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Affiliation

¹ Division of Urology, Department of Surgery, King Saud University, College of Medicine and King Khalid University Hospital, PO Box 2925, Riyadh 11461, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. rabie@doctors.org.uk

Affiliation

¹ Division of Urology, Department of Surgery, King Saud University, College of Medicine and King Khalid University Hospital, PO Box 2925, Riyadh 11461, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. rabie@doctors.org.uk

Abstract

This study of the original Arabic edition of the book Al-Taisir Fil-Mudawat Wal-Tadbeer (Book of Simplification Concerning Therapeutics and Diet) written by the Muslim physician Abu-Marwan Abdel-Malik Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar, 1093-1162 AD) aimed at evaluating his contributions to the progress of surgery and providing English translations of relevant excerpts. Ibn Zuhr s unique experiment performing a tracheotomy on a goat, proved the safety of this operation in humans and represented a further step in the development of the experimental school started by Al-Razi (Rhazes) of Baghdad in the ninth century who is known to have given monkeys doses of mercury to test it as a drug for human use. Ibn Zuhr also performed post mortems on sheep in the course of his clinical research on treatment of ulcerating diseases of the lungs. Same as all his predecessors in the Islamic Era, he stressed the importance of a practical and sound knowledge of anatomy for surgical trainees. Furthermore, Ibn Zuhr insisted on a well supervised and structured training program for the surgeon-to-be, before allowing him to operate independently. He also drew the red lines at which a physician should stop, during his general management of a surgical condition; a step forward in the evolution of general surgery as a specialty of its own. He believed in prophylaxis against urinary stone disease and reported the importance of dietary management for that purpose. Furthermore, Ibn Zuhr enriched surgical and medical knowledge by describing many diseases and treatment innovations not ever described before him.

Cited by

"Walter Cooper Dendy (1794-1871) and the First Book on Pediatric Dermatology" - Reader's Question.

Sanaie S, Sha'rbaf JG, Mohammadinasab R. Sanaie S, et al. Indian J Dermatol. 2020 Nov-Dec;65(6):536. doi: 10.4103/ijd.IJD_362_20. Indian J Dermatol. 2020. PMID: 33487716 Free PMC article. No abstract available.

A Brief History of Breast Cancer: Part II - Evolution of surgical pathology.

Lakhtakia R, Chinoy RF. Lakhtakia R, et al. Sultan Qaboos Univ Med J. 2014 Aug;14(3):e319-22. Epub 2014 Jul 24. Sultan Qaboos Univ Med J. 2014. PMID: 25097765 Free PMC article. No abstract available.

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national center for biotechnology information

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Contributions of Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) to the progress of surgery: a study and translations from his book Al-Taisir - PubMed

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This study of the original Arabic edition of the book Al-Taisir Fil-Mudawat Wal-Tadbeer (Book of Simplification Concerning Therapeutics and Diet) written by the Muslim physician Abu-Marwan Abdel-Malik Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar, 1093-1162 AD) aimed at evaluating his contributions to the progress of surgery ...

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1. Who is responsible for modern animal testing?
The Public Health Service (PHS), Food and Drug Administration (the FDA), and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The federal law, the Animal Welfare Act, that protects animals from experimentation excludes 95%.

2. What animals fall under the umbrella? (What counts as an animal?)

The AWA says “any live or dead dog, cat, monkey (nonhuman primate mammal), guinea pig, hamster, rabbit, or such other warm blooded animal.”

3. Which countries practice animal testing the most?
1.China
2.Japan
3.United States
4.Canada
5.Australia
6.South Korea
7..United Kingdom
8.Brazil
9.Germany
10.France

4. What makes animal testing unethical?

They are caged and forced to withstand torture and possibly death.

5. Is animal testing required or a necessity?
For some research purposes it is. China (2nd largest beauty industry) is the only country that requires animal testing for products.

6. How has animal experimentation developed over time?

In the 9th century, Al-Razi of Baghdad drugged monkeys with Mercury. In the 12th century Ibn Zuhr performed a tracheotomy on a goat. In 1937, a pharmaceutical company accidentally mass poisoned more than a hundred people. In 1938 they passed the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act.

7. Does vivisection help more than it harms?

Scientists can justify that "the benefits to human health outweigh the costs or harm to animals." This is controversial for many.

8. Who started animal experimentation?

Ibn Zuhr started animal experimentation.

9. What is society doing to stand against animal experimentation?

And the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) plans to eliminate all animal testing in 2035.

10. What alternatives could be used? Why aren’t they?

Vitro methods, Silico models, computer models, 3D printing, and cell culture. The alternatives are limited.

Should animal rights be more valued than humans?

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What has animal testing done?
What can/can't be done?
Who started it and when?

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Problems: Society accepts animal experimentation because it is widely used in cosmetics, medicine, etc. without everyone trying to prevent it. Animal experimentation is frequently used to meet all our goals.

Solutions : The migratory bird act.
Methods listed under question 10.

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Advances antibiotics and medication

Furthers cancer and heart disease research

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Wasteful

Animals are different from humans.

Time-Consuming

Expensive

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An efficient way to deal with animal experimentation might look like:

1. Holding people accountable by enforcing rules, hoping they follow.

2. Urging people to develop cognizance for wildlife.

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The migratory bird treaty act is a real act implemented in 1918. If this works, this could be sustainable for all animals harshly affected.

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Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 | U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

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The Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 (16 U.S.C. 703-712) implements four international conservation treaties that the U.S.

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- Already existing methods.

https://grants.nih.gov/grants/policy/air/alternatives

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While many different strategies, models, methods, and technologies are used in biomedical research, the specificity of the individual research question dictates what approaches are appropriate. In other words, different research questions necessitate the use of different approaches. Some approaches involve animal models, some do not. While animal models are critical and employed in all fields of biomedical research, NIH encourages researchers to use complementary approaches to ensure rigorous and reproducible studies whenever possible.

NIH is committed to continuing to develop non-animal model alternative methods. We also support efforts to replace, reduce, and refine (also referred to as the "3Rs") the use of animal models in our supported studies. Some examples include:

Image from https://ncats.nih.gov

NIH also provides training and other resources for scientists to assist them in identifying and/or developing non-animal alternative approaches. Some of these resources are focused on the 3Rs. The resources below are helpful to learn more about alternatives to animal models, including the 3Rs:

A yearly, NIH co-sponsored symposium with presentations from international experts on the latest advances in the 3Rs, effective use of animal models, scientific rigor and animal welfare. Click here to see recordings from the 2020 and 2021 events.

NIH leads the Interagency Coordinating Committee on the Validation of Alternative Methods, which coordinates activities within the federal government relevant to new toxicology test method evaluation, acceptance, and use (read more here ).

Nine U.S. Government Principles , adopted in 1985, are the foundation for humane care and use of animals in biomedical research in this country. Of particular interest is the third principle that requires the minimum number of animals be used as scientifically necessary and replace non-animal models wherever possible. Principle IV requires researchers to avoid or minimize discomfort, distress, and pain in animals consistent with sound scientific practices and meets the 3Rs requirement as well.

Though these alternative approaches exist, and advances are being made every day, research with animals continues to be essential for understanding human diseases, biological processes, and developing treatments. We are not at a point where alternative approaches can completely replace the use of animals at this time. The alternatives simply cannot accurately replicate or model all the biologic and behavioral aspects of human disease. Until that time, animal models will remain integral for NIH-supported research. However, NIH and NIH funded scientists are continually working to reduce animal use and improve the welfare for animals that are essential for scientific progress.

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When Are Alternatives to Animals Used in Research?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
While many different strategies, models, methods, and technologies are used in biomedical research, the specificity of the individual research question dictates what approaches are appropriate. In other words, different research questions necessitate the use of different approaches. Some approaches involve animal models, some do not.