance among some immigrant families to enroll in public programs, including health coverage. Most recently, the Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2023 included a requirement for all states to implement 12 months of continuous coverage for children, supporting their coverage stability. However, it also set the end of the broader Medicaid continuous enrollment provision for March 31, 2023, which could lead to coverage losses for millions of people, reversing recent coverage gains.

There have been growing federal efforts to address disparities in maternal health. Over the past few years, the Administration launched several initiatives focused on addressing inequities in maternal health. In April 2021, President Biden issued a proclamation to recognize the importance of addressing the high rates of maternal mortality and morbidity among Black people. At the end of 2021, the White House hosted its inaugural White House Maternal Health Day of Action during which areas of concern in maternal health outcomes were identified and the Administration announced actions aimed at solving the maternal health crisis. In June 2022, the Biden Administration released the Blueprint for Addressing the Maternal Health Crisis. The Blueprint outlines priorities and actions across federal agencies to improve access to coverage and care, expand and enhance data collection and research, grow and diversify the perinatal workforce, strengthen social and economic support, and increase trainings and incentives to support women being active participants in their care before, during and after pregnancy. In July 2022, CMS announced a Maternity Care Action Plan to support the implementation of the Biden-Harris Administration's Blueprint for Addressing the Maternal Health Crisis. The action plan takes a holistic and coordinated approach across CMS to improve health outcomes and reduce inequities for people during pregnancy, childbirth, and the postpartum period. ARPA included an option, made permanent in the Consolidated Appropriations Act, to allow states to extend Medicaid postpartum coverage from 60 days to 12 months. As of April 2023, the majority of states have taken steps to extend postpartum coverage. The Human Resources and Services Administration also announced $12 million in awards for the Rural Maternal and Obstetrics Management Strategies Program (RMOMS), which is designed to develop models and implement strategies to improve maternal health in rural communities.

The Administration has also taken steps to address health disparities and discrimination experienced among LGBT+ people. On his first day in office, President Biden signed an Executive Order on "Preventing and Combating Discrimination on the Basis of Gender Identity or Sexual Orientation." Since then, the Administration has taken multiple actions to address discrimination within health care specifically. In May 2021, the Biden Administration announced that the HHS Office for Civil Rights (OCR) would include gender identity and sexual orientation as it interprets and enforces the ACA's prohibition against sex discrimination (Section 1557), reversing the approach taken by the Trump Administration. Additionally, the Administration has spoken out against state actions aimed at curtailing access to gender affirming care for transgender and gender nonconforming people, particularly policies targeting youth. In January 2023, the Administration released its Federal Evidence Agenda on LGBTQI+ Equity, a "roadmap for federal agencies as they work to create their own data-driven and measurable SOGI Data," which the Administration views as central to understanding disparities and discrimination facing this community.

What are key issues related to health disparities looking ahead?

The end of the Medicaid continuous enrollment provision may lead to coverage losses and widening disparities. Following the ending of the Medicaid continuous enrollment provision on March 31, 2023, states resumed Medicaid redeterminations. KFF estimates that between 5 and 14 million people could lose Medicaid coverage, including many who newly gained coverage during the pandemic. Other research shows that Hispanic and Black people are likely to be disproportionately impacted by the expiration of the continuous enrollment provision. Moreover, some groups, such as individuals with limited English proficiency and people with disabilities may face increased challenges in completing the Medicaid renewal process increasing their risk of coverage loss even if they remain eligible for coverage. OCR has reminded states of their obligations under federal civil rights laws to take reasonable steps to provide meaningful language access for individuals with limited English proficiency and ensure effective communication with individuals with disabilities to prevent lapses in coverage amid the unwinding of the continuous enrollment provision. CMS issued guidance that provides a roadmap for states to streamline processes and implement strategies to reduce the number of people who lose coverage even though they remain eligible. The extent to which states simplify processes to renew or transition to other coverage and provide outreach and assistance to individuals more likely to face challenges completing renewal processes will impact coverage losses and potential impacts on coverage disparities.

The end of the COVID-19 Public Health Emergency (PHE) and the potential depletion of the federally purchased supply of COVID-19 vaccines, treatments, and tests may curtail access to these supplies for some individuals, particularly those who are uninsured. In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the federal government spent billions of dollars in emergency funds to purchase COVID-19 vaccines, including boosters, treatments, and tests to provide free of charge to the public. In addition, Congress enacted legislation that included special requirements for their coverage by both public and private insurers, and the Administration issued guidance and regulations to protect patient access and promote equitable distribution. The upcoming end to the PHE on May 11, 2023, as well as the potential depletion of federally purchased supplies in the absence of any additional funding, could result in new or higher cost-sharing and/or reduced access to these products although these impacts may vary by product and the type of health coverage an individual has. People who are uninsured or underinsured face the greatest risk of access challenges, including limited access to free vaccines and no coverage for treatment or tests. Since people of color and people with lower incomes are more likely to be uninsured, they may be at a disproportionate risk of facing barriers to accessing COVID-19 vaccines, tests, and treatments once the PHE ends and the federal supply is depleted.

The overturning of Roe v. Wade may exacerbate the already large racial disparities in maternal and infant health. The decision to overturn the longstanding Constitutional right to abortion and elimination of federal standards on abortion access has resulted in growing variation across states in laws protecting or restricting abortion. These changes may disproportionately impact women of color, as they are more likely to obtain abortions, have more limited access to health care, and face underlying inequities that would make it more difficult to travel out of state for an abortion compared to their White counterparts. Restricted access to abortions may widen the already stark racial disparities in maternal and infant health, as some groups of color are at higher risk of dying from pregnancy-related reasons and during infancy and are more likely to experience birth risks and adverse birth outcomes compared to White people. It may also have negative economic consequences associated with the direct costs of raising children and impacts on educational and employment opportunities. Further, women from underserved communities may be at increased risk for criminalization in a post-Roe environment, as prior to the ruling, there were already cases of women being criminalized for their miscarriages, stillbirths, or infant death, many of whom were low-income or women of color.

Many states have implemented policies banning or limiting access to gender affirming care, especially for youth, as well as other legal actions that threaten access to care for LGBT+ people. Policies aimed at limiting access to gender affirming care may have significant negative implications for the health of trans and nonconforming people, particularly young people, including negative mental health impacts, and an increased risk of suicidality. Additionally, the recent case on preventive care access directly affects LGBT+ people in its treatment of Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP). It relies, in part, on religious protections arguments to limit access to the drug based on the plaintiff's claim that it "facilitate[s] and encourage[s] homosexual behavior, prostitution, sexual promiscuity, and intravenous drug use." If PrEP use declines as a result of the Braidwood decision, HIV incidence could increase, likely disproportionally impacting people of color and LGBT+ people. Efforts to curtail access to gender affirming care and the Braidwood decision are at odds with the Administration's stated approach to health equity for LGBT+ people. How such policies play out in the longer term will be determined largely by the courts.

Evolving immigration policies may impact the health and well-being of immigrant families. When the PHE ends on May 11, 2023, Title 42 restrictions that suspended the entry of individuals at the U.S. border to protect public health during the COVID-19 emergency are expected to terminate. It is anticipated that when the authority ends, there will be an increase in immigrant activity at the U.S. border. The Biden Administration has announced plans to increase security and enforcement at the border to reduce unlawful crossings, expand "legal pathways for orderly migration", invest additional resources in the border region, and partner with Mexico to implement the aforementioned plans. However, it remains to be seen how shifting policies will impact trends at the border and health and health care in that region. The future of the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program remains uncertain, and its implementation is currently limited subject to court orders. If the DACA program is found to be unlawful in pending court rulings, individuals would lose their DACA status and subsequently their work authorizations. The loss of status and work authorization may result in loss of employer-based health coverage, leaving people uninsured and unable to qualify for Medicaid, CHIP, or to purchase coverage through the Marketplaces. Additionally, although the Biden Administration reversed public charge regulations implemented by the Trump Administration as part of an effort to address immigration-related fears that limited immigrant families' participation in government assistance programs, including Medicaid and CHIP, many families continue to have fears and concerns about enrolling in these programs, contributing to ongoing gaps in coverage for immigrants and children of immigrants.

Growing mental health and substance use concerns and ongoing racism, discrimination, and violence may contribute to health disparities. As previously noted, mental health and substance use concerns have increased since the onset of the pandemic, with some groups particularly affected. These trends may lead to new and widening disparities. For example, people of color have experienced larger increases in drug overdose death rates than White people, resulting in the death rate for Black people newly surpassing that of White people by 2020. Further, Black and Asian people have reported negative mental health impacts due to heightened anti-Black and anti-Asian racism and violence in recent years. Research has documented the negative health impacts, including negative impacts on mental health and well-being, of exposure to violence, including police and violence. Research shows African American and AIAN men and women, and Latino men are at increased risk of being killed by police compared to their White peers. Black and Hispanic adults also are more likely than White adults to worry about gun violence according to 2023 KFF survey data. Other KFF analysis shows that firearm death rates increased sharply among Black and Hispanic youth during the pandemic driven primarily by gun assaults and suicide by firearm. Research further shows that repeated and chronic exposure to racism and discrimination is associated with negative physical and mental health outcomes, including premature aging and associated health risks, referred to as " weathering," as well as higher mortality.

Despite growing mental health concerns, people of color continue to face disproportionate barriers to accessing mental health care. Research suggests that structural inequities may contribute to disparities in use of mental health care, including lack of health insurance coverage and financial and logistical barriers to accessing care, stemming from broader inequities in social and economic factors. Lack of a diverse mental health care workforce, the absence of culturally informed treatment options, and stereotypes and discrimination associated with poor mental health may also contribute to limited mental health treatment among people of color. Amid the pandemic, many states implemented telehealth behavioral health services to expand access to behavioral health care, and most states intend to keep these services. States are also adopting strategies to address workforce shortages in behavioral health. As states seek to expand access to behavioral health care, it will be important to ensure that services address the cultural and linguistic needs of diverse populations. Further, in 2022, the federal government mandated the suicide and crisis lifeline number that provides a single three-digit number (988) to access a network of over 200 local and state-funded crisis centers. The 988 number is expected to improve the delivery of mental health crisis care; however, it is unknown how well it will address the needs of people of color and other underserved populations.

Conclusion

In sum, disparities in health and health care for people of color and other underserved groups are longstanding challenges, many of which are driven by underlying structural and economic disparities rooted in racism. Addressing disparities is key not only from an equity standpoint but for improving the nation's overall health and economic prosperity. Amid the COVID-19 pandemic, the federal government identified health equity as a priority and has since launched initiatives to address disparities wrought by the COVID-19 pandemic and more broadly. Alongside the federal government, states, local communities, private organizations, and providers have engaged in efforts to reduce health disparities. Moving forward, a broad range of efforts both within and beyond the health care system will be instrumental in reducing disparities and advancing equity.

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Disparities in Health and Health Care: 5 Key Questions and Answers | KFF

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Disparities in health and health care for people of color and underserved groups are longstanding challenges. This brief provides an introduction to what health and health care disparities are, why it is important to address disparities, the status of disparities today, recent federal actions to address disparities, and key issues related to addressing disparities looking ahead.

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Taking a step into a history lesson, dating back to slavery and the civil rights movement, the Black church has always been a kind of support that offered sanctuary and strength during the tough times that Black folks faced. It also became this sort of symbolism that African Americans can call their own and feel a sense of ownership of cultural identity - being able to share their values, experiences, and rituals within their community. As with any church, there is always help within communities - the Black church has always been the pillar to help with mental health. Allowing a support group of grief and healing.

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It's very vital to the success of mental health because as learned prior, African Americans have a shared interest in diverse traditions, values, and family structures. Take a look at the historical mistreatment African Americans faced - the Tuskegee Syphilis Study and how it contributed to African Americans getting the mistrust treatment they receive within the healthcare system. Now culturally competent care is understanding those religious beliefs and practices most important to African Americans and it uses it to help the mental health impact AA members have been through.

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I believe one strategy would be creating programs that cater to the needs of Black communities - knowing the challenges they've faced and helping them cope with those challenges. Things like this should start small, and create small groups that educate and give access to mental health resources that are needed. Another strategy that ties into the first one is to gain the resources and services to help the Black communities. A change needs to happen and there needs to be programs that can decrease the discrimination and stigma that comes after Black communities. I believe the last strategy would be educating. Education is a key strategy that will help with the changes needed within Black communities. The programs should promote well-being and learn about the needs of Black communities - it creates a more empathetic community.

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I learned that even the LGBTQ+ community is in dire need of mental health care. Even in the community, there are barriers like discrimination, fear of gender identity, and even trying to find support groups to help understand their mental health issue - depression, anxiety, and even the thought of suicide. As I learned throughout this class, the mental hardships that African American communities face are marked by the impact of racism, discrimination, and socioeconomic disparities. To reduce stigma, address the systemic issues, and make sure mental health support is in order, Black communities seek culturally competent care.

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This article helped me understand that even though it is apparent that African Americans need help with mental care, only a few go out and seek it. Black folks that do go out and seek the help needed, go to the church and the churches help provide the support they need. The article also speaks about how there should be a collaboration of Black churches and Black communities so that they both can help with accessing mental health resources.

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The icon indicates free access to the linked research on JSTOR.

Mental healthcare has not always been accessible for Black people in the United States, due to a combination of factors. Stigma, institutional racism, misdiagnoses, and financial hardship are just a few barriers to receiving treatment. Added to these is the challenge of finding culturally sensitive providers who are representative of Black American communities.

According to the American Psychiatric Association, only one in three Black Americans who need mental health care receives it. In addition, Black people with mental illnesses, particularly bipolar disorders, schizophrenia, and other psychoses, are more likely to be incarcerated than members of any other racial/ethnic group with similar conditions.

Black counselors Keith Dempsey, S. Kent Butler, and LaTrece Gaither suggest that churches could play a role in helping Black people access mental health support in their own communities.

"Historically, [the church] has functioned as a community center, social club, and training center," they write. "The Black church has also been the place where African Americans seek emotional refuge from their daily problems."

Seeking service from churches often doesn't impose an extra financial burden.

According to the authors, there are several reasons Black people may already turn to their churches for support instead of mental health agencies. Seeking services from churches often doesn't impose an extra financial burden; economic hardship and inadequate insurance coverage "may force some African Americans to seek free services from paraprofessionals at their churches or forgo treatment of their mental health needs altogether."

For others, "seeking professional help for emotional problems is a sign of spiritual flaws in one's life." Drawing on their faith to improve their emotional well-being may be their first choice. In addition, turning to a mental health agency may "produce strong feelings of shame and guilt," leading people to rely solely on the church. And many have prior relationships with their churches and feel more welcome there than in a clinical environment.

Finally, what the authors describe as a "lack of ethnic matching" in the mental health industry presents a significant obstacle to treatment. There is a limited number of Black clinicians, and "mental health agencies that do not have a diverse ethnic representation struggle to understand the client's worldview or life experiences."

While the church may be the first-or only-resource to which some Black Americans turn, the authors note that receiving counseling solely from clergy may be counterproductive if a mental health issue doesn't align with a church's values. For example, "historically the Black church has taken a strong stance on heterosexual relationships and abstaining from sexual activity before marriage, causing some clergy to resist exploring issues such as sexuality and sexual promiscuity."

Where clergy may be inclined to "correct" values or behaviors that contradict the church's teaching and use the teachings of the Bible to guide parishioners, "mental health professionals are trained to listen without judgment."

The authors noted that this doesn't need to be an "either/or" situation, pointing out that "Black churches and outside agencies have benefited from several successful collaborations." The most notable collaborations have been related to physical health and wellness, but the model could be built upon to provide mental healthcare as well.

The most important part of the solution requires that healthcare agencies have permission to work with Black churches from their clergy and that they take the time to become a part of the community. "Establishing a trusting relationship provide[s] a foundation for continued conversation," write the authors.

"Mental health professionals have better success when they respectfully become an active member of the community they serve," observe the authors. Healthcare workers should use "culturally appropriate outreach methods within the contexts of the Black church's existing system." Joining the community and "holding meetings in Black churches rather than respective agencies and institutions signifies a partnership as well as a physical presence."

Beyond that, clergy could receive mental health training, and more research could be conducted to determine what other methods could best support Black churchgoers.

Dempsey, Butler, and Gaither hope that these collaborations better support Black Americans, as untreated mental illnesses in their communities continues to grow "at an alarming rate."
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The Black Church and Mental Health Support - JSTOR Daily

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Mental healthcare has not always been accessible for Black Americans. Could churches be part of the solution?

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Please excuse the absence of a video. Last minute, my camera decided not to work.