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Chapter 1 introduces the reader to what this book is about. This book was written to help teachers provide feedback to students. The focus of feedback that comes from a teacher is based on student work.

Feedback is an important part of formative assessment.

Formative feedback addresses both cognitive and motivational factors. Good feedback gives students the information they need to understand where they are in their learning and what to do next (cognitive). When they understand what to do and why, they feel more in control of their learning (motivational).

The nature of the feedback and the context in which it is given matters a great deal.

Formative feedback is a part of the formative learning cycle. 3 formative assessment questions are: Where am I going? Where am I now? and How do I close the gap?

Formative feedback involves giving comments, and then giving a student additional performance opportunities with the same learning cycle.

The "Three Lenses"- a microscope lens, a camera lens, and a telescope lens. This describes how to give effective feedback that students can use in the formative learning cycle.

Micro view- looking at the feedback message itself; analyzing what is said and how the message is delivered.

Snapshot view- looking at the feedback as an episode of learning

Long view- looking at the results of the feedback

Feedback that is part of grading = summative assessment

Evaluative feedback is not always helpful.

In a study, students who received descriptive comments as feedback on their first session's work performed better on both tasks in the final session and felt motivated to work. Students who received evaluative grades as feedback on their first session's work performed well on the quantitative task in the final session, but poorly on the divergent-thinking task and were less motivated. Students who received no feedback performed poorly on both tasks in the finals session and were less motivated.

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Effective feedback is part of classroom assessment where students see constructive criticism as a good thing and know learning cannot occur without practice.

Theories of feedback originated from behaviorism over 100 years ago, viewing positive feedback as reinforcement and negative feedback as punishment. The problem with the theory is that not all feedback is effective.

More recent studies have sought to identify what makes feedback effective and ineffective.

Current studies recognize the role of students in the feedback process. What is now realized is that the message sent is filtered through the student's perception (influenced by prior knowledge, experiences, and motivation) as it becomes the message received.

Across all the studies, groups receiving feedback outperformed their respective control groups. The effects of feedback depend on the nature of the feedback.

Four categories of feedback:

Feedback about the task (like whether the answer is right or wrong or directions for more information)

Feedback about the processing of the task (about strategies used or ones that could be used)

Feedback about self-regulation (student self-evaluation or self-confidence)

Feedback about the student as a person (pronouncements that a student is "good" or "smart")

Feedback about the qualities of the work and the process or strategies used to do the work are most helpful.

Personal comments are less effective than specific, clear feedback that encourages self-regulation and effort.

Shute's review emphasized task-focused, specific feedback that avoids comparisons and provides immediate responses.

Elaborated feedback- feedback that concentrates on evidence of what students were thinking and not merely about whether their answers are correct.

Feedback needs to describe where students are in relation to the learning they are aiming for and make at least one suggestion for the next step in learning.

Choosing Feedback Strategies

Timing- The purpose of giving immediate or only slightly delayed feedback is to help students hear it and use it. Feedback should be given while students still view the learning goal as something to strive for. Students are less likely to value feedback on topics they won't revisit.

Examples of Good timing:

Returning a test or assignment the next day.

Giving immediate oral responses to questions of fact.

Giving immediate oral responses to student misconceptions.

Providing flash cards (which give immediate right/wrong feedback) for studying facts.

Examples of Bad Timing:

Returning a test or assignment two weeks after it is completed.

Ignoring errors or misconceptions (thereby implying acceptance).

Going over a test or assignment when the unit is over and there is no opportunity to show improvement.

Amount: For real learning, what makes the difference is a usable amount of information that connects with something students already know and takes them from that point to the next level.

The right amount of feedback to give requires deep knowledge and consideration of the following three factors:

The topic in general and your learning target or targets in particular.

Typical developmental learning progressions for those topics or targets.

Your individual students.

Feedback should help students understand what to do next on a point.

Know your students!!!

Example of Good Amounts of Feedback:

Selecting two or three main points about a paper for comment.

Giving feedback on important learning targets.

Commenting on at least as many strengths as weaknesses.

Examples of Bad Amounts of Feedback:

Returning a student's paper with every error in mechanics edited.

Writing comments on a paper that are more voluminous than the paper itself.

Writing voluminous comments on poor-quality papers and almost nothing on good-quality papers.

Mode: Feedback can be given in different ways- written comments, oral feedback, and demonstrations.

Some of the best feedback can result from conversations with the student.

The choice between oral and written feedback should consider your students' reading skills.

Examples of Good Mode:

Using written feedback for comments that students need to be able to save and look over.

Using oral feedback for students who don't read well.

Use oral feedback if there is more information to convey than students would want to read.

Demonstrating how to do something if the student needs to see how to do something or what something "looks like"

Examples of Bad Mode:

Speaking to students to save yourself the trouble of writing.

Writing to students who don't read well.

Audience: The first point about audience is that you should know each of your students and talk to them!

Providing feedback to the class or group can save time and also serve as a minilesson or review session.

You might choose to give the whole class some feedback about word choice, with examples of how to use specific, precise, or vivid words instead of dull and uninteresting ones. You might couple that with some thought-provoking questions on individual students' work: "What other words could you use instead of big?"

Examples of Good Choice of Audience:

Communicating with an individual, giving information specific to the individual performance.

Giving group or class feedback when the same minilesson or reteaching session is required for several students.

Examples of Bad Choice of Audience:

Using the same comments for all students.

Never giving individual feedback because it takes too much time.

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Choosing Feedback Content

Focus Purpose

To describe specific qualities of the work in relation to the learning targets.

To make observations about students' learning processes and strategies that will help them figure out how to improve.

To foster student self-efficacy by drawing connections between students' work and their mindful, intentional efforts.

To avoid personal comments.

Examples of Good Feedback Focus

Making comments about the strengths and weaknesses of a performance.

Making comments about the work process you observed or recommendations about a work process or study strategy that would help improve the work.

Making comments that position the student as the one who chooses to do the work.

Avoiding personal comments.

Examples of Bad Feedback Focus

Making comments that bypass the student (e.g., "This is hard" instead of "You did a good job because …")

Making criticisms without offering any insights into how to improve

Making personal compliments or digs (e.g., "How could you do that?" or "You idiot!")

Comparisons Purpose

Usually, to compare student work with established criteria

Sometimes, to compare a student's work with his or her own past performance

Rarely, to compare a student's work with the work of other students

Examples of Good Kinds of Comparisons

Comparing work to student-generated rubrics

Comparing student work to rubrics that have been shared ahead of time

Encouraging a reluctant student who has improved, even though the work is not yet good

Examples of Bad Kinds of Comparisons

Putting up wall charts that compare students with one another.

Giving feedback on each student's work according to different criteria or no criteria

Function Purpose (for formative assessment)

To describe student work

To avoid evaluating or "judging" student work in a way that would stop students from trying to improve

Examples of Good Feedback Functions

Identifying for students the strengths and weaknesses in the work

Expressing what you observe in the work

Examples of Bad Feedback Functions

Putting a grade on work intended for practice or formative purposes

Telling students the work is "good" or "bad"

Giving rewards or punishments

Giving general praise or general criticism

Valence Purpose:

To use positive comments that describe what is done well

To make suggestions about what could be done for improvement

Examples of Good Feedback Valence

Being positive

Even when criticizing, being constructive

Making suggestions (not prescriptions or pronouncements)

Examples of Bad Feedback Valence

Finding fault

Describing what is wrong and offering no suggestions about what to do

Punishing or denigrating students for poor work

Your feedback is effective if it gets the following results:

Your students do learn; their work does improve.

Your students become more motivated; they believe they can learn, they want to learn, and they take more control over their own learning.

Your classroom becomes a place where feedback, including constructive criticism, is valued and viewed as productive.

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This chapter is about choosing words and phrases to present your feedback in such a way that the student hears what you intend.

It is about choosing words and phrases that show that you value the student as a person who learns. It is about choosing words and phrases to support students in seeing themselves with a scholar's identity and as active and strategic in managing that learning (self-regulation).

It is about giving feedback that, when possible, helps students decide for themselves what to do next.

Clarity is important; students need to understand the feedback information as you intend it.

The purpose is to maximize the chances that students will understand feedback.

Good Feedback Clarity:

Using simple vocabulary and sentence structure.

Writing or speaking on the student's developmental level.

Checking that the student understands the feedback.

Bad Feedback Clarity:

Using big words and complicated sentences.

Writing to show what you know, not what the student needs.

Assuming the student understands the feedback.

Specificity: Deciding how specific to make your feedback is challenging. You do not want it to be too narrow or too broad, but instead, have a good balance.

Purpose: give guidance, but do not do the work for the student and give suggestions that are specific enough so that students can take concrete next steps.

Examples of Good Feedback Specificity:

Use lots of nouns and descriptive adjectives

Describing concepts or criteria

Describing learning strategies that may be useful

Examples of Bad Feedback Specificity:

using lots of pronouns

copyediting or correcting every error

making vague suggestions

Tone refers to the expressive quality of the feedback message, and it affects how the message will be "heard."

Conveyed by word choice and style.

Tone can inspire or discourage.

The purpose is to communicate respect for the student as a learner, to position the student as an agent, and to inspire thought, and curiosity.

Examples of Good:

Using words and phrases that assume the student is an active learner.

Asking questions.

Sharing what you are wondering about.

Examples of Bad:

Using words and phrases that "lecture" or "boss".

Telling the student what to do—leaving nothing up to the student's choice.

Assuming that your feedback is the last word, the final expert opinion.

Where to Write Feedback

Can be given in different ways

Comments directly on the work, usually close to the evidence.

Allows the teacher to comment next to the area being addressed. It also allows students to know the areas needing improvement.

Annotations on rubrics or assignment cover sheets.

First, the rubric ensures that each presentation is measured against the same criteria. Second, the rubric organizes the feedback for the students.

A cover sheet can make it manageable for one teacher, who has more than a hundred students, to provide written feedback to students.

A combination of both

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Oral feedback involves all the word choice issues that written feedback does, but it also includes some unique issues.

You need to speak to the student at a time and a place in which the student is ready and willing to hear what you have to say.

This chapter discusses both individual and group oral feedback.

The suggestions made about focus, comparison, function, valence, clarity, specificity, and tone apply to oral feedback as well as to written feedback.

One difference is that when you are speaking instead of writing, you have less time to make decisions about how to say things, and once you have said them you can't take them back.

When and Where to Give Individual Feedback

The benefits of individual feedback can be specific to the student's particular learning needs and the feedback is private.

Oral feedback is often given informally during observations of students doing their work or of work in progress.

Most common ways to deliver oral feedback to an individual student:

Quietly, at the student's desk, while the rest of the class is working.

"Quick-and-quiet" feedback is individual, extemporaneous feedback provided to students when you notice a need.

These feedback episodes are quick, often addressing one point and they are quiet interchanges.

At your desk, either informally (asking one student to come to your desk) or as part of conference time when students systematically come to your desk to discuss their work.

In-class conferencing is not extemporaneous.

In-class conferencing is planned, usually within a lesson that has students working so that individuals can meet with you one at a time about their own work. Both teacher and student will review the work beforehand to discuss it.

Because these conferences are planned, the focus can be both the work itself (the task) and the process the student used to do it.

At a specially scheduled out-of-class time, such as after school

If a student is having difficulties that require more time than you can give to one student during class time, you may want to set aside special time for an out-of-class conference. If a student is doing advanced or extension work that requires more time to go over, you may set aside some special time.

When and Where to Give Group Feedback

The same feedback choices about focus, comparison, function, valence, clarity, specificity, and tone apply.

Focus on task and process.

Use information from previous group work as your starting point for reteaching and review.

Example: if many students make similar types of errors or need to review the same point, take some class time to do it.

Some of the most common ways to deliver oral feedback to a group or class:

At the start of a lesson, summarize your observations from the previous lesson.

One of the most powerful ways to focus a lesson that is an extension of a previous lesson is to provide some group feedback about the previous lesson's accomplishments.

Good feedback focuses on the task and the process and is tied directly to the learning goal.

Good feedback talks about the work and the processes that the students themselves used.

At the beginning of a review or reteaching lesson, explain why you are focusing on the same learning target again, link to prior learning, and set a purpose for students.

The difference between a review lesson conceived as feedback from previous work and a review lesson focused on the same learning target because you think the students need more work is a difference in "consciousness-raising."

This difference communicates to the students that you paid attention, that you are offering them additional opportunities to improve, and that the point is their performance, not your lesson plan agenda.

During student performances, either live or videotaped.

A coach provides feedback to her athletes while they are playing so they are aware of their movements and strategies.

Viewing a video for feedback and comments in this way is similar to a group conference.

When a test or assignment is returned, summarizes overall strengths and weaknesses.

Make sure you go over the last unit's test or assignment before launching into the next unit or assignment.

Make sure when you give feedback that there is time built in to actually use the information. Otherwise, students will quickly learn to ignore feedback.

Whole-class feedback sessions are also great opportunities for you to teach students how to use feedback.

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The Role of Feedback in Effective Formative Assessment

Teachers who are skilled in formative assessment focus on understanding students' thinking and tailoring feedback to their specific needs.

Less skilled teachers will collect evidence of the quantity of student performance, assess correctness, and reteach topics to those who struggle.

Example: A more skilled teacher will look at student work and find what they are doing wrong. Each student would receive different feedback. A less skilled teacher would make a note of the students who got a lot wrong and would then move them into a group to work on improving. This helps a little but is not as effective.

Research shows that more skilled teachers prioritize clear learning goals and student responsibility for their learning. Less skilled teachers tend to concentrate more on procedural aspects.

Hattie suggests that the most impactful feedback occurs when it is from the student to the teacher, allowing for a more effective teaching and learning process. Feedback should be an episode of learning from both students and teachers.

Effective feedback is a collaborative learning opportunity for teachers and students.

The Role of Feedback in the Regulation of Learning

Self-regulating learners set goals and systematically carry out cognitive, affective, and behavioral practices and procedures to achieve them.

This process follows a "phase view" of self-regulation. This includes student's planning, monitoring, and controlling their learning and reflecting on the outcome. (This is similar to a formative learning cycle.)

Learning regulation goes further than self-regulation. Assessment is described as the joint influence of student self-regulation and regulation from other sources, like teachers and peers.

Nicol and MacFarlane-Dick outline 7 principles of effective feedback that support self-regulation.

Helps clarify what good performance is (goals, criteria, expected standards)

Facilitates the development of self-assessment (reflection) in learning

Delivers high-quality information to students about their learning

Encourages teacher and peer dialogue around learning

Encourages positive motivational beliefs and self-esteem

Provides opportunities to close the gap between current and desired performance

Provides information to teachers that can be used to help shape the teaching.

This list makes it clear that effective feedback gives info to teachers and students and also supports self-regulation and regulation from other sources.

What Does Feedback as an Episode of Learning Look Like?

Teachers should regularly reflect on students' understanding and misconceptions rather than just their performance.

Concrete Examples:

Primary Example:

In this lesson, the teacher taught about how some creatures live in an aquatic habitat. She had some students who demonstrated understanding, while others struggled with the concept. The teacher was able to see the successful students understood the learning target and through giving feedback was able to learn that the student has background knowledge of habitats because of the shows he likes to watch. With her unsuccessful student, the teacher provided scaffolding to help the students build the necessary background knowledge.

Elementary Example:

Fifth graders learn to multiply mixed numbers. Students received different feedback based on their individual needs. One student understood the process, but struggled with vocabulary, while another student did not understand the conversion steps. Individual feedback allowed both students to grow in their understanding.

The book then offers a middle school, junior high, and high school example. The focus is that feedback should be used as an opportunity for learning for both students and teachers.

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Feedback can enhance learning if students have the opportunity to act on it soon after receiving it. The "long view" of feedback helps us remember to focus on the consequences of feedback. The debate in formative assessment is what constitutes "formative"?

Strategies for Helping Students Use Feedback

Strategies to Help Students Learn to Use Feedback

Model giving and using feedback yourself.

Teach students where feedback comes from.

Teach students self- and peer-assessment skills.

Increase students' interest in feedback because they own it.

Teach students to answer their questions and develop the self-regulation skills, necessary for using any feedback

Be clear about the learning target and the criteria for good work.

Use assignments with obvious value and interest.

Explain to students why an assignment is given.

Make directions clear.

Use clear rubrics.

Have students develop their rubrics, or translate yours into "kid-friendly" language.

Design lessons that incorporate using the rubrics as students work.

Design lessons in which students use feedback on previous work to produce better work.

Provide opportunities for students to redo complex assignments.

Give new but similar assignments for less complex learning targets.

Give opportunities for students to make connections between the feedback they receive and the improvement in their work.

Effective feedback should empower students to regulate their learning, gradually shifting to self-assessment.

Modeling How to Give and Use Feedback

Modeling is a powerful teaching method that extends beyond classroom strategy. It's embodied in our culture, in saying we use to illustrate life lessons.

You can model giving and using feedback as part of lessons.

A teacher can share her own poem, show revisions based on peer feedback, and explain her decision-making process during the revision. A "think-aloud" approach like this helps students understand the value of feedback in improving their work.

Create a classroom culture where constructive criticism is welcome and mistakes are learning opportunities.

Teaching Self-Assessment Skills

Self- and peer-assessment skills should be taught within context, helping students see their usefulness enhances student interest and engagement because it is personalized which allows them to develop crucial self-regulation skills.

Research suggests that self-assessment is usually more effective for learning than peer assessment. Competent self-assessors tend to be more humble during self-evaluations.

Self-assessment enhances an internal locus of control, supports self-referencing over norm-referencing, and leads to improved self-efficacy, engagement, behavior, and student-teacher relationships.

Teaching Peer-Assessment Skills

Research on peer assessment in higher education has primarily focused on peer-teacher scoring agreements, but it has also explored learning, performance, and interpersonal aspects.

In K-12, traditional research focused on reliability and validity, but newer research has treated peer assessment as a form of collaborative learning. Positive effects on learning are seen with affirming feedback.

As students participate in peer assessment, they are practicing applying the criteria for good work. This practice builds general knowledge about the learning target more than individuals' skill at meeting it. Peer assessment also contributes to creating a classroom environment that values feedback and constructive criticism.

Ground Rules for Peer Editing

Read your peer's work carefully.

Compare the work with the rubric.

Talk about the work, not the person.

Don't judge (e.g., don't say, "That's bad"); rather, describe what you think is good about the work and what's missing or could be done better.

Make specific suggestions.

Tell what you think, and then ask what the author thinks.

Be Clear about the Learning Targets and Criteria for Good Work

Establish clear learning targets and criteria for every lesson, then make sure the work students do to meet their targets embodies those targets and is well assessed according to the criteria.

Feedback skills cannot make up for an assignment that is off the mark or work that isn't worth doing.

High-quality assessments and rubrics are essential for generating meaningful feedback. Poor assessments undermine the process.

Design assignments so they have certain characteristics.

Design criteria so they match the learning target or goal.

"Kid-Friendly" Rubrics

Changing formal language and terminology into kid-friendly terms. This allows them to understand what they are being graded on and how they are being graded.

Design Lessons Where Students Use Feedback

Feedback skills cannot make up for an assignment that is off the mark or work that isn't worth doing.

Feedback from each successive assignment should inform studying and work on the next assignment. By the time of the unit test or other assignment that counts for a grade, students will be at the top of their learning curve

Formative Use of Summative Assessments

Feedback is intended to be formative, to help students learn, and the best use of feedback happens before work is submitted for grading. However, some excellent opportunities for providing feedback come after summative events.

For certain kinds of assignments, offering students the opportunity to redo the assignment after feedback can work. It is important to establish clear guidelines for submitting revised assignments to promote genuine self-regulation and prevent students from doing the bare minimum.

Assignments that are about mastering content knowledge need new but similar assignments for the same learning targets.

Giving Feedback When Returning a Test or an Assignment

Feedback isn't "feedback" unless it can truly feed something.

Review previous unit tests or assignments before moving on. This ensures feedback is timely and helpful.

Clarify the relationship between the learning target and what you're doing when you give group feedback. Be explicit.

Students quickly learn that a test is an important evaluation that becomes part of their grade. For that reason, many students focus on the grade and stop there. Thus, tests are usually full of information that does not get used.

Once students have reviewed their tests, decided why their incorrect answers were wrong, and indicated what they might do about it, have a brief wrap-up session with the class to discuss the strategies they have come up with.

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This chapter discusses the kinds of feedback that often are helpful in basic content areas.

Elementary Reading

An elementary Title 1 reading teacher sought to integrate formative assessment into her instruction to enhance student ownership of reading progress. Her goals included raising awareness, organizing, and reflecting. She implemented a strategy involving regular reading assessments and informal observations. She recorded her feedback during reading sessions and would share observations with students to reinforce their learning. This led to the creation of a progress sheet where students can see their achievements.

Elementary Writing

A teacher passed her students with writing paragraphs, answering, whether dogs or cats make better pets. One student demonstrated the skills effectively, but the feedback she received was mainly focused on mechanical corrections, which didn't align with the main learning targets. This is a missed approach to reinforce the student's understanding of paragraph structure.

Effective Feedback would have would have acknowledged the student's successful use of a topic sentence, supporting details, and a conclusion. Good feedback should compare student work against the assignment criteria.

The book also lists examples of secondary writing and math problem-solving.

Textbook Comprehension in Social Studies or Science

Instead of simply marking answers right or wrong, teachers should provide strategic feedback. After offering these suggestions, students should be given another chance to answer the questions.

Consistency Across the Subject Areas

Whatever the subject, you should attend to the three views of feedback:

The micro view. Focus your feedback on the task or process used. The feedback should be primarily criterion-referenced, descriptive, positive, clear, specific, and phrased in a way that affirms students as the agents of their own learning.

The snapshot view. Make sure both you and the students learn something from the feedback episode.

The long view. Provide opportunities for the students to use the feedback and improve learning.

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You can adjust the content and message (the micro view), what you look to learn from it and have students learn from it (the snapshot view), and the opportunities you give to students to advance learning (the long view).

Based on these studies, Shute recommends that feedback to high-achieving students be a bit delayed and challenging, although sometimes all they may need is verification they are on the right track.

She recommends that feedback to low-achieving students be more immediate and directive, scaffolded (broken into smaller steps), specific, and elaborated.

This chapter emphasizes that feedback should be adjusted for various learner types.

Successful Students

Successful students do self-assessment spontaneously, whether you build in opportunities that force them to do it or not.

Teachers should not neglect feedback from successful students, constructive feedback helps them grow. Feedback should focus on task performance and offer clear suggestions for the next steps.

Struggling Students

Students who don't have solid prior learning experiences or don't have the learning skills to process the information, or both, may not completely understand what your assignment asks them to do or your feedback on their work.

Struggling students will benefit from feedback that helps them connect the process they used with the results they obtained.

The recommendation in this book has been to give criterion-referenced feedback. The research literature shows that students who compare their work with the qualities of good work embodied in the learning targets are enabled to continue to move toward those targets.

Struggling students need scaffolded, step-by-step opportunities to use feedback. These opportunities should be structured into small steps so that students can experience success and then move on.

English Language Learners

The key feedback issue for English language learners is their ability to hear and understand the feedback.

Key feedback issues for teachers of English language learners have to do with the assumptions teachers make even before feedback is given.

It is important to match your feedback to the student's proficiency level as much as possible. Feedback is only useful if the student understands it.

It is also important to coordinate your feedback with the instructional program or model you are using to serve the English language learners.

Reluctant Students

Some struggling students are also reluctant students.

For these students, feedback must deal with the negative feelings first and then provide just enough information so that the student has the confidence to understand and use it.

Feedback for All Students

This chapter showed how to adjust feedback for all different types of learners.

Successful students benefit from feedback!!!