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*When we engage in extended training and repetition of some kinds of learning, notably motor skills and sequential tasks, our learning is thought to be recorded in this deeper region, the same area that controls subconscious actions such as eye movements. The brain is thought to chunk motor and cognitive action sequences together so that they can be performed as a single unit, that is, without requiring a series of conscious decisions, which would substantially slow our responses. These sequences become reflexive as they may start as actions we teach ourselves to take in pursuit of a goal, but they become automatic responses to stimuli.

* The hippocampus, where we consolidate learning and memory, is able to generate new neurons throughout life. The phenomenon of neurogenesis is thought to play a central role in the brain’s ability to recover from physical injury and in humans’ lifelong ability to learn. The relationship of neurogenesis to learning and memory is a new field of inquiry, but scientists have shown that the activity of associative learning stimulates an increase in the creation of new neurons in the hippocampus.

*Retrieval practice, spacing, rehearsal, rule learning, and the construction of mental models improve learning and memory is evidence of neuroplasticity and is consistent with scientists’ understanding of memory consolidation as an agent for increasing and strengthening the neural pathways by which one is later able to retrieve and apply to learn

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*One study, at the University of California, Los Angeles, compared the synaptic architecture of identical twins, whose genes are alike, and fraternal twins, who share only some genes. This study showed what others have suggested, that the speed of our mental abilities is determined by the robustness of our neural connections; that this robustness, at the initial stages, is largely determined by our genes, but that our neural circuitry does not mature as early as our physical development and instead continues to change and grow through our forties, fifties, and sixties.

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Chou, Y., Leporé, N., Chiang, C., Avedissian, C., Barysheva, M., McMahon, K. L., Meredith, M., Wright, M. J., Toga, A. W., & Thompson, P. M. (2009). Mapping genetic influences on ventricular structure in twins. NeuroImage, 44(4), 1312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.10.036

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*When it comes to learning, receiving instructions or being taught in a manner that does not favor the learning style of the one being taught puts them at a disadvantage. Individuals who feel concerned in situations like this usually try to figure things out and help themselves. Rule learning and structure building are what psychologists claim many people use to help themselves. But also not everyone can figure their learning problem out especially when there is an internal factor like a learning disability or even dyslexia.

* The VARK approach advocated by Neil Fleming differentiates people whether they prefer learning through experiences that are primarily visual, auditory, reading, or kinesthetic. VARK only focuses on one aspect which has many dimensions like light, food intake, and more. Another theory is one that focuses on six aspects which are emotional, sociological, perceptual, physiological, and environmental. There are also the Honey and Mumford learning styles and questionnaires for learning theory.

* There is this idea that we learn better when the mode of presentation matches the particular style in which an individual is best able to learn. This is why it is important to figure out what style works great even tho there is no evidence to support it.

*According to psychologists there are at least two types of intelligence, the fluid and crystalized. While Gardner helpfully expands our notion of intelligence, the psychologist Robert J. Sternberg helpfully distills it again. Rather than eight intelligences, Sternberg’s model proposes three: analytical, creative, and practical. Further, unlike Gardner’s theory, Sternberg’s is supported by empirical research. g. In Sternberg’s view, we’re all in a state of developing expertise, and any test that mea sures only what we know at any given moment is a static mea sure that tells us nothing about our potential in the realm the test measures.

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*In 2008 the cognitive psychologists Harold Pashler, Mark McDaniel, Doug Rohrer, and Bob Bjork were commissioned to conduct a review to determine whether this critical claim is supported by scientific evidence. The team set out to answer two questions. First, what forms of evidence are needed for institutions to justify basing their instructional styles on assessments of students’ or employees’ learning styles? The second question the team asked was whether this kind of evidence existed. The answer was no. They found very few studies designed to be capable of testing the validity of learning styles theory in education, and of those, they found that virtually none validate it and several flatly contradict it.

*One of Sternberg’s studies of particular interest to the question of how we measure intelligence was carried out in rural Kenya, where he and his associates looked at children’s informal knowledge of herbal medicines. Regular use of these medicines is an important part of Kenyans’ daily lives. This knowledge is not taught in schools or assessed by tests. The children who performed best on tests of this indigenous informal knowledge did worst relative to their peers on tests of the formal academic subjects taught in school and, in Sternberg’s words, appeared to be “stupid” by the metric of the formal tests.

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*(Page 15)

Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., & Bjork, R. (2008). Learning Styles: Concepts and Evidence. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 9(3), 105-119. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6053.2009.01038.x

*(Page 18)

Nokes, Catherine & Geissler, Paul & Prince, Ruth & Okatcha, Frederick & Bundy, Donald & Grigorenko, Elena. (2001). The Relationship between Academic and Practical Intelligence: A Case Study in Kenya. Intelligence. 29. 401-418. 10.1016/S0160-2896(01)00065-4.

*(Page 14)

https://vark-learn.com/introduction-to-vark/the-vark-modalities/

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*Mentioned earlier in the previous chapter on how to elicit putting more effort and that slowing down learning, spacing, interleaving, mixing up practice, and others will more than compensate for their inconvenience by making the learning stronger, more precise, and more enduring. Short-term impediments that make for stronger learning have come to be called desirable difficulties by psychologists. Learning occurs in a process beginning with encoding which refers to when the brain converts your perceptions into chemical and electrical changes that form a mental representation of the patterns one observes. The new experiences and learning that we want to salt away for the future must be made stronger and more durable so we do not forget easily. Consolidation mentioned here is the strengthening of mental representations for the long term memory. So much happens during the consolidation process; the brain reorganizes and stabilizes the memory traces. This may occur over several hours or longer and involves deep processing of the new material, during which scientists believe that the brain replays or rehearses the learning, giving it meaning, filling in blank spots, and making
connections to past experiences and to other knowledge already stored in long- term memory. Reconsolidation helps retrieval practice modifies and strengthens learning. Having effective retrieval cues is an
aspect of learning that often goes overlooked. The task is
more than committing knowledge to memory. Being able to retrieve it when we need it is important. How readily you can recall knowledge from your internal archives is determined by context and the more effort required to retrieve  something, the better you learn it so relearning helps a lot.
*Sometimes our judgments of what learning strategies work best for us are often mistaken, colored by illusions
of mastery. Spaced and interleaved exposure characterizes most of humans’ normal experience especially the concept of difference.  Also certain kinds of interference can produce learning benefits, and the positive effects are sometimes surprising because the change from normal presentation introduces a difficulty disruption of fluency that makes the learner work harder to construct an interpretation that makes sense. The added effort increases comprehension and learning.

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*In Marcel Proust’s Remembrance of Things Past, the narrator grieves over his inability to recall the days of his adolescence in the French village of his aunt and uncle, until one day the taste of a cake dipped in lime blossom tea brings it all rushing back, all the people and events he thought had long since been lost to time.
*In the Cal Poly batting practice experiment, the act of overcoming the difficulties posed by random types of pitches built a broader “vocabulary” of mental processes for discerning the nature of the challenge (e.g., what the pitcher is throwing) and selecting among possible responses than did the narrower mental processes sufficient for excelling during massed, nonvaried experience.

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*Contextual interference effects with skilled baseball players
https://www.krigolsonteaching.com › 1994-hall
(page 14)

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[And so it was that ...]

And so it was that, for a long time afterwards, when I lay awake at night and revived old memories of Combray, I saw no more of it than this sort of luminous panel, sharply defined against a vague and shadowy background, like the panels which a Bengal fire or some electric sign will illuminate and dissect from the front of a building the other parts of which remain plunged in darkness: broad enough at its base, the little parlour, the dining-room, the alluring shadows of the path along which would come M. Swann, the unconscious author of my sufferings, the hall through which I would journey to the first step of that staircase, so hard to climb, which constituted, all by itself, the tapering 'elevation' of an irregular pyramid; and, at the summit, my bedroom, with the little passage through whose glazed door Mamma would enter; in a word, seen always at the same evening hour, isolated from all its possible surroundings, detached and solitary against its shadowy background, the bare minimum of scenery necessary (like the setting one sees printed at the head of an old play, for its performance in the provinces) to the drama of my undressing, as though all Combray had consisted of but two floors joined by a slender staircase, and as though there had been no time there but seven o'clock at night. I must own that I could have assured any questioner that Combray did include other scenes and did exist at other hours than these. But since the facts which I should then have recalled would have been prompted only by an exercise of the will, by my intellectual memory, and since the pictures which that kind of memory shews us of the past preserve nothing of the past itself, I should never have had any wish to ponder over this residue of Combray. To me it was in reality all dead.

Permanently dead? Very possibly.

There is a large element of hazard in these matters, and a second hazard, that of our own death, often prevents us from awaiting for any length of time the favours of the first.

I feel that there is much to be said for the Celtic belief that the souls of those whom we have lost are held captive in some inferior being, in an animal, in a plant, in some inanimate object, and so effectively lost to us until the day (which to many never comes) when we happen to pass by the tree or to obtain possession of the object which forms their prison. Then they start and tremble, they call us by our name, and as soon as we have recognised their voice the spell is broken. We have delivered them: they have overcome death and return to share our life.

And so it is with our own past. It is a labour in vain to attempt to recapture it: all the efforts of our intellect must prove futile. The past is hidden somewhere outside the realm, beyond the reach of intellect, in some material object (in the sensation which that material object will give us) which we do not suspect. And as for that object, it depends on chance whether we come upon it or not before we ourselves must die.

Many years had elapsed during which nothing of Combray, save what was comprised in the theatre and the drama of my going to bed there, had any existence for me, when one day in winter, as I came home, my mother, seeing that I was cold, offered me some tea, a thing I did not ordinarily take. I declined at first, and then, for no particular reason, changed my mind. She sent out for one of those short, plump little cakes called 'petites madeleines,' which look as though they had been moulded in the fluted scallop of a pilgrim's shell. And soon, mechanically, weary after a dull day with the prospect of a depressing morrow, I raised to my lips a spoonful of the tea in which I had soaked a morsel of the cake. No sooner had the warm liquid, and the crumbs with it, touched my palate than a shudder ran through my whole body, and I stopped, intent upon the extraordinary changes that were taking place. An exquisite pleasure had invaded my senses, but individual, detached, with no suggestion of its origin. And at once the vicissitudes of life had become indifferent to me, its disasters innocuous, its brevity illusory-this new sensation having had on me the effect which love has of filling me with a precious essence; or rather this essence was not in me, it was myself. I had ceased now to feel mediocre, accidental, mortal. Whence could it have come to me, this all-powerful joy? I was conscious that it was connected with the taste of tea and cake, but that it infinitely transcended those savours, could not, indeed, be of the same nature as theirs. Whence did it come? What did it signify? How could I seize upon and define it?

I drink a second mouthful, in which I find nothing more than in the first, a third, which gives me rather less than the second. It is time to stop; the potion is losing its magic. It is plain that the object of my quest, the truth, lies not in the cup but in myself. The tea has called up in me, but does not itself understand, and can only repeat indefinitely with a gradual loss of strength, the same testimony; which I, too, cannot interpret, though I hope at least to be able to call upon the tea for it again and to find it there presently, intact and at my disposal, for my final enlightenment. I put down my cup and examine my own mind. It is for it to discover the truth. But how? What an abyss of uncertainty whenever the mind feels that some part of it has strayed beyond its own borders; when it, the seeker, is at once the dark region through which it must go seeking, where all its equipment will avail it nothing. Seek? More than that: create. It is face to face with something which does not so far exist, to which it alone can give reality and substance, which it alone can bring into the light of day.

And I begin again to ask myself what it could have been, this unremembered state which brought with it no logical proof of its existence, but only the sense that it was a happy, that it was a real state in whose presence other states of consciousness melted and vanished. I decide to attempt to make it reappear. I retrace my thoughts to the moment at which I drank the first spoonful of tea. I find again the same state, illumined by no fresh light. I compel my mind to make one further effort, to follow and recapture once again the fleeting sensation. And that nothing may interrupt it in its course I shut out every obstacle, every extraneous idea, I stop my ears and inhibit all attention to the sounds which come from the next room. And then, feeling that my mind is growing fatigued without having any success to report, I compel it for a change to enjoy that distraction which I have just denied it, to think of other things, to rest and refresh itself before the supreme attempt. And then for the second time I clear an empty space in front of it. I place in position before my mind's eye the still recent taste of that first mouthful, and I feel something start within me, something that leaves its resting-place and attempts to rise, something that has been embedded like an anchor at a great depth; I do not know yet what it is, but I can feel it mounting slowly; I can measure the resistance, I can hear the echo of great spaces traversed.

Undoubtedly what is thus palpitating in the depths of my being must be the image, the visual memory which, being linked to that taste, has tried to follow it into my conscious mind. But its struggles are too far off, too much confused; scarcely can I perceive the colourless reflection in which are blended the uncapturable whirling medley of radiant hues, and I cannot distinguish its form, cannot invite it, as the one possible interpreter, to translate to me the evidence of its contemporary, its inseparable paramour, the taste of cake soaked in tea; cannot ask it to inform me what special circumstance is in question, of what period in my past life.

Will it ultimately reach the clear surface of my consciousness, this memory, this old, dead moment which the magnetism of an identical moment has travelled so far to importune, to disturb, to raise up out of the very depths of my being? I cannot tell. Now that I feel nothing, it has stopped, has perhaps gone down again into its darkness, from which who can say whether it will ever rise? Ten times over I must essay the task, must lean down over the abyss. And each time the natural laziness which deters us from every difficult enterprise, every work of importance, has urged me to leave the thing alone, to drink my tea and to think merely of the worries of to-day and of my hopes for to-morrow, which let themselves be pondered over without effort or distress of mind.

And suddenly the memory returns. The taste was that of the little crumb of madeleine which on Sunday mornings at Combray (because on those mornings I did not go out before church-time), when I went to say good day to her in her bedroom, my aunt Léonie used to give me, dipping it first in her own cup of real or of lime-flower tea. The sight of the little madeleine had recalled nothing to my mind before I tasted it; perhaps because I had so often seen such things in the interval, without tasting them, on the trays in pastry-cooks' windows, that their image had dissociated itself from those Combray days to take its place among others more recent; perhaps because of those memories, so long abandoned and put out of mind, nothing now survived, everything was scattered; the forms of things, including that of the little scallop-shell of pastry, so richly sensual under its severe, religious folds, were either obliterated or had been so long dormant as to have lost the power of expansion which would have allowed them to resume their place in my consciousness. But when from a long-distant past nothing subsists, after the people are dead, after the things are broken and scattered, still, alone, more fragile, but with more vitality, more unsubstantial, more persistent, more faithful, the smell and taste of things remain poised a long time, like souls, ready to remind us, waiting and hoping for their moment, amid the ruins of all the rest; and bear unfaltering, in the tiny and almost impalpable drop of their essence, the vast structure of recollection.

And once I had recognized the taste of the crumb of madeleine soaked in her decoction of lime-flowers which my aunt used to give me (although I did not yet know and must long postpone the discovery of why this memory made me so happy) immediately the old grey house upon the street, where her room was, rose up like the scenery of a theatre to attach itself to the little pavilion, opening on to the garden, which had been built out behind it for my parents (the isolated panel which until that moment had been all that I could see); and with the house the town, from morning to night and in all weathers, the Square where I was sent before luncheon, the streets along which I used to run errands, the country roads we took when it was fine. And just as the Japanese amuse themselves by filling a porcelain bowl with water and steeping in it little crumbs of paper which until then are without character or form, but, the moment they become wet, stretch themselves and bend, take on colour and distinctive shape, become flowers or houses or people, permanent and recognisable, so in that moment all the flowers in our garden and in M. Swann's park, and the water-lilies on the Vivonne and the good folk of the village and their little dwellings and the parish church and the whole of Combray and of its surroundings, taking their proper shapes and growing solid, sprang into being, town and gardens alike, from my cup of tea.
Continue...

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Remembrance of Things Past: Swann's Way - [And so it was that ...] (by Marcel Proust)

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The complete text of Remembrance of Things Past: Swann's Way

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*Good judgment is an important skill one must acquire, not only for things around us but also for our own thinking and performances. To have competent good judgments we should be able to learn and recognize competency among others, become more accurate judges of what we know and don’t know, adopt learning strategies that get results, and find objective ways to track our progress. Learning when to trust your intuition and when to question it is a big part of how you improve your competence. The changeable nature of our memory cannot only skew our perceptions but is also essential to our ability to learn.
* Because we cannot remember every aspect of an event, we tend to remember those elements that have the greatest emotional significance on us, and we fill it
with details of our own that are consistent with our narrative and that is one of the many ways our memories become distorted. Asking questions based on something happening or not usually leads people to believe and then imagine the event has actually happened before. This is the imagination inflation effect and it is one way we distort our memories. Guessing about possible events causes people to provide their own misinformation, which, if left uncorrected, they may later come to retrieve as accurate or real memories. Interference from other events can distort memory because these other events are preventing or block the main information at hand and thus make one focus on the other event more. Our memories are also subject to social influence and tend to
align with the memories of the people around us this is known as memory conformity or the social contagion of memory.
*Confidence in a memory is not a reliable indication of its accuracy.

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* Practicing is important in learning because it burns a skill into our memory. Constant practicing as we have come to know is only effective when it's been broken into separate pieces of training that have been spaced out. When practice is spaced and inter-leavened more effort is being put into action as the results of this leads to longer retention and more versatility. Unlike mass practice where learning results are seen quickly, spaced-out practice is efficient but slower.
The main reason why spaced practice is more effective than massed practice is that embedding new learning in long-term memory requires consolidation in which memory traces are strengthened, given meaning, and connected to prior knowledge.
* Interleaved practice can also be used to learn instead of mass practice. Interleaved refers to the practice of two or more subjects or skills. Learning from interleaved practice also feels slower than learning from massed practice, this makes interleaving unpopular and barely used.
*

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* In a study conducted on interleaved practice two groups of college students were taught how to find the volumes of four obscure geometric solids (wedge, spheroid, spherical cone, and half cone). One group then worked on a set of practice problems that were clustered by problem type (practice four problems for computing the volume of a wedge, then four problems for a spheroid, etc.). The other group worked on the same practice problems, but the sequence was mixed (interleaved) rather than clustered
by type of problem. Given what we’ve already presented, the results may not surprise you. During practice, the students who worked the problems in clusters (that is, massed) averaged 89 percent correct, compared to only 60 percent for those who worked the problems in a mixed sequence.
* The beanbag study focused on mastery of motor skills, but much evidence has shown that the underlying principle applies to cognitive learning as well. The basic idea is that varied practice— like tossing your beanbags into baskets at mixed distances— improves your ability to transfer learning from one situation and apply it successfully to another. You develop a broader understanding of the relationships between different
conditions and the movements required to succeed in them; you discern context better and develop a more flexible “movement vocabulary”— different movements for different situations. Whether the scope of variable training (e.g., the two four- and foot tosses) must encompass the particular task (the three-foot toss) is subject to further study.

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* Interleavened on pg 4
Schorn, J. M., & Knowlton, B. J. (2021). Interleaved practice benefits implicit sequence learning and transfer. Memory & Cognition, 49(7), 1436-1452. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-021-01168-z
* Varied practice on pg 6
Kerr, R., & Booth, B. (1978). The specific and varied practice of motor skills. Perceptual and motor skills, 46(2), 395–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/003151257804600201
*The assigned reading
Brown, P. C., Roediger, H. L., & McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University.

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* Learning begins at an early stage from when we are born.  As we all know there are many strategies or ways to use for learning. Some have proven to be effective by researchers and others are not effective but still used. Chapter one mentioned retrieval as one of the effective strategies but there is more to be discovered in this chapter. This retrieval tool's power is known among psychologists as the testing effect or the retrieval practice effect.
*Testing is popularly used to measure what learn and assign grades in school, students usually use retrieval practice which is repeatedly recalling that strengthens the memory. The repetition method helps the memory consolidate into a cohesive repetition in the brain and avoid a mindless recitation. To be effective, retrieval must be repeated over and over again in a spaced-out session. This is important because spacing repetition allows some forgetting to occur which leads to long-term retention than when it is massed.
*The generation effect was also found to be effective as it generated cued answers while studying the pairs' strengthened memory of the target word.
* Feedback is also known to have an effect on learning as studies have shown that giving feedback strengthens retention more than testing alone interestingly,
some evidence shows that delaying the feedback briefly produces better long-term learning than immediate feedback. Another idea holds that frequent interruptions for feedback make the learning sessions too variable, preventing the establishment of a stabilized pattern of performance.
* Cramming as we all know leads to higher scores on an immediate test but results in fast forgetting when retrieval on the other hand helps with the long term.

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This New York Times study "conducted in In 2010 reported on a scientific study that showed that students who read a passage of text and then
took a test asking them to recall what they had read retained an astonishing 50 percent more information a week later than students who had not been tested. This would seem like good news, but here’s how it was greeted by many online comments:
“Once again, another author confuses learning with recalling information
“I personally would like to avoid as many tests as possible,
especially with my grade on the line. Trying to learn in a stressful environment is no way to help retain information.”

I find the results for this study very interesting because even though results proved that testing is effective people chose to ignore it and go with the idea that they do not like testing. I believe people reacted like this because testing means recalling and thus repetition practice comes into effect this method seems a lot compared to cramming. People would rather choose the easiest way out.

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*The generation effect pg 11
Rosner, Z. A., Elman, J. A., & Shimamura, A. P. (2013). The generation effect: activating broad neural circuits during memory encoding. Cortex; a journal devoted to the study of the nervous system and behavior, 49(7), 1901–1909. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2012.09.009

*Brown, P. C., Roediger, H. L., & McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University

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The hypnotic interview process is known to produce much erroneous information, and studies have shown that when they are tested later, under instructions only to tell exactly what they remember of the actual events, their guesses made while under hypnosis cloud their memories about what truly happened. The purpose of this interview is to encourage people to let their thoughts roam freely and produce everything that comes to mind, in hopes that they will retrieve information.
* In terms of fluency illusions students who
study by rereading their texts can mistake their fluency with a text, gained from rereading, for possession of accessible knowledge of the subject and consequently overestimate how well they will do on a test.

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* Cognitive psychology is the basic science of understanding how the mind works and conducting empirical research into how people perceive, remember, and think. This definition leads to the cognitive psychology behind learning as it requires the use of our memory.
* Learning is well-known for acquiring knowledge and skills and having them readily available from memory so you can make sense of future problem opportunities.
* Learning is an acquired skill so the better you are at learning you have an advantage. We never stop learning we keep on learning all the time and the more we learn new things the more our brain changes.
* There are many forms of learning and the most preferred strategies are rereading text and massed practice. This strategy being the most preferred is also among the least effective learning strategies because rereading and massed practice give rise to feelings of fluency and that is a waste of time. Most of the gains achieved during mass practice are transitory and melt away quickly meaning you lose it and forget whatever you just learned. Being fluent and familiar does not really mean you understand it very well.
* One of the most known effective strategies for learning is the retrieval practice and this is because retrieval strengthens the memory and interrupts forgetting. Taking a quiz after a reading is done is a good way of learning using retrieval rather than trying to reread over and over again.

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I have always known that rereading is not always helpful but I never thought of finding other effective strategies of learning until I started college. I have used many different strategies for learning with which some worked others also didn't do much. But I recently started the retrieval method which I noticed takes more effort and time but it definitely yields to a better results.
I agree with a lot of things being said in this reading about how learning is misunderstood because starting from kindergaten we are taught to practice practice that there is this popular quote practice makes perfect. This means the more you practice the more better you become and this means doing it over and over again instead of finding a strategy on how to correct our mistakes. Correcting our mistakes from the reading helps builds the bridges to advanced learning.

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The assigned reading
Brown, P. C., Roediger, H. L., & McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University.

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*(Interview Process)pg;

Kebbell, M. R., & Wagstaff, G. F. (1998). Hypnotic interviewing: the best way to interview eyewitnesses?. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(1), 115–129. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1099-0798(199824)16:1<115::aid-bsl296>3.0.co;2-i